UNIT 7 FOREIGN POLICY

Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Factors determining China's Foreign Policy
Relations with South Asian. Neighbours
7.3.1 Relations with India
7.3.2 Relations with Pakistan
7.3.3 Relations with Bangladesh and Nepal
Relations with ASEAN Countries
Relations with Super Powers and West European Countries
7.5.1 Relations with Soviet Union
7.5.2 Relations with United States
7.5.3 Relations with West European Countries
Role in the United Nations
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Some Useful Books
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

This Unit aims at providing an account of China's foreign policy-its interaction

with other countries including the immediate neighbours. After going through the
Unit you would be able to:
identify the main characteristics of China's foreign policy;
explain the forces and factors determining Chinese behaviour in international
relations;
recognise the causes underlying difficulties and problems with great powers as
well as with immediate neighbours;
evaluate China's position and status in 'the community of nations.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
China is the largest country of the Asian continent and most populous in the
world. In'terms of its geographical size, it is next only to Canada and is nearly
three times as large as India. China is situated in the centre of the world's largest
continent and the bulk of the Asian continent lies within the scope of Chinese
cultural influence. The countries situated in China's periphery are weak and small
and more vulnerable to Chinese influence. China's significant socio-political status
is given recognition by the United States and other great powers.
China's recorded history spanning over four thousand years is the history of a
great country that flourished economically and culturally even at the earliest stages
of civilization. For most part of its history, China however remained in self-imposed
isolation with fewer contacts with the outside world. The Chinese were made to
believe by the contemporary Chinese emperors that China was a celestial empire
endowed with all things in abundance and desired nothing from outside.
During the nineteenth century the rise of British colonialism in the proximity of
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in the region. Military debacles suffered by China in its confrontations wlth Britain Foreign Policy
and Japan led to decline in Chinese influence. In 1911, the overthrow of the
monarchy led to the founding of Republic of China under the leadership of Sun
Yet-Sen. The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in October, 1917 had its influence
on China as well which culminated in the rise and growth of armed revolutionary
movement led by the Communist Party of China under the leadership of Mao
Zedong. The Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party worked together
until parting of their ways in 1927. Subsequently, the Chinese Communist Party
launched armed struggle against the Chiang Kai-Shek led Kuomintang Party which
was then in power. The struggle finally culminated in the estsblishment of People's
Republic of China in October, 1949 pnder the aegis of the Chinese Communist
Party with Mao Zedong as its Chairman.

7.2 FACTORS DETERMINING CHINA'S

FOREIGN POLICY
Foreign policy of a country is a composite response to domestic and external
factors. In the external realm, operation of a country's foreign policy is facilitated
at three levels: global, regional and bilateral. Framing and implementation of any
country's foreign policy does not take place in a void or vacuum. Rather it is
the tangible outcome of certain basic factors like geopolitical realities of the region
where that country is located, its scramble for security, its domestic requirements
and quest for economic development and its commitment to ideology. In a similar
way, China's foreign policy has been governed by certain basic tenets which have
remained constant despite variations in ways and means in attaining them. These
variations have been influenced by changing circumstances both at home and abroad.
Since the founding of the Communist regime in People's Republic of China in
October, ,1949concern for security has been the main bulwark of China's foreign
policy. Over the past four decades, the Chinese leadership has shown remarkable
capacity for adaptation to changing circumstances and for employing various tactics
to attain the goal of national security. The factors that have influenced the Chinese
foreign policy are: national interest, nationalism, historical experience and cultural
values, revolutionary strategy, the theory of contradiction and the theory of the
three worlds and the leadership and decision making powers. Since the advent
of the communist regime in 1 9 4 e a n d even prior to that Chines: policy has been
functioning within a framework based on Chinese understanding of the dominant
global trends. An analysis of the Chinese foreign policy during the past four
decades shows that this framework has been clearly modified at the end of nearly
every decade since the 1950s. During the decade of 1950s, the Chinese foreign
policy operated within the bilateral framework, with Beijing firmly aligned to the
socialist camp under the aegis of Soviet Union. The Sino-Soviet schism in 1960s
motivated China to renounce bloc politics. In the Chinese view, the Soviet Union
during 1960s had become revisionist and henceforth China considered that the
mantle of defending socialism had fallen on its shoulders, despite the fact that it
was intensely embroiled in domestic trouble as a sequel to the Cultural Revolution.
The decade of 1970s witnessed China's strategic alignment with the United States,
its induction into the United Nations and also the formulation of Three Worlds
Theory: the First World of super powers, the Third World of the vast majority
of developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America and the Second World
juxtaposed as an intermediate between the two, primarily consisting of Japan
and Europe. China was seen as part of the Third World.
\
The decade of 1980s was marked by traumatic changes in the regional as well
as the global scenario and the period witnessed a shift in emphasis from political
; to economic and technological issues. The growing economic might of Japan and
Western Europe and the growing US-Soviet detente, provided the framework for
a new multipolar configuration of power. By the mid 1980s, the Chinese leadership
had started believing that it would'not be the military factor, but economic and
technological capability which determine the superiority or otherwise of a country.
Thus from then onward the Chinese started analysing global trends and the Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
international situation with a view to formulate a world view that would accordingly
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China The onset of 1990shcs been characterized by remarkable events like unification
of two Germanys, collapse of erstwhile Soviet Union and emergence of Russian
Federation, Baltic states, and five Central Asian Republics as sovereign independent
countries, division of Czechoslovakia into Czech and Slovak Republics, the gulf
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war, and move for a United States of Europe after the signing of Maastricht !
Treaty and the urge for a new world order. China's response to these developments
is closely linked to its foreign policy.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space provided below each question to give your answer.
ii) Check your answer with the answer given at the end of the unit.
1) What.have been the main stages of shift of emphasis in the foreign policy of
China?

