SMALL SURFACE COAL MINE

OPERATORS HANDBOOK

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

OFFICE OF SURFACE MINING
DISCLAIMER NOTICE

T h i s handbook was prepared d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d when many OSM r e g u l a t i o n s

were b e i n g developed. As a r e s u l t numerous changes have been made t o t h e
r e g u l a t i o n s which may n o t be r e f l e c t e d i n t h e t e x t o f t h e handbook.

We a n t i c i p a t e p o s s i b l y r e v i s i n g t h i s handbook t o i n c l u d e r e g u l a t i o n
changes. In a d d i t i o n , we would l i k e users o f t h e handbook t o
i d e n t i f y problems o r suggest changes t h e y see which would make improvement.
We would a p p r e c i a t e r e c e i v i n g comments from handbook users r e g a r d i n g :
usefulness, s u b s t a n t i v e d e t a i l o f t h e m a t e r i a l , and t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n
format. Comments should be s e n t t o : C h i e f , Small Operator Assistance Program,
Office o f Surface Mining, 1100 " L " S t r e e t , Washington, D.C. 20240.

The views and conclusions c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s document a r e t h o s e o f t h e

a u t h o r s and should n o t be i n t e r p r e t e d as n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e
o f f i c i a l p o l i c i e s o r recommendations o f t h e I n t e r i o r Department's
O f f i c e o f Surface M i n i n g o r t h e U.S. Government.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report was prepared under a grant from the Office of Surface Miningof
the United States Department of the Interior (Grant No. 14-34-0001-8900).

Dr. Robert D. Varrin, Director of the University of Delaware Water Resources

Center, acted as a principal investigator in addition to the authors. Staff
members who assisted in the preparation of this report were:
Charles J. Goedken.. . . . . . . . . Research Associate
Susan K. Gilliland ........... Research Assistant
Dr. Sydney Steele . . . . . . . . . . .Editorial Counselor
Suzanne J. Parker . . . . . . . . . . Typist and Paste-up

This handbook was reviewed by Dr. Lee W. Saperstein, Section Chairman,

Mining Engineering, the Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.
 A
HANDBOOK
FOR
SMALL SURFACE COAL MINE
OPERATORS

by
J. Toby Tourbier
Richard Westmacott

WATER RESOURCES CENTER

UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE
1980
This page intentionally left blank.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1
Purpose of this Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Use of this Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Opportunity for Small Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
CHAPTER 2
Problems of Surface Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Problems .Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Acid Mine Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Some Climatic Factors Affecting Surface Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
CHAPTER 3
Surface Mining Methods and Equipment for Small
Mine Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1
Selection of Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1
CHAPTER 4 .Mining Operations
Area Mining (Single Seam) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Contour Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Mountaintop Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
CHAPTER 5
Pre-Mining Surveys. Exploration and Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Performance Standards for Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
APPENDIX
I. Summary of Main Requirements of Performance
Standards Concerning the Control of Erosion
and Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
.
II. Summary of Main Requirements of Performance
Standards Concerning the Minimization of
Changes in Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
CHAPTER 6 .Mobilization and Mining Operations
6:l General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 .
6:2 Haul Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 .
6:3 Sedimentation Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 .
6:4 Stream Diversions .Overland Flow and
Ephemeral Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6:5 Stream Diversions .Perennial and
Intermittent Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
6:6 Clearance of Vegetation and Removal of
Topsoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6:7 Temporary Spoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
6:8 Disposal of Excess Spoil .Head of Hollow
and Valley Fills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
6:9 Handling Pit Water. Acid Mine Drainage ..................... 70
6:10 Acid Forming Material. Rough Backfilling
and Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
CHAPTER 7 .Reclamation and Revegetation
7:l General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7:2 Terraces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7:3 Final Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7:4 Grass Waterways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
7:5 Replacement of Topsoil and Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7:6 Soil Amendments .Lime and Fertilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7:7 Soil Amendments .Sewage Effluent and Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7:8 Soil Amendments .Fly Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
7:9 Mulches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
7:10 Chemical Stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
7:11 Cover Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
7:12 Permanent Revegetation .General .........................112
7:13 Permanent Revegetation .Trees and Shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
7:14 Permanent Revegetation .Herbaceous Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
CHAPTER 8 .Post-Mining Land Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
CHAPTER I

