INDIRA GANDHI DELHI TECHNICAL

UNIVERSITY FOR WOMEN

ANALOG ELECTRONICS
LAB FILE
B. Tech. ECE (2020-2024)

SUBMITTED TO: PROF VANDANA NIRANJAN

SUBMITTED BY: MANSHI
ENROLLMENT NUMBER: 11301022020
ECE 2, BATCH 1
INDEX

1 Familiarisation with 26/8/21

Resistor
2 Familiarisation with 2/9/21
capacitor
3 Familiarisation with 2/9/21
Inductor
4 Ohm’s law 9/9/21

5 VI characteristics of a diode 16/9/21

6 Half wave rectification 23/9/21

7 Full wave rectification 23/9/21

8 Capacitive rectification 7/10/21

9 Assignment 1- Ohm’s law 9/9/21

10 Assignment 2- VI char of 16/9/21
diode
EXPERIMENT NO. 1

[Familiarisation with
Resistor]
THEORY
OBJECTIVES OF EXPERIMENT

● Explain the function and unit of Resistors

● Measure the value of a Resistor
● Measure the Tolerance of a Resistor
● Explain the types of Resistors

TYPE OF RESISTORS
READING VALUE OF FIXED RESISTORS

● Resistors are color coded as they are too small for the value to be written on them.
● There are 4 or 5 bands of color . Value of a Resistor is decoded from these band of colors.

Reading Value:Step 1

If your resistor has four color bands ,turn the resistor so that the gold or silver band is on the right
hand side or the end with more bands should point left.
Reading Value:Step 2

The first band is now on the left hand side. This represents the first digit .Based on the color make a
note of the digit.In this case- 4 band its ‘5’ and for 5 band its ‘2’.

Reading Value :Step 3

The second band represents the second digit. The colors represent the same numbers as did the
first digit .In this case -4 band its’6’ and for 5 band its’3’
Reading Value : Step 4

The third band divulges how many zeros to add/divide to the first two numbers –for a 4 band
Resistor . In this case – 4 band its ‘4’ zeroes to be added . So value is 560K.

Reading Value : Step 5

The third band denotes the 3rd digit – for a 5 band Resistor. In this case -5 band its ‘7’ . So the value
of the 5 band resistor is 237 Ohms as its multipier digit is ‘0.
Tolerance

The last band denotes the tolerance . So the value of the 4 band resistor it is +/- 10% while
for the 5 band resistor it is +/- 1%.

● Tolerance of a Resistor is also an important property to consider .

● A 100 ohm resistor with a 10 % tolerance can mean its value can be any fixed value
between 90 to 110 Ohms.
● A 120 Ohm resistor with a 10 % tolerance can mean its value can be any fixed value
between 108 and 132 Ohms.
 ● So there is some overlap between 100 Ohm and 120 Ohm resistance in terms of its
limits.

Mnemonic to Remember
Carbon Film Resistors

● Most general purpose ,cheap resistor

● Tolerance of Resistance value is usually +/- 5%
● Power ratings of 1/8 W ,1/4 W and ½ W are usually
used
● Con:Tend to be electrically noisy

Metal Film Resistor

● Used when higher tolerance is needed , i.e. more value.

● They have about +/- 0.05% tolerance

Wire Wound Resistors

● A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire,

and because of this they can be manufactured to precise
values
 ● Also, high wattage resistors can be made by thick wire
material
● Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case are called as
ceramic resistors
● Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case are called as
ceramic resistors

EXPERIMENT NO. 2
[Familiarisation with
Capacitor]
Theory

Objectives of Experiment

After the end of this module the student would be able to

● Provide a definition of capacitor and name its units
● Explain how a capacitor can be constructed to give a particular value of capacitance
● Explain why a capacitor has maximum working voltage
 ● Determine experimentally the energy stored in a capacitor
● Identify the value and type of capacitor
● Identify the polarity of terminals

What is Capacitor?

It is one of the passive components like resistor. Capacitor is also known as condenser. Capacitor is
generally used to store the charge. The charge is stored in the form of “electrical field”. Capacitors
play a major role in many electrical and electronic circuits.

Construction of a Capacitor

The basic construction of all capacitors is of two parallel metal plates separated by an insulating
material (the dielectric). An insulator is a material which is non-conducting i.e. it shows a high
resistance to electric use is air, other types are oil or paper. Real capacitors are made by taking thin
strips of metal foil and the appropriate dielectric material and sandwiching them together.

Capacitors achieve large area (thus large capacitance) by doing something tricky, such as putting a
dielectric between 2 layers of metal foil and rolling it up like in this figure.
Capacitance

A capacitor is so called because it has the capacity to store charge- just like a beaker storing a liquid.
Capacitors are marked with a value which indicates their capacitance – their ability to store charge .
Capacitance can be thought of as the “electrical capacity” of that body. It is measured in Farads.

Note- Maximum Working Voltage

If the voltage across a capacitor is too high, the insulator between the plates fails to insulate and
charge passes from one plate to the other . Capacitor are usually marked with the maximum
working voltage to help the user avoid situation .
A good rule of thumb is to never place a voltage across the capacitor which exceeds about two
thirds of this value, especially for alternating current circuits.