7.3 RELATIONS WITH SOUTH ASIAN NEIGHBOURS

During the Cold War rivalry between United States and Soviet Union, South
Asia had increasingly become a significant rigion in global politics. The strategic
significance of South Asia has not diminished with the collapse of the Soviet
Union. The region figures more prominently in the strategic calculations of the
United States, China and Russia, the successor states of Soviet Union. China
shares borders with Bhutan, Nepal, India and Pakistan. This makes China a
pre-eminent power in the region.
India and Pakistan are two prominent powers of South Asia. Regional developments
attract China's attention and similarly Chinese moves have their bearings on this
region. During the 1960s and 19709 China vied with India for enhancirtg its
influence in South Asia, demarcated the region into Indo-centric and Sino-centric.
India's military debacle during the outbreak of Sino-Indian hostilities in October,
1962, resulted in the augmentation of Chinese influence in the region. The resultant
outcome was China's improved relations with Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka
during that period.
Following the Sino-India rapprochement from the beginning of l980s, China has
followed a policy of forging friendly relations with all the countries of South Asia
and is committed to resolve the outstanding border issues especially with India
through peaceful means.

7.3.1 - elations with India

China's relations with India are marked by various ups and downs. Though both
countries share a long legaoy of history with cultural and economic linkages dating
back to centuries, yet there have been quite a few irritants, especially the border
dispute which have marred the otherwise friendly relations between the two
countries. India was the second among the non-communist countries to recognise
the communist regime in the Beijing in 1949. India also displayed ample enthusiasm
in getting China admitted to the United Nations.
During 19505, the heyday of the Cold War, China subscribed to Mao's theory
of two camps and India's policy of non-alignment was not appreciated by Beijing
which was ideologically more inclined towards the Soviet Union. India's
condemnation of the American policy during the Korean crisis in 1950 and support
 - for China brought New Delhi and Beijing closer to each other. However, what Foreign Policy
stood in the way of good neighbourly relations was the issue of Tibet. The Tibet
issue was a British legacy by which India had inherited certain special political
interests and extra-territorial privileges like owning some rest houses, stationing
of armed guards and maintenance of its own postal communication at certain
points. Hence, Chinese military action in Tibet in October, 1950 alarmed India.
However, both countries tried to narrow down their differences in April, 1954
on.the basis of Panchshila or Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence. Thereafter
began a short-lived phase (1954-58) of Sino-Indian friendship. During this phase
Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai visited India and Indian .Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru also visited China. This phase did not last long, and by 1959, in the wake
of border disputes and armed clashes, the two Asian giants were drifting towards
a war which ultimately broke out in October, 1962,
1ndia suffered a military debacle during the Sino-Indian war of October, 1962
I and the unilateral ceasefire by China by October end 1962 though brought the
armed hostilities to standstill but initiated a cold war between the two. It brought

I India-China friendship to an abrupt end and the era of Panchshila was replaced
by an era of confrontation. During this period, the United States and Soviet
Union provided military and economic assistance to India. However, the phase

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of Indo-American friendship proved very short while India's relations with Soviet
Union became durable in the subsequent period. Chinamoved closer to Pakistan
which was already having strained relations with India.
In the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution (1966-69) China pursued the policy
of breaking international isolation by cultivating friendly relations with the countries
I
of Asia and Africa. China's open support to Pakistan during the Bangladesh
I Crisis in 1971 reduced any possibility of thaw in Sino-Indian relations. China's
b open support to Naxalites in India and insurgency in the North-Eastem states of
India during late 1960s and until. early 1970s also marred any chances of the
process of normalization of relations between the two countries.
Until the mid-1970s, the prospects of normalization of relations between the two
I countries had not shown any helpful sign. But by 1975-76,both countries seemed
enthusiastic to restore normal relationship. It was in 1976 that both China and
India restored diplomatic relations at ambassadorial level. Following this, restrictions
on trade, banking and shipping were removed and functional contacts resumed.
In February, 1979, India's Foreign Minister visited China.
The desire for bringing their mutual relationship on an even path being strong
between the two countries, the only irritant was the ticklish problem of the
border. By 1981 both sides seemed interested in sorting out the border issue
which led t.0 the first round of talks of experts of the two countries in December,
1981 at India's behest. At this juncture China seemed to be in favour of the
Status quo. China offered a package deal which interalia implied Chinese recognition
of the MacMahon Line in the east as the border between India and China in
exchange of India recognising Aksai Chin as part of China.
During December, 1981 at the first round of Sino-Indian talks on the border
issue, both sides stuck to their respective positions. While China favoured the
acceptance of status quo, India showed its strong reservations over such acceptance
without any comparable concessions. The second round of talks held in May,
1982 made no appreciable progress on the boundary question. The various
subsequent round of talks have been held between India and China but there
has been no agreement on the question of border. However, both countries have
entered into various agreements to cooperate in the fields of trade, commerce,
science and technology and culture. In 1988 Indian Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi
visited China and in December, 1991 Chinese Premier Li Peng visited India.
During Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi's visit to China in 1988, both countries has
agreed to set up a Joint Working Group to go into the border question. The
two countries also agreed to resolve the remaining bilateral issues in terms of
trade and cooperation in science and technology. During the Chinese Premier Li
Peng's visit to India in December 1991, both countries reaffirmed their faith in