PURPOSE OF THIS HANDBOOK

The purpose of this handbook is to interpret the Regulations of the
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (Public Law 95-87)
(hereafter referred to as the Act) as they affect the operators of small
surface coal mines (a small mine operator is defined in the Act as one with
an annual coal production of less than 100,000 tons). Further, the purpose
of this handbook is to make it easier for the small operator to compare his
operation with the act in order to determine compliance with the regula-
tions. Part 795 of the Regulations deals specifically with the Small Operator
Assistance Program. This program relieves the operator of the cost of
carrying out certain hydrologic and geologic analyses required by the
Regulations.
The emphasis of this handbook is on the protection of water resources
during mining and reclamation operations. As almost all the operations in
surface mining directly or indirectly affect water we have included some
operations which may only marginally affect water quality or hydrology.
Anthracite mining, lignite mining, coal processing, refuse disposal, and
slurry disposal are not covered in this handbook. Design guidelines for
slurry impoundments and coal refuse piles may be found in "Design
Guidelines for Coal Refuse Piles and Water, Sediment, or Slurry
Impoundments and Impounding Structures," MESA Technical Support
Center, Pittsburgh, PA, April 1976.
The area covered by this handbook includes only that east of the 100th
meridian west longitude.

USE OF HANDBOOK
The best way to use this handbook is to look directly at the drawings in
Chapter 4 which describe various surface mining methods and the
.operations which are involved in each. The first drawing for each method
shows an unregulated mine, and the key below identifies problems which
arise during and after mining and the Sections of the Regulations which are
intended to solve these problems. The next drawing foreach method shows
phases of a mine which meet the requirements of the new Regulations. The
key below identifies each operation, the Section of the Regulations relevant
to that operation and the title and number of "Data Sheets." These data
sheets make up Chapters 6 and 7 of the Handbook and contain guidelines
for measures necessary to meet the Performance Standards of the
Regulations.
Chapter 5 is very important. It contains information on premining surveys
and planning. Careful pre-planning of mine operations is critical if the
requirements of the Regulations are to be met, (particularly the need for
contemporaneous reclamation) at a reasonable cost. Failure to preplan will
inevitably result in non-compliance notices, double handling of overburden
and other time and money wasting problems.
Many of the measures which are described on the data sheets are
required as part of the Performance Standards contained in the
Regulations, most of which are included in Part 816, Chapter VII,
Subchapter K, though Performance Standards for specific categories of
mining mountain top removal, steep slopes, prime farmlands and auger
mining, are found in Parts 824,826,823 and 819 respectively.
The effectiveness of some of the measures in this handbook have not
actually been established. The lack of experiments which have monitored
the impact of various mining methods and protection measures isaserious
problem. EPA is at present sponsoring a study in Kentucky to monitor the
effectiveness of the Modified Block Cut Method of surface mining in
controlling sediment. The assumed advantages of the Modified Block Cut
Method (no spoil on the down slope, complete elimination of the highwall,
60% less acres disturbed, minimization of double handling, etc.) and the
disadvantages (scheduling complications, higher capital requirement for
equipment, etc.) will bequantified. Thestudy will also monitorwater quality
and quantity to satisfy a need to quantify the effectiveness of the method
itself in reducing sedimentation (DNR, Kentucky 1977).
Costs of measures in this handbook have not been included. The
Regulations require that the reclamation plan (requirement for Permit
Application) include a cost estimate [780.18(b)(2)]. Costs, however, are
mostly so site-specific that general cost guidelines are of doubtful value.
Only where realistic costs can be given have they been included.
The operator will find little information on costs in published sources as
most refer to operations which do not conform to the new performance
standards. It was also noted by Davis in 1977 that often, costs vary widely
due to differences in the procedure used to estimate costs. He suggested
that reclamation costs were approximately 10% of gross revenue, 5 8 % of
the $11-$22 a ton cost of production or 30% of the cost of coal production
(4). Some 1974 costs are also given by Doyle (et al.) in a report in which he
analyzes pollution control costs (6).
The small operator should understand his true unit costs and break-even
stripping ratios i n ordertostay solvent, particularly in a time of rapidly shift-
ing costs and sales prices for coal. The authors of this handbook realize that
the small mine operator has to work within a tight profit margin in a high
risk, high front-end capital undertaking. This handbook advocates self
reliance in premining planning for cost-effective reclamation meeting the
requirements of the Act.

