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Stress/fault controls on the containment and release of overpressured

fluids: Examples from gold-quartz vein systems in Juneau, Alaska;
Victoria, Australia and Otago, New Zealand

Article  in  Ore Geology Reviews · April 1998

DOI: 10.1016/S0169-1368(97)00023-1

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 Ore Geology Reviews 13 Ž1998. 293–306

Stressrfault controls on the containment and release of

overpressured fluids: Examples from gold-quartz vein systems in
Juneau, Alaska; Victoria, Australia and Otago, New Zealand
R.H. Sibson ) , J. Scott
Department of Geology, UniÕersity of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand
Received 1 January 1997

Abstract

The brittle carapace overlying a prograding metamorphic belt embraces the transition between a hydrostatically pressured
near-surface fluid regime and the near-lithostatic fluid pressures characterising prograde metamorphism at depth, with the
lower portion of the carapace acting as a low permeability barrier. During exhumation, the base of the carapace migrates
downwards into the core of a cooling orogen. Mesozonal gold-quartz vein systems hosted in fault-fracture meshes
Žcomprising low-displacement shears interlinked with hydraulic extension fractures. may develop towards the base of, or
within, the brittle carapace. Such mesh structures, ‘self-generated’ by the infiltration of overpressured fluids at pressures
locally exceeding the least principal compressive stress Ži.e. Pf ) s 3 ., form high-permeability conduits for episodic
large-volume fluid discharge by fault-valve action. These concepts are explored principally through comparison of
gold-quartz vein systems hosted in fault-fracture meshes within the Bendigo–Ballarat zone of the Paleozoic Lachlan Fold
Belt in Victoria, Australia, with those developed within the Mesozoic Otago Schists of southern New Zealand.
The stress state within the carapace critically affects the containment of overpressured fluids within the mid-crust and the
mode of fluid release. Fluids are most easily trapped beneath the carapace in compressional–transpressional regimes where
the highest levels of overpressuring may be attained. Supralithostatic fluid pressures may then develop locally beneath
permeability barriers over depth intervals determined by the tensile strength of sealing horizons. Mesh development is
favoured by heterogeneity and high competence contrast between adjacent rock units but is inhibited by the presence of
low-cohesion faults that are favourably oriented for reactivation within the carapace stress field, because such faults
reactivate in shear at fluid pressure levels less than those required for hydraulic extension fracturing. Attainment of extreme
overpressures Ž Pf ) s 3 . and the formation of high-permeability meshes in any given stress regime therefore requires either
intact crust Žperhaps reconstituted through metamorphism., or crust where faults have become severely misoriented in the
prevailing stress field through progressive deformation. In this latter case, the existing faults may be reactivated by the
extreme overpressure and incorporated into the mesh structure. The combination of these circumstances explains why mesh
structures associated with steep reverse faults promote particularly vigorous fault-valve action and form good mineralising
sites. Major episodes of fluid loss and mineralisation may, however, also be effected by an abrupt transition from a
compressional to an extensional stress field, as occurred locally within the Juneau gold-belt of SE Alaska. q 1998 Elsevier
Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: lode-gold mineralisation; stress control; metamorphic belt; fault-valve action; fluid flow

)
Corresponding author. Fax: q64-3-4797527; e-mail: rick.sibson@stonebow.otago.ac.nz.

0169-1368r98r$19.00 q 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PII S 0 1 6 9 - 1 3 6 8 Ž 9 7 . 0 0 0 2 3 - 1
294 R.H. Sibson, J. Scott r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 293–306

1. Introduction sured to near-lithostatic values in the mid-crust and

their intermittent release through fault-valve action
Formation of mesozonal gold-quartz lodes in- ŽSibson et al., 1988.. Here, the stressrfault condi-
volves the focused discharge of large volumes of tions under which such behaviour may develop on a
hydrothermal fluid. For example, given suggested regional scale are explored principally using exam-
gold complex solubilities of the order of 10 ppb ples from mineralised portions of the Paleozoic
ŽSeward, 1993., formation of a minor deposit con- Lachlan Fold Belt in Victoria, Australia and the
taining 10 tonne of gold requires the throughput of Mesozoic Otago Schists of southern New Zealand. In
; 1 km3 of aqueous fluid. Such vein systems are these regions, gold-quartz vein systems hosted in
commonly hosted in mesh structures comprising fault-fracture meshes have developed in a tectoni-
low-displacement shears interlinked by hydraulic ex- cally thickened and metamorphosed stack of pre-
tension fractures. The latter indicate that fluid pres- dominantly quartzo-feldspathic sediments and a
sure, at least locally and intermittently, exceeded the metamorphic origin for the mineralising fluids has
least principal stress Ži.e. Pf ) s 3 ., implying extreme been proposed ŽMcKeag and Craw, 1989; Cox et al.,
overpressuring to near-lithostatic values at depth in 1991b..
the crust ŽSibson et al., 1988; Cox, 1995.. Meshes
with gaping extension fractures form high-permeabil-
ity conduits where channel flow can predominate,
consistent with evidence from hydrothermal vein 2. Brittle carapace to a prograding metamorphic
textures and goldrquartz solubilities which suggests belt
that flow through such structures was rapid, episodic
and involved large fluid volumes ŽBoullier and Any region undergoing prograde regional meta-
Robert, 1992; Herrington and Wilkinson, 1993.. The morphism must be capped by a brittle carapace
drop in fluid pressure Ž D Pf . accompanying dis- which, though capable of internal deformation, acts
charge through mesh structures across steep hy- as a barrier to fluids released during metamorphism
draulic gradients is likely to be a major contributing ŽFig. 1.. In quartzo-feldspathic crust, the effective
factor to hydrothermal precipitation ŽCox et al., thickness of this brittle carapace is defined by the
1991a, 1995; Wilkinson and Johnston, 1996.. onset of greenschist facies metamorphic conditions
Thus from a structural–hydrological perspective, and corresponds broadly with the depth of the seis-
a key to understanding mesozonal gold-quartz lodes mogenic zone ŽSibson, 1983.. During exhumation
involves defining the tectonic conditions that allow and progressive cooling of a metamorphic belt late in
the accumulation and containment of fluids overpres- the orogenic cycle, the base of the brittle carapace