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China expediting the meeting of the Joint Working Group and increased economic
cooperation between the two countries. Proposals like confidence building measures
(CBMS) including reduction in armed forces along the Sino-Indian border have .
been mooted. Thus chances of resolving the border issue have become bright.

7.3.2 Relations with Pakistan

China's relation with Pakistan developed in the post Sino-Indian border dispute.
period when both countries signed the border agreement in 1963. Pakisan's
relations with India were already strained mainly on the question of Kashmir.
Thus this relationship was based on the old adage, an enemy's enemy is friend.
Another objective of China cultivating friendship with Pakistan was to obliterate
I
the influence of Cold War military alliances like SEAT0 and CENT0 of which
Pakistan was a member and to bring Pakistan under Chinese sphere of influence
in order to enhance its image in the Islamic World.
China provided military and economic assistance to Pakistan especially in the
latter's wars against India in 1965 and 1971. When the United States imposed an
embargo on the supplies of American weapons to Pakistan, China came to its
rescue. Pakistan also played a significant role in bringing Sino-American
rapprochement.
Between 1965 and 1992, China has provided massive military and economic
assistance to Pakistan. China has significantly contributed in modernizing Pakistan's
defence by supplying sophisticated weapons. It has also made considerable
contribution to Pakistan's nuclear programme. In late 1980s, when the United
States imposed ban on the further supplies of sophisticated conventional weapons
to Pakistan, it was China which filled in the gap. Despite its eagerness to normalise
relations with India, China has not envisaged any laxity in its special relationship
with Pakistan.

7.3.3 'Relations with Bangladesh and Nepal

During the initial years of the birth of Bangladesh (1971-74), there were no
diplomatic relations between Dhaka and Beijing mainly because of China's refusal
to recognize the newly born Bangladesh. However, following the establishment
of diplomatic relations between China and Bangladesh in 1975, their relations
have shown steady improvement in almost all spheres. China has made available
economic assistance as well as some military aid to Bangladesh. There have been
frequent exchange of visits a t the highest levels between the two countries.
However, Sino-Bangladesh re!ations did not attain the level of warmth as the
Sino-Pakistan one, it is perhaps because of Bangladesh's "uncertainty" and its
policy towards China in the light of its dependence on India. While dealing with
Beijing, Bangladesh has been cautious enough not-to offend India and the Soviet
Union. since China has reiterated on many occasions its desire to foster closer
relations with the countries of South Asian region, Sino-Bangladeshrelations have
also made steady progress.
China's relations with Nepal, got underway with the onset of 1960s. Prior to
Second World War, Nepal's interaction with the outside world was mainly confined
to British-India and Tibet. It was only after the Second World War that Nepal
gradually opened up itself to the outside world. During 1950s, Nepal's relations
were predominantly with India and it maintained a lowkey level relationship with
China. In the early part of 1960s Nepal forged closer relations with China but
India remained a pre-eminent factor in determining Nepal's relations with China.
China made efforts to bring Nepal under it& sphere of influence by providing
economic assistance and supporting Nepal's peace zone proposals. But following
the normalization of Sino-Indian relations, China has reconciled to. India's
pre-eminent position vis-a-vis Nepal. However any disruption in Nepal-India
relations is likely to bring Nepal closer to China.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space given below each question to give your answer
....

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 'ii) Check your answer with the answer given at the end of the unit. Foreign Pollcy

1) Why and when China's relations with India deteriorated?

2) Why has China maintained friendly relations with other neighbouring countries
of South Asia?