THE OPPORTUNITY FOR SMALL OPERATOR

The surface mine operator, in extracting small, or isolated deposits of
coal, thin or faulted seams, is playing an important role in the national
energy policy of maximizing the use and conservationof the coal resource
which is one of the stated objectives of the Performance Standards (Sub-
chapter K). Probably morethan 30 million acres (12 million ha) of land in the
Eastern coal province alone cover strippable coal reserves (seeTable 1).As
large operators expand and concentrate on more extensive blocks of coal
for largely automated machinery, the role of small operations in exploiting
isolated and difficult coal deposits will expand. The public's acceptanceof,
and confidence in, the coal mining industry generally depends on the
performance of all operators in solving some of the problems which are
described in Chapter 2.
Both large and small surface mine operators can help local communities
achieve some of their goals by creating post-mining landforms which are
consistent with the needs of the community. Cases of airstrips, lakes,
waterstorage impoundments, industrial sites, recreational centers,
residential and commercial sites have been recorded. Variance from the
"approximate original contour" requirement [816.101(b)(l)] can be
obtained for approved post-mining land uses [824.11]. "Restored lands can
be more fertile than before, aquifers constructed that can be relied upon to
meet the growing demand for water within mining regions, mines can be
used to dispose of solid waste and to treat sewage effluent and sludge
produced by our growing population, to reduce flood flows, increase base
flow, or to provide new recreational opportunities." (9) The actual
improvement of the capability of land as a result of surface mining may not
be feasible in all cases, particularly in thedifficult terrain of Appalachia, but
it is frequently a possibility. It should be noted that not only land-use but
also the hydrologic environment can be improved as a result of surface
mining.
New mining methods make feasible a more comprehensive approach to
surface mining. For instance, the isolated "apple cores" or "biscuits" of
unmined mountain tops in hilly terrain can be eliminated by Mountaintop-
Removal. Many of these new methods rely on large-scale operations and
are therefore beyond the scope of smaller mine operations. Some new
methods are applicable to small operations. A more comprehensive
approach and more attention to the post-mining use of land is what is
needed and this means more emphasis on preplanning. Comprehensive
planning also makes possible the more extensive reclamation of orphaned
land (unreclaimed land previously affected by surface mining). This not
only can result in an improvement in the land use of the area but also
significantly improved water quality, mainly through a reduction in acid
mine drainage and sedimentation. In the early 1970's land in Appalachia
was being disturbed by strip mining at the rate of about 31,000 acres per
year (12 ha/year); at that date 1 million acres (404,700 ha) had already been
 affected by strip mining and very little had been done to reclaim it (5).
Between 1930 and 1971 3.6 million acres (1.46 million ha) of land in the US
were used for surface mining of which barely 40 percent were reclaimed (2).
It is possible through the preplanning of mining operations not only to
reclaim abandoned surface mine workings, but also in some cases to
"daylight" old underground workings to reduce acid mine drainage. I n
1 some cases it has been possible to dispose of coal refuse heaps in surface
mine workings. SMO's should explore the SOAP provisions which present
incentives to operators for the reclamation of orphaned lands as part of
their surface mine operations. (Grants available under Parts 872 and 886of
Subchapter R.)
The Regulations contain a procedure for identifying lands which are
unsuitable for surface mining because mining operations would be
irncompatible with existing land-use plans, significantly damage natural
systems, result in a substantial loss in the productivity of water supply, or
endanger life or property due to flooding [762.1I ] . This handbook applies
to those lands which can be mined and shows how to prevent problems
from occurring. An understanding of water movement overthesurfaceand
through the topsoil and spoil is important in designing measures to
establish vegetation, to control erosion, to stabilize spoil and to control
water pollution on drastically disturbed lands (1).
Table 2 presents the characteristics of small mine operations. The SMO
will be well aware of these. The implications of these characteristics and
any pertinent provisions of the Small Operators Assistance Program
(SOAP) are included in the Table.
TABLE 1