Fig. 1. Fluid pressure regimes and associated strength profile for the carapace to a region undergoing prograde regional metamorphism.
 R.H. Sibson, J. Scott r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 293–306 295

migrates downward into the metamorphosed core of

the orogen so that its lower portion consists of
metamorphically reconstituted rock lacking disconti-
nuities. The metamorphic carapace embraces the
transition between a near-surface hydrostatically
pressured fluid regime and the near-lithostatic fluid
pressures that characterise prograde metamorphism
at depth ŽEtheridge et al., 1984.. The depth of this
interface may be irregular, with lobes of overpres-
sured fluid penetrating upward into the carapace in
the vicinity of major upper crustal fault zones ŽSib-
son, 1994..
An important corollary of the fluid pressure pro-
file is the implication of greatly reduced strength Fig. 2. Mohr diagram with composite failure envelopes for intact
towards the base of the carapace. The carapace as a isotropic rock with tensile strength, T, and for frictional reactiva-
whole may therefore act as an upper crustal stress tion of an existing cohesionless fault, illustrating the stress condi-
tions and orientations with respect to the stress field of Ža.
guide capable of transmitting and responding to far- extensional failure, Žb. hybrid extensional-shear failure, Žc. com-
field stresses. pressional shear failure and Žd. reactivation of an optimally ori-
ented existing fault.
2.1. Stress controls on fluid containment

Ease of fluid escape from overpressured crust is

critically affected by the stress state in the carapace.
In the low-permeability metamorphosed rocks to- where cohesive strength, C f 2T, and internal fric-
wards the base of the brittle carapace, fracture per- tion, m i , are rock material properties and t and sn
meability may develop through formation of new are, respectively, the components of shear and nor-
faults and extension fractures as a consequence of mal stress on the failure plane. Note that this crite-
elevated fluid pressure, Pf , in the prevailing stress rion may be rewritten in terms of the principal
field. The various types of macroscopic brittle failure stresses as:
that can develop in fluid-saturated crust, with effec-
4T'K y Ž s 1 y s 3 .
tive principal compressive stresses: Pf s s 3 q Ž 4.
s 1X s Ž s 1 y Pf . ) s 2X s Ž s 2 y Pf . ) s 3X s Ž s 3 y Pf . Ž K y 1.
Ž 1. (
where K s Ž Ž 1 q m 2i . q m i . 2 . For the standard
are illustrated on the Mohr diagram of a composite range, 0.5 - m i - 1.0 ŽJaeger and Cook, 1979., faults
failure envelope for intact, homogeneous and form along planes containing the s 2 direction ori-
isotropic rock ŽFig. 2.. Within a particular rock-unit, ented at "22–328 to the maximum compressive
the failure mode depends on the balance between the stress, s 1. At intermediate values of differential stress
differential stress, Ž s 1 y s 3 . and rock tensile Ž4T - Ž s 1 y s 3 . - 6T ., extensional-shear fractures,
strength, T ŽSecor, 1965.. requiring Pf ) s 3 , may form at lower angles to s 1.
When Ž s 1 y s 3 . - 4T, extension fractures form A range of stress-controlled features may therefore
in accordance with the hydraulic fracture criterion: be ‘self-generated’ by fluid overpressure within a
Pf s s 3 q T Ž 2. heterogeneous rock-mass with varying material prop-
erties and contribute to its structural permeability.
along planes perpendicular to the least compressive
The fault-fracture assemblages that may develop
stress. When Ž s 1 y s 3 . ) 6T, compressional shear
in extensional Ž sv s s 1 . and compressional Ž sv s
failure may occur in accordance with the linear
s 3 . stress regimes are illustrated in Fig. 3a. In all
Coulomb criterion:
cases, the effectiveness of a particular assemblage as
t s C q m i Ž sn y Pf . Ž 3. a fluid conduit depends on the connectivity between
296 R.H. Sibson, J. Scott r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 293–306