7.4 RELATIONS WITH ASEAN COUNTRIES

Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) comprising Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines, Singapore and Thailand, was formed on 8 August, 1967. China's
relations with the ASEAN countries shifted from hostility in 1960s to rapprochement
since the mid-1970s. During the peak years of the Cold War in 1950s and 1960s,
the growing American involvement in South-East Asia, formation of the South-East
~ d Treaty
a Organization (SEATO) and the US military bases in Thailand and
the Philippines provided China the main plank to condemn the South-East Asian
countries. The formation of ASEAN had evoked adverse criticism from China.
Besides, the launching of ASEAN coincided with China's Cultural Revolution
and active American involvement in the Vietnam war. Thailand's geographic
proximity to China and the former's close military relations with the United States
has been a cause of concern for China. Accordingly, China's attitude toward .
Thailand depended on its perception of whether and to what extent its security
was being threatened. Thus, in the broader perspective, China perceived inception
of the ASEAN as an organization "propped by the US imperialism to serve its
war efforts" in Vietnam. Following China's induction into the United Nations in
1971 and Sino-US rapprochement in 1972, China's attitude towards ASEAN also
underwent a change. During 1974-75, Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines had
established diplomatic relations with Beijing. Indonesia and Singapore established
diplomatic ties with China in late 1980s.
, From late 1970s until 1980s7China maintained tacit alliance with ASEAN countries
against Soviet-Vietnam entente and it was perceived as a mixed blessing by
ASEAN member countries. However, the ASEAN countries viewed the
China-Vietnam belligerence with varied Scepticism. For Thailand, Beijing7s
belligerence with Vietnam was useful because of the threat of another Chinese
incursion thus engaging a massive portion of Vietnamese forces far away from
Thailand's borders, on the other hand, Indonesia and Malaysia viewed with
suspicion the Chinese willingness to intervene in Vietnam. This suspicion was
underlined by Beijing's reluctance to renounce its support for communist resurgence
in the region who had traditionally maintained links with China.
Besides, Malaysia and Indonesia also entertained apprehensions that persistent
Thai help to the Khmer Rouge could lead to renewed Vietnamese incursions into
Thailand, which in turn, would result in an ever increasing Chinese influence.
Consequently in March, 1980; Malaysia and Indonesia, at a meeting at Kuantan,

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China devised a way to block such a prospect by asking China to reduce its pressure
on Vietnam in exchange for a lessening of Vietnamese closeness to the Soviet
Union. Until the late 198Os, the Kuantan principle remained the only plausib!e
alternative to a confirmation of the status-quo in the ASEAN-China relations.
However, the United States had not endorsed the Kuantan initiative because of
growing Sino-US entente. Following the disintegration of Soviet Union, preceded
by the withdrawal of Vietnamese forces out of Cambodia and restoration of
democracy in the country, the prospects of further normalisation of relations
between China and ASEAN member countries have brightened.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: i) llse the space given below each question to give your answer.
ii) Check your answer with the answer given at the end of the unit.

1) Why were China's relations strained with the ASEAN in 1960s.?

.........................................................................................................
2) What is Kuantan Initiative?

7.5
-- RELATIONS
- ---
- -WITH SUPER POWERS AND
WEST EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
After having examined China's relations with important neighbours of South Asia
and ASEAN, now let us examine China's relations with super powers and West
European countries.