Mathematical Notation

● A static description of the way a capacitor behaves would be to say \(Q=C \times V \) ,
where Q is the total charge, C is a measure of how big the capacitor is and V is the voltage
across it.
 ● A dynamic description ,i.e. one that changes with time, would be to say \(I= C \times
\frac{dV}{dt}\) . This is just the time derivative of the static description .C is constant wrt
time, I is the rate at which charge flows . This essentially says – the bigger the current , the
faster the capacitor’s voltage changes.

Classification of Capacitors

UN-POLARIZED POLARIZED

Ceramic Electrolytic

Multilayer Tantalum

Polystyrene Film Super

Polyester Film They have positive and negative electrode

Polypropylene

Mica

They don't have positive and negative

electrode
Ceramic Capacitors
Ceramic capacitors are the most used capacitors in the electronics industry. Ceramic capacitors are
fixed capacitance type capacitors and they are usually very small (in terms of both physical
dimensions and capacitance). The capacitance of ceramic capacitors is usually in the range of
picofarads to few microfarads (less than 10µF). They are non-polarised type capacitors and hence
can be used in both DC as well as AC circuits.

Electrolytic Capacitor

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way round , atleast
one of their leads will be marked + or – . It is very easy to find the values of electrolytic capacitors
because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and voltage rating.
Tantalum Capacitor

Tantalum bead capacitors are polarized and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic capacitors .
Usually , the “+” symbol is used to show the positive component lead . Modern tantalum bead
capacitors are printed with their capacitance voltage and polarity in full. However older ones use a
color – code systems which has two stripes (for the two digits ) and a spot of color for the number
of zeros to give the value in uF.

Un-polarized Capacitors- small values(upto 1uF)

The value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to use experience to work out what the
multiplier should be! For example 0.1 means 0.1 pF. Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the
decimal point: For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

Un-polarized Capacitors — Capacitor Number Code

A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult: The 1st number is the
1st digit, the 2nd number is the 2nd digit, the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the
capacitance in pF. Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating. For example:
102 means 1000pF (not 102pF!) For example: 472J means 4700pF (J means 5% tolerance).

Un-polarized Capacitors — Capacitor Color Code

Capacitors in series

Capacitors in series means two or more capacitors connected in a single line. Positive plate of the
one capacitor is connected to the negative plate of the next capacitor.

$$ Q_T =Q_1=Q_2= -----=Q$$

$$ I_C =I_1=I_2= ------=I$$

where,
\(Q_T\)is the total charge,
\(I_C\) is the capacitive current

When the capacitors are connected in series Charge and current is same on all the capacitors.

For series capacitors same quantity of electrons will flow through each capacitor because the
charge on each plate is coming from the adjacent plate. So, coulomb charge is same. As current is
nothing but flow of electrons, current is also same.

Equivalent Capacitance for two capacitors in series, $$\frac{1}{C_{eq}} = \frac{1}{C_1} + \frac{1}

{C_2} $$ $$\frac{1}{C_{eq}} = \frac{{C_1}{C_2}}{{C_1} + {C_2}}$$

Capacitors in parallel

When the capacitors are connected in parallel the total capacitance value is increased. There are
some applications where higher capacitance values are required.

All the capacitors which are connected in parallel have the same voltage and is equal to the VT
applied between the input and output terminals of the circuit.

$$V_T = V_1 = V_2 $$

Equivalent Capacitance for two capacitors in parallel, $$ C_{eq}=C_1+C_2$$

Function of Capacitance

Consider a circuit set up like the one at the side. What will happen when the switch is closed?
The ammeter will

How a steady reading

Show a reading of ’0’
Flick back and forth
Flick on one side and come back to ‘0’
Now let’s place large metal plate at each of the connectors a few millimetres apart.
What will happen when the switch is closed?
The Ammeter will
● Show a steady reading
● Show a reading of ‘0’
● Flick back and forth
● Flick on one side and come back to ‘0’

Let us extend this by placing a galvanometer on both sides of the capacitor and using a two-way
switch .
What will happen when the switch is connected to ‘P’?
For both of the Ammeters
● Neither moves
● Both flick briefly to left
● Both flick briefly to right
● They flick in opposite dirs
After moving to ‘P’ now the switch is moved to ‘O’.
What will happen?
For both of the Ammeters
Neither moves
Both flick briefly to left
Both flick briefly to right
They flick in opposite dirs

Instead of moving to ’P’ the first time ,if the switch is first moved to ‘O’ .
What will happen?
For both of the Ammeters
Neither moves
Both flick briefly to left
Both flick briefly to right
They flick in opposite dirs
The behaviour of the ammeter needles in the previous experiment suggests that a current flow
firstly one way ,then the other as the switch is moved from P to O. So, this suggests
● Equal amounts of charge flows off one plate and onto the other
● More charge flows off plate A than plate B
● More charge flows off plate B than plate A
● No charge flows at all

Charging and Discharging

We say that the capacitor is charged up when connected to P and discharged when moved to.

Charging
The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of the battery accepts electrons
that the battery is producing .The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal of the
battery loses electrons to the battery. Once it’s charged , the capacitor has the sam voltage as the
battery.

Charging - Question

Here you have a battery ,light bulb and a capacitor .If they are connected – what will happen to the
bulb?