Fluid pressure at a depth, z, in the crust may be

compared with the vertical stress, sv , by means of
the pore-fluid factor:
Pf Pf
lv s s Ž 5.
sv r gz
where r is average rock density and g is gravita-
tional acceleration. Where fracturerpore space is
interconnected through to the near-surface water
table, fluid pressure is hydrostatic with l v ; 0.4,
the ratio of water to rock densities. Fluid pressures
are lithostatic when they are equal to the rock
overburden pressure Ž l v s 1.0..
Fig. 3b Žafter Secor, 1965. is a plot of the mini-
mum l v values needed to induce hydraulic exten-
sion fracturing in extensional and compressional
regimes at different depths. The plot is constructed
assuming the maximum possible levels of differen-
tial stress conducive to hydraulic fracturing Ž s 1 y s 3
s 4T . for T s 1 and 10 MPa, bracketing the com-
mon range of rock tensile strengths ŽEtheridge, 1983..
Required l v values for hydraulic fracturing in
strike-slip regimes lie somewhere between the exten-
sional and compressional values. Note first that in
Fig. 3. Ža. Stress-controlled structures affecting fluid escape. extensional tectonic regimes, there is a near-surface
Vertical migration in an extensional regime is aided by steep zone where vertical hydraulic extension fractures
normal faults and subvertical extension fractures, but is impeded
under lateral compression where extension fractures and thrust
may develop under hydrostatic fluid pressures. Be-
faults are flat-lying. Žb. l v plot illustrating the relative fluid low this zone, suprahydrostatic fluid pressures Ž0.4
pressure levels needed at different depths to form extension - l v - 1.0. are required for hydraulic fracturing in
fractures in compressional and extensional stress regimes for extensional regimes, whereas supralithostatic fluid
T s1 and 10 MPa Žafter Secor, 1965.. The arrow illustrates the pressure Ž l v G 1.0. are needed to generate flat hy-
change in the maximum sustainable level of fluid pressure at a
particular depth resulting from a switch from a compressional to
drofractures at all depths in compressional regimes.
an extensional regime. Thus, not only are fluids more easily contained in
compressional regimes, but they are potentially con-
tained at higher levels of overpressuring.

individual faults and fractures. Subvertical extension 3. Conditions for mesh formation
fractures and steep normal faults in extensional
regimes facilitate vertical flow. Vertical flow is also Mesh structures of interlinked shear and exten-
enhanced in strike-slip regimes Ž sv s s 2 . through sional fractures driven by infiltrating magma or hy-
the association of subvertical faults and extension drothermal fluids were first proposed by Hill Ž1977.
fractures. However, subhorizontal extension fractures to account for earthquake swarms, where large num-
and low-dipping thrusts in compressional regimes bers of small earthquakes occur distributed through-
enhance horizontal rather than vertical permeability, out a substantial volume of rock. Field studies sug-
making it easier to sustain fluid overpressures. For- gest that Hill-type mesh structures, comprising ex-
mation of hydraulic extension fractures effectively tension vein systems interlinked through minor
limits the maximum level of fluid overpressure that shears, are common on a range of scales and form
can develop in different tectonic settings. effective conduits for both hydrothermal and hydro-
 R.H. Sibson, J. Scott r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 293–306 297