7.5.1 ' Relations with Soviet Union

Emergence of the People's Republic of China in 1949 coincided with the occurrence
of some significant changes in the international situation. The most significant
was the advent of cold war rivalry between the United States and the Soviet
Union that affected the entire globe. The other important change was the emergence
of independent countries first in Asia and then in Africa. According to Arnold
Toynbee, the factor that governed the international system in the late 1940swas
that the victbrs of the Second World War failed to maintain their war time
cooperation and consequently the world was repartitioned into two hostile camps.
During the formative phase of its foreign policy, China hardly had any diplomatic
option in choosing between the two camps. In view of the United States support -
to Taiwan and pursuit of the policy of global containment of communism, PRC
could not come to terms with Washington. And China now could look upon
Soviet Union for help and assistance. Consequently, China chose to align with
the socialist camp under the Soviet leadership. The basic premise of Chinese
foreign policy in this period has been well expressed in the following statement
of Mao:
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 "lean to one side, and we are firmly convinced that in order to win victory Foreign Pdicy
and consolidate it we must lean to one side.. . all Chinese without exception
must lean either to the side df imperialism. or to the side of socialism. Sitting
on the fence will not do nor is there a third road ... We belong to the side
of the anti-imperialist front headed by the Soviet Union and so we can turn
only to this side for genuine and friendly help, not to the side of the
impedalist front."
Relations between China and Soviet Union became closer and friendly after the
conclusion of Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Material Assistance
on 15 February, 1950. Another agreement for long-term Soviet credits to China
was also concluded. Soviet support against any threat to China especially from
Japan was also affirmed. The control of Chinese Eastern Railway was transferred
to China. Between 1950-59, Soviets helped in modernising the organization, training
1 and equipment of the Chinese armed forces. Apart from providing military
I assistance, Moscow also made available considerable economic and technical
assistance to china.
tI Relations between China and Soviet Union however, started deteriorating from
1959 onwards thereby culminating in almost complete rift in 1962. Ideological
differences between the Wo countries provided the starting point. The Soviet
leadership that succeeded after Stalin's death in 1953 revised Leninist doctrine
concerning war. The essence of the new Soviet view was recognition -that the
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existence of nuclear weapons had lessened the acceptability of risks of general
war. However, the Chinese declined to accept the new Soviet interpretation of
Leninist doctrine and called the Soviet as "revisionist". China, on the other hand,
i
advocated the use of force, including nuclear weapons, in the "wars of national
t liberation"
Apart from the ideological problems, conflicting tePritorial claims, Soviet reluctance
in providing nuclear technical know-how to China and Soviet termination of
agreement in.1959 ,to provide technical assistance to China further widened the
chasm between the two countries. The parting of ways began to seem permanent
to, both China and Soviet Union. Moscow's overtures to Washington in the
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aftermath af Soviet leader Nikita Khruschev's visit to the US in 1959 and armed
skirmishes along the Sino-Soviet border in 1960 further sharpened the rift between
the two 'which was officially formalized in view of the Cuban missile crisis of
October, 1962. From then onward the Chinese stepped up their criticism of Soviet
Union.
After the formalization of Sino-Soviet split, the growing US-Soviet detente was
viewed by China as a means to the encirclement of China and as a struggle for
hegemony. With the escalation of the Vietnam war, the Chinese misapprehensions
about Soviet-American relations further grew. The Soviet endeavours of cultivating
friendly relations with India, Mongolia and other countries of Asia were viewed
in Beijing as the flaqks in. the encirclement of China. During the latter half of
19605, the Chinese viewed Soviet policy toward North Vietnam as "Sham support
and real betrayal". It also accused Moscow of using the so-called "united action".
to control North Vietnamese and of creating differences between the Chinese and
Vietnamese people in order to undermine their military unity.
Following the Sino-US rapprochement in early 1970s; the Chinese attitude toward
Vietnam war also underwent a change and the Soviet Union was no longer
accused of being an accomplice of the United States in .the war. While .China's
criticism of United States became very mild, it accused Soviet Union of "Socialist
hegemony". Therefore Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December, 1979 was
viewed by Beijing as a threat to international peace and security and also
interpreted Soviet military presence in Mongolia as a threat to China.
Perceptible change in Sino-Soviet relations occured during the 1980s especially in
the context of leadership changes in both countries. Low-level normalization of
relationship talks were initiated in October, 1982 and continued at six-manth
intervals thereafter. Both countries signed a number of economic accords during
1984-85. In March, 1985, the Soviet Communist Party General Secretary Mikhail
Gorbhchev called for "a serious improvement in relatdons with China". In 1987,
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both countries held two rounds of ,negotiations on the border issue resulting in
improved relations.