Discharging
If you then remove the battery and replace it with a wire , current will flow from one plate of the
capacitor to the other. The bulb will light initially and then dim as the capacitor discharges , until it
is completely out.

A color code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but of course
there are many still around. The colors should be read like the resistor code, the top three color
bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating). .For
example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF. Note that there are no gaps between the color
bands, so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide band. For example: wide red, yellow means
220nF.
EXPERIMENT NO. 3
[Familiarisation with
Inductor]
Theory
Objectives Of Experiment

At the end of the module, the student would be able to

Explain Function of Inductor
Explain the factors influencing inductance

Function of an Inductor

The function of a valve is to control the amount of fluid that flows through a pipe.

In an electronic circuit, the resistor is used to control the amount of current that flows through a
conductor.
Mother device that controls the current is the inductor .

However unlike the resistor that affects the current uniformly at all times, the inductor only affects
currents when thy are changing in value.

Similarity with Capacitor

Rate of change of voltage in a capacitor depends upon the current through it

Rate of change of current in an inductor depends upon the voltage applied across it.
Like capacitive current , inductive current is not simply proportional to voltage
Unlike the situation in a resistor, the power associated with inductive current (V times I) is not
turned into heat but is stored as energy in the inductor’s magnetic field.

Equation of an Inductor

V= L* dl / dt
L is the inductance and is measured in henry.
Putting a voltage across an inductor causes the current to rise as a ramp
1 volt across 1 henry produces a current that increases at 1 amp per second

Structure of an Inductor
It consists of a wire wound as a coil around a core. The core may consist of an air filled hollow tube
or solid material.

Inductance

The amount of inductance in henries a coil has, is determined by the following factors -
No of turns of wire wound around the coil
Cross sectional area of the coil
The material type of the coil
The Length of the coil

Test Question

If the number of turns of coil around an inductor is increased ( doubles ), how will the inductance
change ?
Increase
Decrease
Will Not Change

If the distance between the turns of coil around an inductor is increased ( doubles ), how will the
inductance change ?

Increase
Decrease
Will Not Change

IF the diameter of the coil around an inductor is increased(doubles),how will the inductance
change?
Increase
Decrease
Will Not Change

Inductive Kick

An Inductive is capable of producing a momentary voltage that is much higher than the voltage of
the power source that supplied the current to create its magnetic field . This temporary voltage is
called an inductive kick.

Figure:9

Example of applications of inductive devices to provide an inductive kick is a Combustion Engine

ignition system that creates the spark across the gap of the spark plug.

Slides: Familiarisation with Inductor

pdf: Familiarisation with Inductor

EXPERIMENT NO .4
[Ohms Law]

Theory

Objectives

At the end of the experiment, the student would be able to

1. Explain Ohm's Law
2. Explain Ohm's Law for Resistance in series
3. Explain Ohm's Law for Resistance in parallel
4. Explain Non Ohmic Device
5. Measure and confirm Ohm's Law

ohm's Law

The law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to
the voltage across the two points. Such a conductor is characterized by its ‘Resistance’ – R
measured in Ohms.
V=I×R
V is the Voltage in Volts across the conductor.
I is the current in Amperes through the conductor.
Voltage(V) is directly proportional to current i.e V=I×R.
Resistance(R) in inversely proportional to current(I) i.e I=VR

Figure 1: Ohm's Law triangle

NOTE:

From the above figure, the equation may be represented by a triangle known as Ohm's Law triangle,
where V (voltage) is placed on the top section, the I (current) is placed to the left section, and the R
(resistance) is placed to the right. The line that divides the left and right sections indicates
multiplication, and the divider between the top and bottom sections indicates division.

Therefore equations derived from Ohm's law triangle are-

V=I×R

I=VR

R=VI

Explanation of Ohm's Law

Figure 2: Current through resistor

From the circuit:

The voltage across resistor is equal to source voltage:

VR=VS

The current through the resistance is given by:

I=VRR

Explanation of Ohm's Law for Resistance in series

Series circuits are sometimes called current-coupled or daisy chain-coupled. The current in a series
circuit goes through every component in the circuit. Therefore, all of the components in a series
connection carry the same current. There is only one path in a series circuit in which the current
can flow.

Current:
I=I1=I2=I3

Resistance:
Req=R1+R2+R3

Voltage:
VS=VR1+VR2+VR3
Figure 3: Series resistors

From the circuit:

The equivalent resistance,

Req=R1+R2

The total current of the circuit,

IT=VSReq

Voltage across each resistance are,

For resistance R1,
VR1=R1×IT

For resistance R2,

VR2=R2×IT

In a series circuit, the current through each of the resistors is the same, and the voltage across the
circuit is the sum of the voltages across each resistor.
Explanation of Ohm's Law for Resistance in parallel

If two or more components are connected in parallel they have the same potential difference
(voltage) across their ends. The potential differences across the components are the same in
magnitude, and they also have identical polarities. The same voltage is applicable to all circuit
components connected in parallel. The total current is the sum of the currents through the
individual components, in accordance with Kirchhoff’s current law.

Voltage:
V=V1=V2=V3

Resistance:
1Req=1R1+1R2+1R3

Current:
IT=IR1+IR2+IR3
Figure 4: Parallel resistors

From the circuit:

The equivalent resistance,

Req=R1×R2R1+R2

The total current of the circuit,

IT=VSReq

Current across each resistance are,

For resistance R1,
IR1=VSR1

For resistance R2,

IR2=VSR2
In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each of the resistors is the same, and the total current is the
sum of the currents through each resistor.