carbon flow ŽSibson, 1996.. Schematics of fault-frac- relation to the particular stressrfluid-pressure regime
ture meshes developed in extensional and compres- and the uniformity Žor otherwise. of the rock mass.
sional regimes are illustrated in Fig. 4. A notable For example, the gold-quartz veins of the Grass
characteristic is that the common intersection of Valley District, California, occupy a mesh structure
faults and extension fractures adds a tubular compo- comprising remarkably uniformly dipping conjugate
nent to rock-mass permeability, parallel to that of thrust faults developed in and around a granodiorite
dilational fault jogs, imparting directional permeabil- intrusion within a greenstone assemblage ŽJohnston,
ity in the average orientation of the intermediate 1940.. Where established, reverse slip along the vein
principal stress, s 2 , orthogonal to fault slip vectors. fractures was small Ž- 10 m.. Spacing between par-
Given the dependence of brittle failure mode on allel major veins within the mesh was of the order of
differential stress, fluid pressure and material proper- a few hundred metres and individual veins were
ties such as tensile strength and internal friction followed down-dip for 2–3 km in some instances.
ŽEqs. Ž2. and Ž4., it is apparent that infiltration of The uniformity of this conjugate thrust mesh pre-
overpressured fluids into stressed heterogeneous crust sumably reflects the uniform competence of the gra-
can ‘self-generate’ fault-fracture meshes. During in- nodiorite–greenstone assemblage.
filtration, different portions of crust under the same In layered rocks, comparatively regular mesh
differential stress may fail in extension or shear structure tends to develop where the superposed
depending whether they possess relatively high or stress field is symmetric with respect to the layering
low competence Žhigh or low tensile strength.. Rela- ŽSibson, 1996.. Highly irregular mesh structures may
tive development of different mesh components is develop where this is not the case, with linking
therefore a function of rock material properties in shears developed in less competent material often
quite inconspicuous. In extensional and strike-slip
regimes, another contributing factor to mesh devel-
opment is the limited vertical extent of extension
fractures ŽSecor and Pollard, 1975. which dictates
that, even in homogeneous rock, vertical extension
fractures tend to become interlinked by shear frac-
tures.
Because hydraulic extension fracturing is integral
to the development of Hill-type meshes, the condi-
tion for their generation is essentially the same as for
hydrofracturing ŽFig. 3b.. Thus in the case of an
intact Žor metamorphically reconstituted. carapace,
an extensional stress state allows steep extensional
fault-fracture meshes to form at comparatively low
fluid pressure levels Ž l v - 1.0., providing a vertical
conduit for easy fluid escape from the mid-crust. In
contrast, a compressional stress state in the carapace
inhibits fluid escape until supralithostatic fluid pres-
sures Ž l v ) 1.0. are achieved to promote interlink-
age of flat-lying hydraulic extension fractures and
low-angle thrusts, but the resulting structures are
then poorly oriented for vertical fluid escape ŽFig.
Fig. 4. Development of Hill-type fault-fracture meshes in exten- 4a..
sional and compressional stress regimes: Ža. in the absence of
existing faults Žbolder lines indicate eventual amalgamation into 3.1. Effect of existing fault structures
throughgoing fault. and Žb. incorporating existing faults that are
severely misoriented for frictional reactivation in the prevailing The failure condition for frictional reactivation of
stress field. an existing cohesionless fault with resolved shear
298 R.H. Sibson, J. Scott r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 293–306
 R.H. Sibson, J. Scott r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 293–306 299

stress, t , and normal stress, sn , and friction coeffi- The condition for hydraulic extension fracturing
cient, ms , is: Ž Pf ) s 3 . is only likely to be achieved in the pres-
t s ms Ž sn y Pf . Ž 6. ence of cohesionless faults when they are seÕerely
misoriented for reactivation in the prevailing stress
as represented on the Mohr diagram in Fig. 2. The field, with the reactivation angle ur more than twice
Mohr circle representing a failure stress state is one the optimal value Ži.e. ur ) 50–608. ŽSibson, 1985..
for reactivation of faults that are optimally oriented In such circumstances ŽFig. 4b and Fig. 5c., develop-
for reshear in the prevailing stress field. For typical ing mesh structures may incorporate existing faults
rock friction coefficients with 0.6 - ms - 0.85 which act as conduits for overpressured fluid migra-
ŽByerlee, 1978. this corresponds to faults containing tion. Episodes of mesh inflation preparatory to reac-
the s 2 axis and lying at reactivation angles, 258 - ur tivation of the misoriented faults then alternate with
- 308 to s 1 ŽSibson, 1985.. Fig. 5 illustrates the major postfailure discharge along the faults in cycles
stress conditions for fluid pressure induced failure in of fault-valve activity ŽSibson et al., 1988..
extensional and compressional tectonic regimes for Note that for any vertical stress, sv , correspond-
three situations: Ža. where the carapace is intact; Žb. ing to a particular depth, the fluid pressure required
where it contains a set of cohesionless faults that are to induce either mesh generation or fault reactivation
favourably oriented for reactivation and Žc. where it is always greater in compressional than in exten-
contains a set of faults that are seÕerely misoriented sional tectonic regimes. A compressional stress field
in the prevailing stress field. constraining fluid escape, combined with seÕerely
In the presence of cohesionless faults that are misoriented reverse faults near the base of the brittle
favourably oriented for reactivation, build-up of fluid carapace is thus the best possible circumstance for
pressure cannot generate high-permeability mesh extreme fault-valve activity and explains why a large
structures because the faults will always reshear to proportion of mesothermal gold-quartz vein systems
create fresh drainage paths at Pf - s 3 , before the are hosted in mesh structures associated with steep
fluid pressure condition for hydraulic fracturing is reverse faults. In addition, regional channelling of
achieved ŽFigs. 2 and 5b.. Mesh development and fluid flow into reverse fault zones within a carapace
activation is therefore unlikely when the brittle cara- under compression is to be expected because contin-
pace is pervaded by a set of favourably oriented ued slip across such structures locally reduces the
faults, unless they have regained cohesive strength level of mean stress, leading to flow focusing of the
through hydrothermal cementation. With time, fault- kind proposed by Ridley Ž1993..
fracture meshes that initially developed in intact
crust ŽFig. 5a. may evolve into throughgoing faults
that are favourably oriented within the prevailing 3.2. Depth extent of compressional fault-fracture
stress field ŽFig. 5b.. As localised zones of deforma- meshes
tion, these structures can be expected to retain com-
paratively high permeability compared with the host In a compressional stress field, supralithostatic
rock as Pf ™ s 3 ŽZhang et al., 1994., but the ’gap- fluid pressures Ž Pf ) sv s s 3 . may develop beneath
ing fracture’ condition for large volume flow Ž Pf ) sealing horizons ŽFig. 6.. On the assumption that the
s 3 . can no longer be maintained. Such throughgoing maximum fluid pressure is limited by the hydraulic
faults will not therefore retain the transport charac- fracture condition for the sealing horizon Ž Pf s s 3 q
teristics of a high-permeability overpressured mesh. Ts . and that the fluid pressure gradient across an
This helps to explain why large displacement faults interconnected mesh is hydrostatic, the vertical ex-
are rarely well mineralised. tent of supralithostatic overpressuring is dictated by