7.5.2 Relations with United States

In view of Mao Zedong's "leaning to one side" policy of aligning with the Socialist
camp led by the Soviet Union and US policy of global containment of communism
under the Truman doctrine, there existed no diplomatic relation between People's
Republic of China and the United States. Another significant irritant between
the two was the US support to Chiang Kai-Shek's Taiwan. When the Communist e
forces led by the Mao scored victory over the Kuomintang forces of Chiang
Kai-Shek in 1949, the latter fled to Taiwan. Hence there emerged two
ChinasMainland China or People's Republic of China (PRC) and Taiwan or
the Republic of China. The Communist leadership in Beijng argued that Taiwan
was not an independent territory but part of Mainland China. Beijing debunked
the theory of two Chinas and regarded itself as the real China. United States
not only recognized Taiwan but maintained political, economic and defence
relations with it. Washington did not recognize the Communist regime in Beijing
and even thwarted the latter's induction into the United Nations by using its veto
power in the UN Security Council. It was argued in Washington that Taiwan was
an essenlial link in the US defence system in the Pacific. In the wake of Sino-US
rapprochement in 1972, and induction of PRC into the United Nations in October,
1971, relations between Beijing and Washington have considerably improved. But
the Taiwan issue is still an irritant for both the countries.
Outbreak of armed hostilities between North Korea and South Korea ip June,
1950 further hardened American attitude towards China. North Korea was being
supported by the Soviet Union and China while USA came to rescue South
Korea. The Korean war which lasted for three years and claimed 50,000 American
lives made United States change its position from passive neutrality in the PRC's
affairs to persuing an active policy of weakening and isolating China.
The Chinese intervention in the Korean war had enhanced its prestige in the
communist world and it also assumed the status of a great power. Though United
States had succeeded in getting China being branded as an "aggressor" in the
United Nations, but China won the admiration and sympathies of many'countries
of Asia. Unted States succeeded in persuading the Philippines, Thailand and
Pakistan to join in an alliance against China as South-East Asia Treaty Organization
or S E A T 0 which was formally launched on 8 September, 1954. Philippines and
Thailand had already provided military bases to the United States and they had
to join the S E A T 0 while Pakistan joined it because of its regional problem with
India not because of threat from China.
During 1960s, China was more preoccupied with the Soviet Union especially in
the aftermath of Sino-Soviet- split, and growing US-Soviet detente was seen as
super power's collusion to encircle China. The later half of 1960switnessed China
embroiled in internal political upheavals unleashed by the Cultural Revolution in
1966 and thus it had placed itself in a self-imposed isolation from any role in
world affairs. Howevet, by late 1960s, Washington had been sending friendly
overtures to China which were looked upon with suspicion initially by the latter.
'fie formalization of Sino-Soviet split made China realize that in historic,
geo-political and other terms, the Soviet threat to China was more imminent than
the United States. Besides, Beijing had started realising that the solution of the
Taiwan problem could be achieved by reaching an understanding with United States.
With the good offices of Pakistan, United States and China started negotiations
for normalization of bilateral relations. The visit of Chinese table tennis players
in April, 1971 to USA, which came to be known as pingpong diplomacy paved
the way for this process. An announcement was made in Washington on 15 July,
197.1 that US President Richard Nixon would visit China in the spring of 1972.
The visit of President Nixon to China in February, 1972 paved the way for
6ino-US normalization and rapprochement. The joint communique issued after
Nixon's China visit, also known as the Shanghai communique, affirmed US interest
irh a peaceful settlement of Taiwan question "by the Chinese themselves" and
progressive withdrawal of US forces from here. It was a big diplomatic gain for China.
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On 1 January, 1979 the Sino-US relations were formally normalized when the Foreign Policy
two countries exchanged ambassadors. And there has been no looking back since
then.
China's relations with United States have passed through two distinct phases ever
since the normalization: the anti-Soviet United Front (1972-81) and the independent
foreign policy (1982-89). During early 1970s', China still mentioned "US hegemonism"
in their foreign policy pronouncements. But after the death of Mao Zedong and
Zhou Enlai in 1976, attacks on American foreign policy started disappearing as
China sought to ally with any anti-Soviet go.vernment and movement world-wide.
In the post-Mao period and with the elimination of the "Gang of Four", the
Chinese Communist Party adopted the programme of "Four Modernizations" in
1978. These "Four Modernizations" level of foreign policy implied:
a) Rapid economic construction and modernization of China;
b) A peaceful external environment for pursuing the tasks of development and
modernization;
c) Reducing security problems-first with the Western. countries then with' the
neighbourhood and finally with the Soviet Union and .socialist bloc; and
d) Achieving the unification with Taiwan, Hongkong and Macao and firmly
establish one China with Beijing as its capital.
Attainment of these objectives as goals warranted China's close relationship with
the capitalist world headed by the United States. Thus China's drive for
modernizatioon, its disenchantment with Moscow and open conflict with Vietnam,
provided greater impetus to forge "the United Front" with the United States and
its allies. China has facilitated direct dialogue between the United States and
North Korea. At the United Nations, it cooperated with the US on issues ranging
from Namibia to the two Gulf Wars-first between Iran and Iraq, and then
between Iraq and the Allied forces led by United States. In return the United
States has backed China's recently adopted developmental goals, kept up the
flows of capital and technology to China and helped to overcome problems over
trade AandTaiwan.
Defence cooperation between China and United States started developing after
the 1980 visit to Beijing by US Defence Secretary, Harold Brown. This cooperation
gradually developed in three directions: exchange of high level visits, military to
military functional exchanges and technology transfers. Between 1985 to April,
1989, the US military sales to China, limited to defensive weapons, added upto
about $ 800 million in long term prosramme.
There has been manifold inaezae in ,lerall bilateral trade between China and
United States. APthe time of rapprochement the trade in twoqay turnover stood
at $96 million in 1972 and by 1979 it reached $2.3 billion. By 1989 Sino-American
trade had reached to.$17.8 billion thus registering 700 per cent increase during
the past two decades. China has emerged as the tenth largest US trading partner
and the United States, in turn, had become China's second largest trading partner
and foreign investor after Hongkong. In 1988, American investment in China
grew from 400 to 630 projects with a commitment of $3500 minion. China also
enjoys the Most Favoured Nation (MFN)status with the United States.
A brief disruption in otherwise smooth Sino-US close relations was envisaged in
the aftermath of June, 1989 developments-when 'Chinese authorities quelled a
student's demonstration in Beijing's Tiananmen Square with a strong hand and
adopted repressive measures.
United States along with other member countries of the Group of Seven (or
G-7)--comprising the United States, France, West Germany, Britain, Japan,
Canada and Italy--condemned the repression in China and suspended bilateral
aid, trade and defence cooperation with Beijing. However, in the wake of
conciliatory moves pursued by China in its domestic affairs led the United States
to remove some of the sanctions by November, 1990. Human rights situation in Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
China is a significant factor in shaping the Sino-American relations.
China 7.5.3 Relations with Western European Countries
In recent years there has been an appreciable upsurge in China's relations with
the nations of Western Europe, both on a bilateral basis and within the broader
framework of the European Community (EC). During the cold war years, there
were almost negligible political interaction between China and Western Europe
as the relations were often characterised by mutual suspicion. This situation
continued until the early 1970s. Placement of Western Europe in Chinese foreign
policy was subjected to variations in China's theoretical orientation of its external
relations from time to time. In 1950s when China adhered to "two camp concept,"
Western Europe was considered to be .a subordinate part of the US-dominated
'!imperialist camp". Thus China denied itself the pursuit of an independent foreign
policy toward Western Europe.