Explanation of Non Ohmic Device

A Non ohmic device is a device that does not obey Ohm's Law i.e. the resistance is not constant, but
changes in a way that depends on the voltage across it.The device is said to be non-Ohmic. In this
case V versus I graph is not a straight line, but has some curvy shape. Such devices do not have a
constant value of resistance and the resistance is called dynamic resistance because it is constantly
changing.Examples of such devices are tungsten filament (bulb), diode,thermistor etc.

Figure 5: Non Ohmic Device

Note

Ohm's Law is a very useful law but it only applies to devices that behave like resistors – ie – I is
simply proportional to V.
Ohm's Law describes one possible relationship between V and I in a component, but there are
others, like
Capacitors ( I proportional to rate of change of V )
Diodes ( I flows in only 1 direction )
Thermistors ( Temperature dependent resistors )
Procedure
Experiment

Let us go through the experiment of confirming Ohms Law.

Set DC voltage(0-30 V).
Set the Resistance Value(1 Kohm - 100 Kohm) .
Voltmeter is placed parallel to resistor and ammeter series with resistor.
Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage.
Increase the DC voltage by 2 factor and note Voltmeter and Ammeter Readings. Keep resistance
value constant
Plot the V-I graph to verify Ohm's Law.
Repeat step 2 to 6 for another set of resistance value.
V versus I graph is a straight line.
Therefore from the graph we see that the resistance do adhere to Ohm’s law. Thus resistance is said
to be an Ohmic device.

Figure:1

Let us go through the experiment of confirming Ohms Law with Resistance in series.
Set DC voltage(0-30 V).
Here resistance are kept in series. Set the resistance R1(1 Kohm - 100 Kohm) value and set
resistance R2(5 - 15 Kohm).
Voltmeter is placed parallel with resistor and ammeter series with resistor.
Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage.
Increase the DC voltage by 2 factor and note Voltmeter and Ammeter Readings. Keeping resistance
value constant
Plot the V-I graph to verify Ohm's Law
Repeat step 2 to 6 for another set of resistance value.

Figure:2

Let us go through the experiment of confirming Ohms Law with Resistance in parallel.
Set DC voltage(0-30 V).
Here Resistances are kept parallelly. Set the resistance R1 (100 ohm- 2 kohm) value and set
resistance R2(1 -30 kohm).
Voltmeter is placed parallel to resistor and ammeter series with resistor.
Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage.
Increase the DC voltage by 2 factor and note Voltmeter and Ammeter Readings. Keeping Resistance
value constant
Plot the V-I graph to verify Ohm's Law.
Repeat step 2 to 6 for another set of resistance value.
Figure:3

Exploratory Experiment

Let us go through the experiment of confirming Non Ohmic Device.

Set DC voltage to 5 V .
Use the resistor of 100K ohms and a diode.
Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.
Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage 5V.
Decrease the Resistance as 75K, 51K, 24K and 10K Ohms and take the readings and note Voltmeter
reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading.
Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
The Change is not simply proportional. V versus I graph is not a straight line.
Therefore from the graph we see that the diode does not adhere to Ohms law.Thus diode is said to
be non-Ohmic device.
OBSERVATIONS:

OHM’S LAW
OHM’S LAW SERIES
OHM’S LAW PARLLEL

NON OHMIC DEVICE

EXPERIMENT NO. 5
[VI Characteristics of a
Diode]
Theory

Objectives

At the end of the experiment, the student should be able to

1. Explain the structure of a P-N junction diode
2. Explain the function of a P-N junction diode
3. Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode
4. Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Germanium diode

Structure of P-N junction diode

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material. The lead
connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the n-type material is
the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the diode.
Function of a P-N junction diode in Forward Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of a diode, the holes in the p-type region and the
electrons in the n-type region are pushed toward the junction and start to neutralize the depletion
zone, reducing its width. The positive potential applied to the p-type material repels the holes,
while the negative potential applied to the n-type material repels the electrons. The change in
potential between the p side and the n side decreases or switches sign. With increasing forward-
bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field cannot
counteract charge carrier motion across the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces
electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes
that cross into the n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The amount of
minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow
through the diode.

Function of a P-N junction diode in Reverse Bias

The positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal
of the battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode. Therefore, very little current will flow
until the diode breaks down.
The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode, the 'holes' in the p-type material are pulled
away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region
to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons
will also be pulled away from the junction, with similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier
causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to
cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction
behaving as an insulator.
The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases.
Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n junction depletion zone
breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown
processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the
amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat
and cause thermal damage.

Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P side and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in forward biasing
because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion region width and overcome the barrier
potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be greater than the barrier
potential. During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of nearly
0.6 V across it for a silicon diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a silicon diode.
From the graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage
exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.
In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N side and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the diode does not
conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the depletion region width; hence
current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome the barrier potential. The diode will act
like an open switch and there is no current flow.

Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Germanium diode

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P side and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in forward biasing
because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion region width and overcome the barrier
potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be greater than the barrier
potential. During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of nearly
0.3 V across it for a germanium diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a germanium
diode. From the graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias
voltage exceeds around 0.3 volts (for Ge diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N side and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the diode does not
conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the depletion region width; hence
current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome the barrier potential. The diode will act
like an open switch and there is no current flow.

Diode Equation
In the forward-biased and reversed-biased regions, the current (\(I_f\)), and the voltage (\(V_f\)),
of a semiconductor diode are related by the diode equation:

$$I_f=I_s \times (exp^\frac{V_f}{n \times{V_T}}-1)$$

where,
\(I_s\) is reverse saturation current or leakage current,
\(I_f\) is current through the diode(forward current),
\(V_f\) is potential difference across the diode terminals(forward voltage)
\(V_T\) is thermal voltage, given by
$$V_T=\frac{k \times T}{q}$$

and
k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10−23 J /°Kelvin,
q is the electronic charge = 1.6x10−19 joules/volt(Coulombs),
T is the absolute temperature in °Kelvin(°K = 273 + temperature in °C),
At room temperature (25 °C), the thermal voltage is about 25.7 mV,
n is an empirical constant between 0.5 and 2

The empirical constant, n, is a number that can vary according to the voltage and current levels. It
depends on electron drift, diffusion, and carrier recombination in the depletion region. Among the
quantities affecting the value of n are the diode manufacture, levels of doping and purity of
materials.

If n=1, the value of \(\frac{k \times T}{q}\) is 26 mV at 25°C.

When n=2, the value of \(\frac{k \times T}{q}\) becomes 52 mV. For germanium diodes, n is
usually considered to be close to 1. For silicon diodes, n is in the range of 1.3 to 1.6.

Note

Ideal Diode Model:Diode is a simple switch that is either closed (conducting) or open (non
conducting). Specifically, the diode is a short circuit, like a closed switch, when voltage is applied in
the forward direction, and an open circuit, like an open switch, when the voltage is applied in the
reverse direction.
Offset Voltage Model:The offset voltage model adds the barrier potential to the ideal switch model.
When the diode is forward biased it is equivalent to a closed switch in series with a small
equivalent voltage source equal to the barrier potential (0.6 V for Silicon, 0.2 for germanium) with
the positive side towards the anode. When the diode is reverse biased, it is equivalent to an open
switch just as in the ideal model.
Complete diode Model:It is the most accurate of the diode models. The Complete diode model of a
diode consists of the barrier potential, the small forward dynamic resistance and the ideal diode.
The resistor approximates the semiconductor resistance under forward bias. This diode model
most accurately represents the true operating characteristics of the real diode.
When a diode is reverse biased a leakage current flows through the device. This current can be
effectively ignored as long as the reverse breakdown voltage of the diode is not exceeded. At
potentials greater than the reverse breakdown voltage, charge is pulled through the p-n junction by
the strong electric fields in the device and large reverse current flows. This usually destroys the
device. There are special diodes that are designed to operate in breakdown. Such diodes are called
zener diodes and used as voltage regulators.

When is each Model used ?

Ideal Diode Model: This is primarily used in troubleshooting. Is the diode working or not? The
greatest utility of the ideal diode model is in determining which diodes are on and which are off in a
multi-diode circuit.

Offset Voltage Model:This is used when a more accurate determination of load current or voltage is
required.

Complete Diode Model:This is used during the actual design of circuits using diodes.

Procedure
1. Forward Bias-Si Diode
Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
Select the diode.
Set the resistor.
Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.
The positive side of battery to the P side(anode) and the negative of battery to the N side(cathode)
of the diode.
Now vary the voltage upto 5V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for particular DC
voltage .
Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading.
Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
Calculate the dynamic resistance of the diode. rd=ΔV/ΔI
Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage
exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.
Figure:1

2. Reverse Bias-Si Diode

Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
Select the diode.
Set the resistor.
Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.
The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.
Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage .
Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading.
Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
Figure:2

3. Forward Bias-Ge Diode

Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Germanium diode.
Voltmeter is placed parallel to Germanium diode and ammeter series with resistor.
The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of the diode.
Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for particular DC
voltage .
Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Germanium diode and Ammeter reading.
Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage
exceeds around 0.3 volts (for Ge diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.
Figure:1

4. Reverse Bias-Ge Diode

Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Germanium diode.
Voltmeter is placed parallel to Germanium diode and ammeter series with resistor.
The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.
Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage .
Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading.
Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
OBSERVATION:

FORWARD BIAS SILICON DIODE

REVERSE BIAS SILICON DIODE:
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
[Half Wave Rectification]
Theory

Objectives

At the end of the module the student would be able to

1. Explain Rectification
2. Explain Half Wave Rectification
3. Explain Half Wave Rectification:For Positive Half Cycle
4. Explain Half Wave Rectification:For Negative Half Cycle

Rectification

Figure:1

A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process known
as rectification. Rectifiers are essentially of two types – a half wave rectifier and a full wave rectifier.

Half Wave Rectification

Figure:2

On the positive cycle the diode is forward biased and on the negative cycle the diode is reverse
biased. By using a diode we have converted an AC source into a pulsating DC source. In summary
we have ‘rectified’ the AC signal.