Fig. 5. Mohr diagrams illustrating stressrfluid-pressure conditions for mesh generation through hydraulic extension fracturing or fault
reactivation in extensional and compressional stress regimes: Ža. mesh generation in intact crust, Žb. reactivation of existing cohesioneless
faults that are favourably oriented for reactivation, inhibiting mesh formation and Žc. mesh generation in the presence of existing faults that
are seÕerely misoriented for frictional reactivation.
300 R.H. Sibson, J. Scott r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 293–306

extension has the potential to have a dramatic effect

on the maximum fluid pressure that can be sustained
ŽFig. 3b.. Consider, as an example, the Juneau gold-
belt in SE Alaska which lies within a complex of
lithotectonic terranes progressively accreted to the
western seaboard of North America during the Creta-
ceous and juxtaposed across steep reverse faults
which initiated as thrusts in the mid-Cretaceous.
Regional NE–SW contraction with progressive fault
steepening, crustal thickening and associated meta-
morphism and plutonism continued into the middle
Eocene with gold mineralisation throughout the belt
developing over a restricted interval Ž53–56.5 Ma.
ŽMiller et al., 1994.. Deposits in the NW of the belt
ŽKensington, Jualin. have all the structural hallmarks
of extreme fault-valve action around steep reverse
faults in a compressional stress field. Within the
hosting diorite, flat-lying extension veins are in mu-
Fig. 6. Fluid pressure profile across an impermeable sealing tual cross-cutting relationships with steep fault-veins
horizon of tensile strength, Ts , illustrating the control on the hosted in and around reverse-sense chloritic shear
vertical extent of hydrofracture development and mesh activation.
zones of mixed brittle–ductile character ŽMiller et
al., 1995..
However, the gold-quartz vein system in the
the tensile strength of the sealing horizon and is Alaska-Juneau Mine Žwith the largest historical pro-
given by: duction in the belt, ) 100 tonne Au. is of distinctly
Ts different character ŽMiller et al., 1992.. The vein
D zs Ž 7. swarm, developed in the vicinity of a contact be-
g Ž r y rf .
tween greenstone metavolcanics and a phyllite-
where r is rock density, r f is the fluid density and metagabbro assemblage Žall of which have been
g is gravitational acceleration ŽCox et al., 1991a.. deformed and metamorphosed under greenschist fa-
This effectively defines the depth interval over which cies conditions., occupies a tabular zone, up to 300
a compressional mesh structure incorporating exten- m thick, which extends over 4500 m along strike and
sion fractures may be activated. Taking r s 2600 1050 m down-dip ŽFig. 7.. It has the form of an
kgrm3 and r f s 1000 kgrm3, gives 64 - D z - 640 extensional fault-fracture mesh comprising steeply
m for the likely range for Ts , Ž1 - Ts - 10 MPa.. NE-dipping veins occupying normal faults inter-
These values are broadly comparable to observed linked by steeply SW-dipping extension veins, the
depth extents of mesozonal vein systems, bearing in latter being best developed in the relatively compe-
mind that sealing horizons may migrate vertically as tent metagabbro. Apart from the vein system, struc-
a fault-valve system evolves. tural data from the region record a history of pro-
gressive regional NE–SW contraction which contin-
3.3. Fluid release during compressional–extensional ued after vein formation, so that the NE-dipping
transitions fault-veins, especially, are strongly boudinaged
ŽMiller et al., 1992..
Given the control exerted on containment of over- It appears, therefore, that a brief switch to an
pressured fluids exerted by tectonic stress fields, extensional tectonic regime in the middle of a pro-
sudden changes in the stress field can be expected to tracted history of accretionary shortening and thrust
lead to major episodes of fluid redistribution. In steepening led to self-generation of the extensional
particular, a transition from crustal shortening to fault-fracture mesh which acted as an escape path for
 R.H. Sibson, J. Scott r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 293–306 301

of comparable size Ž; 20,000 km2 . to the Otago

Schist belt of mid-Mesozoic age in southern New
Zealand, but has an historic gold production Ž; 2000
tonne. almost an order of magnitude greater than the
Otago goldfield Ž; 250 tonne.. Here, gold-bearing
vein systems in the two areas are compared from the
particular viewpoint of the stress controls on fluid
release. Gross similarities and differences between
the two regions are summarised in Table 1.