Sino-Soviet rift coming to open in early 1960s made the Chinese to put forward
a new "three zone" interpretation of the international system in 1964 in which
Western Europe was depicted as part of a "second intermediate zone", comprising
of smaller developed capitalist countries. In 1974 when China modified this theory
and advanced the thesis that the international system now ,consisted of "Three
Worlds", Western Eyrope along with Japan was placed in the Second World,
allegedly seeking an' independent role in world affairs.
Following the Sino-American normalization in 1972, China started establishing
contacts with the West European countries. Chinese embassies throughout Europe
were expanded and upgraded in the course of 1970s and in 1975, Chinese
ambassador to Belgium was accredited concurrently to represent China's interests
at the E C in Brussels.
Countries of Western Europe are a potential source of defence supplies necessary
for China in modernising its armed forces. China remains militarily weaker than
either the United States or the present day Russian Federation. Imbued with this
primary concern, political and military leadership in,China has pursued a
two-pronged approach simultaneously; a skillfull manipulation of the shifting the
balance of power and steady build up of the weapons industry and the military forces.
The major EC coutries with their advanced weapons industry suits China very
well to meet latter's defence requirements. Though there exists defence cooperation
between China and United States but expanded areas of cooperation between
China and EC in the realm of defence supplies would reduce the former's
overdependence on the United States.
During late 1970s, EC countries could provide both the technological know-how
and the weapons system in accordance with Beijing's defence requirements.
However, the question of arms sales to China falls under the purview of COCOM,
a coordinating committee within NATO entrusted with the task of monitoring
sales of militajr-related equipment and expertise to communist countries. During
this period, United States, a influential member of the NATO was reluctant to
approve arms sales to Beijing. E C members, also being the members of the
NATO were reluctant to defy Washington.
The change in US attitude in view of normalization of Sino-US relations and
rapid deterioration of US-Soviet relations in the aftermath of Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan paved the way for the sale of defence related technologies and product
to China by the West European countries along with the United States, UK,
France and West Germay (East and West Germanys United in 1990), have been
the main exporters of arms to China.

Check Your Progress 4

Note: i) Use the space given below each question to give your answer.
ii) Check your answer with the answer given at the end of the unit.
1) Explain the main reasons of Sino-Soviet rift.
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 Foreign Policy

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2) Why did .United States oppose China's admission to the UN?

7.6 ROLE IN THE UNITED NATIONS

By the time the Communist Party's rule was established in Beijing in October,
1949, the United Nations had become four years old. The Chinese leader Mao
Zedong had in a statement in August, 1949, welcomed "the -United Nations
conference on international organisation" held in San Francisco in 1945. The
United States vehemently opposed China's membership of the UN in pursuance
of its "Two Chinas" policy under which it supported Taiwan and opposed Beijing
because of its support to the Kuomintang to China's liberation. It was only in
October, 1971 that China was admitted as a member of the United Nations.
China's perceptions of the role of United Nations in the settlement of international
disputes and UN operations have been subjected to change from
time to time. From late 1940s to early 1950s, the Chinese appreciated the UN
role in the settlement of international disputes. From late 1950s till early 1980s
China was critical of the UN role. However, by late 1985, a new Chinese attitude
emerged that not only encouraged the UN to play an active role in settling the
international conflicts but also stipulated that China could and should contribute
its due share in these efforts.
During late 1940s and early 1950s, China's positive attitude towards the UN
despite the latter's interventian in the Korean War, was governed by Beijing's
hopes that its ally the Soviet Union wo-~ld disallow the domination of the world
body by the Western powers led by the United States. However, deterioration
in Sino-Soviet relations in late 1950s proved irvstrumental in altering the Chinese
perception of the UN which became more crictical. -China perceived the United
Nations in general and the Security Council in particular as tools used of
"imperialism" andlor social imperialists to promote their interests and to enjoy
strategic, political, economic and even territorial advantages at the expense of
Third World Countries and national liberation movements.
During the decade .of 1960s, China's attitude towards the UN was governed by
its conception of the international system and its relations with the two super
powers. It regarded the world body as a tool of American imperialism and Soviet
revisionism to press ahead with neo-colonialism and big power politics. After
China's induction into the UN in October, 1971 and its ,becoming a permanent
- member of the Security Council, China's attitude towards the UN partly changed.
During the first decade of its membership of the UN (1971-81), China acted and
reacted as an outside observer rather than a fullfledged responsible member and
allowed itself to criticise the world body in severe terms.
It was only after the demise of Mao Zedong, the downfall of the 'Gang of Four'
and the emergence of a more pragmatic and open-minded leadership of Deng
Xiaoping that China began to reconsider its role vk-a-vkthe UN. In the 1980s,
China adopted an "independent foreign policy" which laid emphasis on staying
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China away from too close to the United States, seeking reconciliation *ritL MosU'w'
and establishing close relations with the countries of the Third World. ~ m p M r " ~ ~ ~
of 3uch a policy entailed diversification in foreign relations and greater in-mu
in the world in order to promote China's interest. It also called for (ati
Chin~i'silctivc r ~ ) l cin the United Nations.
Since 19x5. the Chinese attitude towards the UN has become more cooperative-
The Chinese have lavishly praised the UN. While speaking at the 40th anniversary
celebrations of the founding of the UN, Chinese Premier Zhao Ziyang said "In
world history it is rare for an international political organisation to have such
enduring vitality like that of the'UN whose universality and importance grow
with the passage of time". And since then China has played a more constructive
and active role in the United Nations.