Figure:3

The simplest kind of rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier.The half-wave rectifier is a circuit that
allows only part of an input signal to pass. The circuit is simply the combination of a single diode in
series with a resistor, where the resistor is acting as a load.
Half Wave Rectifiers – Waveforms

Figure:6
The output DC voltage of a half wave rectifier can be calculated with the following two ideal
equations.

$$V_{peak}=V_{rms} \times √2$$

$$V_{dc}=\frac{V_{peak}}{Π}$$

Half Wave Rectification:For Positive Half Cycle

Figure:1

Diode is forward biased, acts as a short circuit, passes the waveform through.
For positive half cycle: $$V_I - V_b - I \times r_d - I \times R=0$$ where,
\(V_I\) is the input voltage,
\(V_b\) is barrier potential,
\(r_d\) is diode resistance,
\(I\) is total current,
\(R\) is resistance
$$I=\frac{V_I - V_b}{r_d + R}$$
$$V_O = I \times R$$
$$V_O =\frac{V_I - V_b}{r_d + R} \times R$$
For \(r_d\)<< \(R\),
$$V_O = V_I- V_b$$
\(V_b\) is 0.3 for Germanium ,
\(V_b\) is 0.7 for Silicon

For \(V_I\)<\(V_b\),

The diode will remain OFF.The Output voltage will be,

$$V_O =0$$
For \(V_I\)>\(V_b\),

The diode will be ON.The Output voltage will be,

$$V_O = V_I- V_b$$

Half Wave Rectification:For Negative Half Cycle

Figure:2

Diode is reverse biased, acts as a open circuit, does not pass the waveform through.

For negative half cycle:

$$V_O=0 \quad Since, \quad I =0$$
Half wave Rectification:For an Ideal Diode

For Ideal Diode,

$$V_b = 0$$
For positive half cycle,
$$V_O = V_I$$
For negative half cycle,
$$V_O = 0$$
Average output voltage

$$V_O=V_m \times \sin wt \quad for \quad 0 \leq wt \leq \pi$$

$$V_O=0 \quad for \quad \pi \leq wt \leq 2 \pi$$
$$V_{av}=\frac{V_m}{\pi} =0.318V_m$$
RMS load voltage

$$V_{rms}=I_{rms} \times R = \frac {V_m}{2}$$

Average load current

$$I_{av}=\frac{V_{av}}{R} =\frac{\frac{V_m}{\pi}}{R}$$
$$I_{av}=\frac{V_{m}}{\pi \times R}=\frac{I_m}{\pi}$$
RMS load current

$$I_{rms}=\frac {I_m}{2}$$
Form factor: It is defined as the ratio of rms load voltage and average load voltage.
$$F.F= \frac{V_{rms}}{V_{av}}$$
$$F.F= \frac{\frac{V_{m}}{2}}{\frac{V_{av}}{2}}=\frac{\pi}{2}=1.57$$
\(F.F \geq 1\)
\(rms \geq av\)

Ripple Factor

$$\gamma=√({F.F}^2-1 \times 100\%$$

$$\gamma=√({1.57}^2-1) \times 100\%=1.21\%$$
Efficiency:It is defined as ratio of dc power available at the load to the input ac power.
$$n\%=\frac{P_{load}}{P_{in}} \times 100\%$$
$$n\%=\frac {{I_{dc}^2} \times R}{{I_{rms}^2} \times R}\times 100\%$$
$$n\%=\frac{\frac {I_{m}^2}{\pi^2}}{\frac{I_{m}^2}{4}}\times 100\%=\frac{4}{\pi^2}\times
100\% =40.56 \%$$

Peak Inverse Voltage

For rectifier applications, peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV) is the maximum
value of reverse voltage which occurs at the peak of the input cycle when the diode is reverse-
biased.The portion of the sinusoidal waveform which repeats or duplicates itself is known as the
cycle. The part of the cycle above the horizontal axis is called the positive half-cycle, the part of the
cycle below the horizontal axis is called the negative half cycle. With reference to the amplitude of
the cycle, the peak inverse voltage is specified as the maximum negative value of the sine-wave
within a cycle's negative half cycle.

$$ PIV=V$$
$$ -V_m +V=0 \Rightarrow V=V_m$$
$$PIV \geq V_m$$

Procedure
Set the resistor RL.
Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment.
Click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform
Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the rectified output.
Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.
Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2 shows the output rectified waveform.
Calculate the Ripple Factor.Theoretical Ripple Factor= 1.21.
Figure:1

Calculation

Measure the Vm

Vrms=Vm2

Vdc=Vmπ
Ripple Factor=VacVdc Since, Vac=(V^2rms−V^2dc)−−−−−−−−−−

OBSERVATION:

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

EXPERIMENT NO . 7
[Full Wave Rectification]
Theory

Objectives

At the end of the module the student would be able to

Explain Rectification
Explain Center Tapped Full Wave Rectification
Explain Bridge Full Wave Rectification

Rectification

Figure :1

A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process known
as rectification. Rectifiers are essentially of two types – a half wave rectifier and a full wave rectifier.