4.1. Victorian goldfield (Bendigo–Ballarat zone)

In the Bendigo–Ballarat zone, mid-Devonian pro-

gressive regional contraction Ž- 65%. of a thick
Ordovician succession of quartz-rich turbidites and
mudstones led to a structural assemblage of close-
to-tight upright chevron folds with subvertical cleav-
age disrupted by steep W-dipping reverse faults
which flatten with depth into a mid-crustal detach-
ment ŽGray and Willman, 1991; Cox et al., 1991b;
Glen, 1995.. Gold-quartz vein systems are hosted by
moderate to steeply W-dipping reverse faults and
associated structures including arrays of flat exten-
sion veins, saddle reefs and dilational jogs ŽFig. 8..
Some of the faults Žwhich are of comparatively low
displacement. are at least locally concordant with
Fig. 7. Schematic cross-section through the Alaska-Juneau gold-
quartz vein swarm occupying an extensional fault-fracture mesh bedding on the fold limbs. Mineralisation thus ap-
Žafter Miller et al., 1992.. Extension veins are best developed in pears to have occurred in a compressional stress field
the relatively competent metagabbro. Note that the stress system Ž sv s s 3 . during the final stages of fold tightening
inferred during vein development takes no account of the subse- beyond initial lock-up ŽCox, 1995; Cox et al., 1995..
quent shortening deformation which has boudinaged the fault-
Initial fold amplification by flexural slip was
veins, especially.
probably associated with the early stages of saddle
reef formation ŽCox et al., 1995; Windh, 1995..
Regions of intense fluid overpressuring to supralitho-
massive release of overpressured fluids previously static values Ževidenced by flat-lying extension veins
contained by a compressional stress field ŽFig. 3b.. transgressing bedding ŽCox, 1995.. locally allowed
Whether this extensional relaxation was a purely further fold tightening by bedding plane slip beyond
local phenomenon, perhaps arising from local fault normal lock-up and probably contributed to the for-
irregularities, or occurred on a regional scale con- mation of cross-cutting low-displacement reverse
comitant with the changing plate interactions ŽMiller faults that formed initially at favourable orientations
et al., 1994. remains unresolved. for reactivation within the stress field ŽFig. 9.. With
continued bulk shortening these reverse faults steep-
ened progressively to become severely misoriented
4. Fluid release structures in the Victorian and for reactivation, creating an environment for hy-
Otago goldfields draulic extension fracturing, mesh development and
extreme valving action ŽSibson, 1990..
The Bendigo–Ballarat zone of Victoria, Australia, Overall, the important inference is the contain-
lying within the mid-Paleozoic Lachlan Fold Belt, is ment of overpressured fluids by the compressional
302 R.H. Sibson, J. Scott r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 293–306

Table 1
Comparison between the Bendigo–Ballarat zone of the Victorian goldfield and the Otago Schist goldfield
Environment during mineralisation Victorian goldfields ŽBendigo–Ballarat zone. Otago Schist goldfield
Protolith assemblage quartz-rich turbidites and black mudstones quartzo-feldspathic turbidites and shales,
subordinate volcanics
Dominant fold structures steep-upright D1 folds in bedding recumbent D 2 – 3? folds in foliation
Foliation attitude steep to subvertical predominantly flat-lying
Timing of mineralisation with late stages of D1 tightening postdates synmetamorphic folding
respect to folding
Stress field during mineralisation sv s s 3 Macraes ysv s s 3 ; elsewhere sv s s 1
Structures hosting mineralisation moderately-steeply dipping reverse faults, Macraes, low-angle thrusts; elsewhere mostly
associated extension fractures, saddle reefs, steep normal faults and extensional
dilational jogs, etc. fault-fracture meshes
Reactivation orientation w.r.t. unfavourably oriented to severely near optimal orientation, for reactivation
stress field misoriented
Displacement on hosting fault low, metres to tens of metres? ŽStawell, Macraes ; 1 km?; elsewhere low, metres to tens
structures hundreds of metres?. of metres
Pressurerdepth - 1.7 kbarrz- 10 km 0.2 - 3.5 kbarrz- 14 km
Hydrothermal temperature - 3008C 1908 - 3508C
Metamorphic environment subgreenschist to low greenschist, subhorizontal subgreenschist to low greenschist, subhorizontal
isograds isograds
Magmatism post-mineralisation granitoids none
Origin of mineralising fluids prograde metamorphism metamorphic Ž" meteoric?.
Barrier to fluid migration horizontal s 1 flat-lying foliation