Check Your 'Progress 5

Note: i) Use the space given below each question to give your answer.
ii) Check your answer with the answer given at the end of the unit.

1) When did China begin to actively participate' in the UN and why?

7.7 LET US SUM UP -

In this Unit we have seen that the foreign policy of China, since the inception
of the communist regime in October, 1949 has been a mix of its response to
global and regional developments and China's national interests. During 1950s
when the cold war rivalry between the two super powers-United States and
Soviet Union-was at its peak, and China's relations with Soviet Union were
cordial given the ideological differences as well as US adherence to two China
thesis. China was hostile to the US. China regarded the United Nations as a tool
of American imperialism and the countries in its nei~hbourhoodof south and
south-east Asia having close relations with Washington were viewed with suspicion.
During 1960s Chinese foreign policy underwent traumatic changes in the aftermath
of ~ino-Sovietrift in 1959-60 and then it also perceived a threat from 'social
imperialism'. In south Asia, China's relations with India strained in the aftermath
of Sino-Indian hostilities of October, 1962 while it improved relations with Pakistan
and Nepal. During the latter phase of 1960s, China was embroiled in the Cultural
Revolution which isolated China from the outside world.
During. the decade of 1970s, China's relations with the United States improved
and in October, 1971 China joined the UN. However, Sino-Soviet relations
remained strained. The demise of Chairman Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai and
liquidation of the Gang of Four were followed by the emergence of the leadership
of Deng Xiaoping. In late 1970s, China adopted an ambs-Gous programmes of
Four Modernizations and improved its relations with induarialized countries of
the West and Japan in order to attract financial and technical assistance. It also
improved its relations with the ASEAN countries.
By the 1980s, China, while maintaining cordial relations with the United States,
West Europe and Japan, pursued an "independent foreign policy" which aimed
at coming not too close to the United States and improving relations with the
Third World. From mid-1980s onward, China has also started actively participating
in the activities of the United Nations keeping in view with its foreign policy
objectives. Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
 Foreign Policy
7.8 KEY WORDS
Cold War: Struggle between the super powers United States and Soviet Union,
to bring countries of the Third World into their respective sphere of influence.
Cultural Revolution: It is a Marxist connotation which prescribes innovative popular
struggle against revisionism and betrayal of the revolutionary cause in the social
and cultural realms. Mao Zedong crudely and irrationally interprated anu introduced
the concept in China in mid 1960s:
Rapprachement: A reconciliation of interests of rival states after a period of
hostility; renewal of friendship among states.
Entente: Ending the state of hostilities and coming to an understanding.

7.9 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Choudhury, G. W., 1982. China in World Affairs, Foreign Policy of the PRC
Since 1970: Westview Press: Boulder, Colorado.
Harding, Harry, ed. 1984, China's Foreign Relations in the 1980. Yale University
Press, New York.
Hsueh, James C and Kim, Samuel S. ed. 1980, China in the Global Community.
Praeger, New York. b
HsUeh, Chun-Tu, ed. 1982, China's Foreign Relations: New Perspectives, Praeger,
New York.
Yahuda, Michael, 1983, Towarak the End of Isolation: China's Foreign Policy
after Mao, Macmillan: London.

7.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK OUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES I

Check Your Progress 1

I) There have been four stages of shift of emphasis in the foreign policy of
China. During the first stage of 1950s, Chinese foreign policy operated within
the socialist camp led by Soviet Union. Second stage commencing in 1960s,
saw Ceina renounce bloc politics and embroiled in domestic politics. The
third stage in 1970s brought China out of isolation and come closer to the
West. During the fourth stage launched in 1980s. China asserted its independent
role and added emphasis on four modernization,

Check your Progress 2

1) China's relations with India deteriorated mainly on Tibetan question and
Indo-China border issues.
2) In view of hostilities pervading Sino-Indian relations after October, 1962.
China improved its relations with Pakistan and Nepal, other South Asian
countries to earn goodwill and gain diplomatic leverage against India.

Chyk Your Progress 3

1) Because of the pre-eminence of US influence in South-east Asia and some
of ASEAN member countries having been allied to the' US led to the
estrangement of relations between China and the ASEAN.
2) Kuantan initiative was undertaken by Malaysia and Indonesia during a meeting
held at Kuantan in May, 1980 which interalia called upon China to reduce
its pressure on Vietnam in exchange for reduction of Vietnam's dependence
on the Soviet Union.
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Phina Check Your Rogress 4
1) i) Ideological differences;
ii) Border dispute between the two countries.
2) United States opposed China's admission into the United Nations because of
its "Two China" policy and support for Taiwan.

Check Your Ptogress 5

1) From 1985 onward China started actively participating into operations of the
UN in pursuance of its independent foreign policy and to forge close relations
with maximum number of countries.

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