Full Wave Rectifier

A full-wave rectifier is exactly the same as the half-wave, but allows unidirectional current through
the load during the entire sinusoidal cycle (as opposed to only half the cycle in the half-wave). A
full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or
negative) at its output. Let us see our half wave rectifier example and deduce the circuit.
Figure:2

For a half wave Rectifier this is what we have observed

Figure:3
If we change the phase of the input waveform by 180 degrees

Figure:4

Now if we add these two circuits, we would get

Figure:5

Full Wave Rectifier - Circuit

So, we have seen that this rectifier circuit consists of two sources which have a phase difference
along with two diodes. When V1 is positive, V2 is negative. Hence the top diode(D1) will be a short
and the bottom diode(D2) will be an open. On the other hand, when V1 is negative, V2 is positive.
Hence the bottom diode(D2) will be on and the top diode(D1) will be an open circuit.

Figure:6

Full Wave Rectifier – Waveforms

Figure:7

Figure:8

Figure:9

The resulting waveform of the schematic is shown above. This configuration is rarely used because
sometimes it may be impractical to obtain two voltage sources and it is difficult to SYNC the
sources. Let us see how a single source can be used.

Full Wave Rectifier – Center Tapped Transformer

A Full-Wave Rectifier can be constructed using Center-Tapped transformer – which give us two
shifted sinusoids so that exactly one of the waveforms is positive at one time and two diodes. As
compared to the half wave rectifier we use two diodes instead of one, one of the two diodes
remains in conduction in both of the half cycles. At any point in time, only one of the diodes is
forward biased. This allows for continuous conduction through load.
Figure:10

Figure:11

$$\frac{N_P}{N_S}=\frac{V_P}{V_S}=\frac{1}{2}$$
$$\Rightarrow V_S=2 \times V_I$$
Center Tapped Transformer – Positive cycle

Figure:12

For Positive Cycle \(D_1\) is Forward Biased and \(D_2\) is Reverse Biased
$$V_I - V_O=0$$
$$\Rightarrow V_O=V_I$$
Center Tapped Transformer– Negative cycle

Figure:13

For Negative Cycle \(D_1\) is Reverse Biased and \(D_2\) is Forward Biased
$$V_I - V_O=0$$
$$\Rightarrow V_O=V_I$$
Bridge Rectifier

Bridge rectifier uses 4 rectifying diodes connected in a "bridged" configuration to produce the
desired output but does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size
and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and
the load to the other side as shown below.
Figure:14

Bridge Rectifier – Positive Half Cycle

During the positive half cycle of the supply diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and
D4 are reverse biased (ideally they can be replaced with open circuits) and the current flows
through the load as shown below.

Figure:15
For Positive Half Cycle \(D_1\) and \(D_2\) is Forward Biased and \(D_3\) and \(D_4\) is Reverse
Biased. $$V_I-V_O=0$$
$$\Rightarrow V_O=V_I$$
$$V_O=V_I -2 \times V_b$$
$$V_O=V_I -2 \times V_b - 2 \times I_{rd}$$
where,
\(V_I\) is the input voltage,
\(V_b\) is barrier potential,
\(r_d\) is diode resistance

Bridge Rectifier – Negative Half Cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and
D2 switch of as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same
direction as before.

Figure:16

For Negative Half Cycle \(D_1\) and \(D_2\) is Reverse Biased and \(D_3\) and \(D_4\) is Forward
Biased. $$V_I-V_O=0$$
$$\Rightarrow V_O=V_I$$
Average DC Load Voltage

$$V_O=V_m \times \sin wt \quad for \quad 0 \leq wt \leq \pi$$

$$V_{av}=V_{dc}= \frac{2 \times V_m}{\pi}$$
Average Load Current

$$I_{av}=\frac{V_{av}}{R}=\frac{2\times V_m}{\pi \times R}$$

$$I_{av}=\frac{2 \times I_m}{R}$$
RMS Load Current

$$I=I_m \times \sin wt \quad for \quad 0 \leq wt \leq \pi$$

$$I_{rms}=\frac{I_m }{ √2}$$
RMS Load Voltage
$$V_{rms}=I_{rms} \times R = \frac{I_m}{√2} \times R$$
$$V_{rms}=\frac{V_m}{√2}$$
Form factor: It is defined as the ratio of rms load voltage and average load voltage.
$$F.F= \frac{V_{rms}}{V_{av}}$$
$$F.F= \frac{\frac{V_{m}}{√2}}{\frac{2 \times V_m}{\pi}}=\frac{\pi}{2√2}=1.11$$
\(F.F \geq 1\)

Ripple Factor

$$\gamma=√({F.F}^2-1 )\times 100\%$$

$$\gamma=√({1.11}^2-1) \times 100\%=48.1\%$$

Efficiency:It is defined as ratio of dc power available at the load to the input ac power.
$$n\%=\frac{P_{load}}{P_{in}} \times 100\%$$
$$n\%=\frac {{I_{dc}^2} \times R}{{I_{rms}^2} \times R}\times 100\%$$
$$n\%=\frac{\frac {4 \times I_{m}^2}{\pi^2}}{\frac{I_{m}^2}{2}}\times 100\%=\frac{8}
{\pi^2}\times 100\% =81.13 \%$$

Peak Inverse Volatge

For rectifier applications, peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV) is the maximum
value of reverse voltage which occurs at the peak of the input cycle when the diode is reverse-
biased.The portion of the sinusoidal waveform which repeats or duplicates itself is known as the
cycle. The part of the cycle above the horizontal axis is called the positive half-cycle, the part of the
cycle below the horizontal axis is called the negative half cycle. With reference to the amplitude of
the cycle, the peak inverse voltage is specified as the maximum negative value of the sine-wave
within a cycle's negative half cycle.