stress field during a protracted period of bulk hori- accompanying fault-valve action. Flow paths were
zontal shortening, with intermittent release of large likely determined by the full 3D architecture of
fluid volumes and vigorous fluid pressure cycling faults, fractures and folds with enhanced s 2 direc-
tional permeability along fault-fracture intersections,
subparallel to fold hingelines ŽCox et al., 1995..
4.2. Otago Schist goldfield
The belt of Otago Schist, largely made up of
chlorite-grade greyschists and believed to result from
mid-Mesozoic collisional amalgamation of terranes,
trends NW–SE as a gentle, broadly antiformal struc-
ture in metamorphic foliation with remnant higher
grade Žbiotite–garnet. assemblages defining an axis
of greatest post-metamorphic exhumation ŽMortimer,
1993.. Synmetamorphic structures within the schist
include large-scale recumbent folds in the S 1 folia-
tion. Metamorphic grade and strain intensity dimin-
ish to the NE and SW. Cover sediments demonstrate
that portions of the schist belt were uplifted from
mid-crustal depths by the mid-Cretaceous. The
Fig. 8. Structural controls on gold-quartz mineralisation within the Mesozoic structures, including orthogonal sets of late
Bendigo–Ballarat Zone of the Victorian goldfield: upright folds
disrupted by concordant and discordant reverse faults with associ-
Cretaceous extensional faults, have also been af-
ated extension fractures Žspur veins., saddle reefs and dilational fected by Neogene crustal shortening which contin-
jogs Žafter Cox et al., 1991b; Glen, 1995; Willman, 1995.. ues today.
 R.H. Sibson, J. Scott r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 293–306 303

range of depths shallower than the Macraes mineral-

ising environment Žto less than 1 km for the Au–Sb-
quartz lodes at Nenthorn. ŽCraw and Norris, 1991..
Mineralisation was from low-salinity fluids with
varying CO 2 content, believed to be of metamorphic
origin ŽMcKeag and Craw, 1989.. There are no firm
age constraints on the different vein systems but
relative ages have been assigned on the basis of
estimated depths of mineralisation during progres-
sive schist unroofing ŽCraw and Norris, 1991..
Notable characteristics of the Otago lode-hosting
structures are: Ž1. their favourable orientation with
respect to the inferred local stress field Ži.e. close to
their original formation attitude.; Ž2. their low dis-
placement ŽHyde-Macraes shear zone aside, they do
not represent structures of regional tectonic signifi-
cance.; and Ž3. the presence of flat-lying metamor-
phic foliation throughout much of the schist belt
inhibiting vertical fluid migration except through
fault-fracture systems. The lodes apparently repre-
sent escape pathways for residual metamorphic flu-
ids, self-generated as fault-fracture meshes within the
metamorphic carapace during exhumation whenever
appropriate stressrfluid-pressure conditions were
met.
One possible scenario is a protracted history of
lode development in response to changing regional
Fig. 9. Development and maintenance of conditions for extreme
tectonics. For instance, Ashley and Craw Ž1995.
fault-valve action through progressive coaxial shortening under
horizontal compression. Bedding plane slip surfaces in chevron suggest that mineralisation within the schists was
folds and late-formed thrust faults steepen progressively to seÕere associated with a series of different tectonic episodes
misorientation Ždips) ca. 508. as bulk shortening of the carapace extending from the early Cretaceous to the Miocene.
continues. However, this fails to account for the predominant
NW–SE strike of the different lode systems. An
alternative model that takes account of the consistent
lode strike parallel to the schist axis invokes con-
Gold-quartz Ž"scheelite. lodes cross-cut syn- trasting stress fields at different structural levels as a
metamorphic structures and fabrics and strike pre- consequence of local bending strains developed
dominantly NW–SE, parallel to the schist axis within the metamorphic carapace ŽScott and Sibson,
ŽPaterson, 1986.. The largest mineralised structure, 1995.. In such a model, exhumation and outer-arc
the Hyde-Macraes shear zone, can be traced along extensional failure Ž sv s s 1 . leads to downward mi-
strike for over 25 km. It has been interpreted as a gration of the neutral surface and superposition of
late synmetamorphic low-angle thrust system devel- extensional failure on initial inner-arc compression
oped at depths of 10–14 km during NE–SW com- Ž sv s s 3 . ŽFig. 10.. Though not definitive, this struc-
pression ŽTeagle et al., 1990.. Most of the remaining tural sequence has been noted at Macraes and other
lodes comprise extensional vein swarms of limited localities within the schist belt. Ultimately, however,
strike extent hosted by steeply dipping low-slip nor- discrimination between tectonic models must await
mal faults and associated extension fractures formed development of reliable dating techniques for estab-
during NE–SW extension. They developed over a lishing the relative ages of the different vein systems.
304 R.H. Sibson, J. Scott r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 293–306