For Bridge Rectifier,

\(D_1\) and \(D_2\) is Forward Biased
\(D_3\) and \(D_4\) is Reverse Biased
$$ V_m-V_O=0$$
$$\Rightarrow V_O=V_m$$
$$- V_O+PIV=0$$
$$\Rightarrow PIV=V_m$$
$$PIV \geq V_m$$
For Center Tapped Rectifier,
\(D_2\) is Forward Biased,
PIV at \(D_1\), $$ V_m-V_O=0$$
$$\Rightarrow V_O=V_m$$
$$V_O-PIV+V_m$$
$$\Rightarrow PIV=2V_m$$
$$PIV \geq 2V_m$$
Note

An alternative representation of full-wave bridge rectifier circuit is easier both to remember and to
comprehend. It's the exact same circuit, except all diodes are drawn in a horizontal attitude, all
“pointing” the same direction.

Figure:17

Procedure
Bridge Rectifier - Experiment

Set the resistor RL.

Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment.
Click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform
Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the rectified output.
Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.
Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2 shows the output rectified waveform.
Calculate the Ripple Factor.Theoretical Ripple Factor=0.483.

Figure:1

Calculation

Measure the Vm

Vrms=Vm√2

Vdc=2×Vmπ
Ripple Factor=VacVdc Since, Vac=(V2rms−V2dc)−−−−−−−−−−√
OBSERVATIONS:

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

EXPERIMENT NO. 8
[Capacitative Rectification]
Theory

Objectives

Learn Filtering of Rectified signal

Ripple Voltage and Ripple Factor
Learn Capacitive filtering

Rectifier

In our earlier experiment we have seen that a full-wave rectifier is exactly the same as the half-
wave, but allows unidirectional current through the load during the entire sinusoidal cycle (as
opposed to only half the cycle in the half-wave). A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input
waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output.

Figure:1

Filter
Figure:2

What is really desired is to convert the pulsating output of the rectifier to a constant DC supply.
Thus we would like to ‘filter’ the pulsating input signal.

Figure:3

We can do this by splitting the input waveform into AC (high frequency) and the DC components
(very low frequency) and by then ‘rejecting’ the high frequency components.

Filtering

From our filtering experiments we have seen that the simplest kind of filter that can perform the
filtering task just described is a capacitor. Thus, if we connect a capacitor directly across the output
of a rectifier, the AC components will ‘see’ a low impedance path to ground and will not, therefore
appear in the output.
Figure:4

Full Wave Rectification + Filtering

The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth DC
output voltage. The smoothing capacitor acts as a tank.

Figure:5

Ripple Voltage and Ripple Factor

Assuming a finite capacitor is connected, since a new charging pulse occurs every half cycle the
capacitor charges and discharges very frequently. We can observe that smaller the Vpp, the more
the waveform will resemble a pure DC voltage. The variable portion is known as ‘ripple’ and the
value Vpp is known as the ripple voltage. Further the ratio of the ripple voltage to the DC or average
voltage is known as the ripple factor.
Figure:6

‘Filling the Gaps’

So we see that, a capacitor-input filter will charge and discharge such that it fills in the “gaps”
between each peak. This reduces variations of voltage. As we have seen, the remaining voltage
variation is called ripple voltage.

Figure:7

Choosing the Capacitor

Since a rectifier circuit is designed with a particular load in mind, choosing the capacitor needs
careful analysis. Since low ripple factors a desired, choosing a large capacitance value is not
practical. This is because larger capacitance will cost more and will create higher peak currents in
the transformer secondary and in the supply feeding it. In the subsequent experiments, let us see
how time constant plays a role in the rectified output waveform shape and characteristics.

Figure:8

Half Wave vs Full Wave Capacitive Rectification

If the capacitance and voltage sources used are the same, which one among the two – half wave or
full wave gives lesser ripple effect ?

The advantage of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave is quite clear. The capacitor can more
effectively reduce the ripple when the time between peaks is shorter.

Figure:9
Procedure
Capacitative Rectification for Half Wave Rectifier

Take a diode, and Load resistor of 1KOhms and capacitor of 102μF.

Connect to AC Voltage Source of 50 Hz, 2 V
Click on 'ON' button to make the circuit on.
Click on 'Sine Wave' button to observe the input waveform.
Click on 'Run Simulation' button to observe the filtered waveform.
Observe the corresponding waveform.
Channel 1 shows the input wave, Channel 2 shows the output wave and Dual shows both the input
and output wave.

Figure:1

Capacitative Rectification for Full Wave Rectifier

Take 4 diodes, Load resistor of 1KOhms and capacitor of 102μF.

Connect to AC Voltage Source of 50 Hz, 12 V.
Click on 'ON' button to make the circuit on.
Click on 'Sine Wave' button to observe the input waveform.
Click on 'Run Simulation' button to observe the filtered waveform.
Vary the amplitude using the controllers.
Observe the corresponding waveform.
Channel 1 shows the input wave, Channel 2 shows the output wave and Dual shows both the input
and output wave.

OBSERVATIONS:

FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:
ASSIGNMENT 1
ASSIGNMENT 2