meshes to form, apparently under compression in the

case of the Hyde-Macraes shear zone, but elsewhere
generally under horizontal extension. Because the
mesh structures were optimally oriented within the
stress fields, discharge seems likely to have been
short-lived with fluid-pressure cycling less than ex-
treme.
Within the Lachlan fold belt, by contrast, contin-
ued shortening and thickening of the carapace by
upright folding and thrusting under sustained hori-
Fig. 10. Otago Schist Belt: regional schematic illustrating local zontal compression led to progressive steepening of
stress fields and associated structures arising from bending strains bedding slip-surfaces and also both early and fresh-
in the metamorphic carapace Žarrows indicate migration of sur-
formed thrust faults ŽFig. 9.. This tectonic setting
faces during progressive exhumation and cooling..
was particularly conducive to the containment of
lithostatically pressured fluids at depth and the for-
4.3. ComparatiÕe analysis mation of compressional fault-fracture meshes incor-
porating steep reverse faults. These structures pro-
Though there are broad similarities in protolith moted intermittent large-volume discharge through
character and the metamorphic state of the host rock extreme fault-valve action with high amplitude fluid
assemblages ŽTable 1., there are several notable pressure cycling ŽCox et al., 1995.. The higher gold
differences in the development of the gold-quartz endowment of the Bendigo–Ballarat zone in compar-
lodes in Victoria and Otago. First amongst these is ison to the Otago schist belt may thus relate, at least
the timing of lode formation with respect to syn- in part, to the progressive bulk shortening of the
metamorphic folding. Whereas lode development in carapace stress guide under sustained horizontal
the Bendigo–Ballarat zone was associated with the compression.
later synmetamorphic stages of progressive D 1 fold
tightening and associated cleavage development ŽCox
et al., 1995., the Otago lodes postdate synmetamor-
phic folding but are possibly associated with post- 5. Conclusions
metamorphic warping of the schist carapace. Bearing
in mind the anisotropic permeability imparted by This study has emphasized the role of fault-frac-
pervasive foliation Žwith fluid flow parallel to folia- ture meshes, developed towards the base of the
tion enhanced over cross-foliation flow., the brittle carapace to a prograding metamorphic belt, as
flat-lying character of the foliation over much of the conduits for large-volume flow leading to mesozonal
Otago schist belt also contrasts markedly with the gold-quartz mineralisation. An attempt has been made
generally steep to subvertical orientation of the dom- to define the tectonic settings where such structures
inant cleavage throughout much of the Lachlan may develop. Initial formation of such mesh struc-
fold-belt. tures and maintenance of gaping fractures can only
Principal factors affecting fluid containment and develop in regions of extreme fluid overpressuring
release in the two settings thus appear to have been Ž Pf ) s 3 .. Containment of overpressured fluids is
the foliation attitude and the prevailing carapace affected by the stress state and fault structures within
stress field. Within the Otago schists, freshly recon- the carapace which acts as a containing lid impeding
stituted by metamorphism, the generally flat-lying fluid loss from the mid-crust.
foliation formed a barrier to vertical migration of Fluids are most effectively contained at the high-
residual metamorphic fluids during progressive ex- est overpressures in compressional tectonic regimes
humation. Focused fluid loss across this permeability where there is an absence within the carapace of
barrier occurred whenever locally prevailing stress faults that are favourably oriented for reactivation.
and fluid-pressure conditions allowed fault-fracture This requires either intact crust Žperhaps reconsti-
 R.H. Sibson, J. Scott r Ore Geology ReÕiews 13 (1998) 293–306 305

tuted through metamorphism. or crust where pro- Given the special combinations of circumstances re-
gressive deformation has led to severe misorientation quired for extreme valving action, it seems probable
of all throughgoing fault structures. In such circum- that the large fluid fluxes through such systems are
stances, near-lithostatic fluid pressures may be main- comparatively short-lived.
tained and high permeability meshes may develop in
combination with steep reverse faults that are severely
misoriented for reactivation within the carapace stress Acknowledgements
field; the ideal setting for lode formation through
extreme fault-valve action. This was the situation Research leading to this paper forms part of a
that apparently obtained over broad regions of the study funded from the Public Good Science Fund by
Lachlan fold-belt during protracted crustal shorten- Grant UO-0312 from the New Zealand Foundation
ing. for Research, Science and Technology. Many of the
In areas of crustal extension, fault-fracture meshes concepts developed here arose from interchange of
are self-generated at lower levels of overpressuring, ideas with Graeme Broadbent, Stephen Cox, Dave
fluid pressure cycling is generally less intense and Craw, Rob Kerrich, Lance Miller, Howard Poulsen
not so effective in promoting mesozonal lode miner- and Francois Robert. Constructive reviews by Dave
alisation. This seems to have been the case over Gray and Stephen Cox are gratefully acknowledged.
much of the Otago schist goldfield, though it is R.S. thanks the organisers for the opportunity to
notable that the most extensive belt of mineralisation participate in the paired ‘Mesothermal Gold’ meet-
Žthe Hyde-Macraes shear zone. appears to have orig- ings.
inated as a low-angle compressional thrust system
ŽTeagle et al., 1990.. However, a sudden switch from
a compressional to an extensional regime Žas in References
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