STRlPPABLE RESERVES OF COAL IN THE US EAST OF THE 1OOTH MERIDAN W LONGITUDE

STRIPPABLE RESERVES/MILLIONS OF SHORT TONS

Strippable Slrippable Low Medium High
Coal Province Resource Reserves* Sulphur Sulphur Sulphur

Eastern-Province Appalachian Region 26,533 5,171 1,862 1,433 1,876

Interior & Gulf Provinces 32,785 7,296 13 535 6,748

'Reserves - coal available to be stripped with existing technology.

Source: Bureau of Mines, "Strippable Reserves of Bituminous Coal and Lignite in the US," US Dept. of the Interior, Information
Circular 8531. 1968.

TABLE 2

SMALL MINE OPERATIONS

Characteristics of
Small Operations implications Provisions of SOAP

1. Small o p e r a t i o n s are capable of e x - More complete utilization of the resource. None

plo~tingsmall or Isolated deposits and coal rights.
2. Lack of specialist exploration team and Tendency to minimize exploration SOAP will pay to have exploratory test
specialized exploration equipment. borings analyzed by a qualified laboratory
and consultant.
3. Lack of specialist to carry out pre-mining Tendency t o m i n i m i z e p r e - p l a n n i n g SOAP will pay for the determination of
surveys, data c o l l e c t i o n , application and application preparation. the probable hydrologic results of the
processing, etc. p r o p o s e d m i n i n g and r e c l a m a t i o n
operation and for a statement of results
of analyses of test borings and core
sampling.
4. L a c k o f c a p i t a l r e s t r i c t s purchase This may make some mining methods None.
of equipment with large capacity. unfeasible (especially those requiring the
shifting of large amounts of overburden),
e.g. mountain top removal.
5. The expense and lack of f l e x i b i l i t y Tendency of small operators to None
of large prime earthmoving equipment. rely on smaller, more flexible machinery.
6. Small operations rarely have coal prep- More coal trucks on the public roads. None.
aration plants and coal is either sold directly
to the consumer or preparation is carried out
by contract.
7. Most small operations d o n o t employ Small operations may experience serious None.
full-time maintenance crews. delays due to down time of equipment
making scheduling difficult.
8. Small operations often sell coal on the spot Small operations are therefore susceptible None.
market and do not have the capability to to market fluctuations which may make it
blend coal. difficult to stick to the program outlined
in the operation plans (Part 780).

REFERENCES:
(1) Gardner, H.R., Woolhiser, D.A., 1978, "Hydrologic and Climatic Factors," Proc. Reclamation of Drastically Disturbed Lands Symp.,
Schaller. F.W. and Sutton, P., (eds.), ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI.
(2) Randall, A., Johnson, S., Pagoulatos, A., 1978, "Environmental and Aesthetic Considerations in Surface Mining Policy," Proc.
Reclamation of Drastically Disturbed Lands Symp., Schaller, F.W. and Sutton, P., (eds.) ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI.
(3) Ramani, R.V.. Grim, E.C., 1978, "Surface Mining - A Review of Practices and Progress in Land Disturbance Control," Proc.
Reclamation of Drastically Disturbed Lands Symp., Schaller, F.W. and Sutton, P., (eds.). ASA, CSSA, SSA, Madison, WI.
(4) Davis, H., July 1977, "How Mining Companies Use Reclamation Experts," Coal Age, pp. 43-44.
(5) Curtis, W.R.. 1971. "Strip Mining, Erosion and Sedimentation," Transactions of the ASAE, Annual Meeting,
Minneapolis, MN.
(6) Doyle, F.J., Bhatt, H.G., Rapp, J.R., 1974, "Analysis of Pollution Control Costs," EPA 67012-74-009.
(7) Kentucky DNR, July 1977, "Onsite Control of Sedimentation Utilizing the Modified Block-Cut Method of Surface
Mining," EPA 60017-77-068.
(8) US Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration, April 1976, "Design Guidelines for Coal Refuse Piles and Water. Sediment,
or Slurry Impoundments and Impounding Structures," MESA'S Tech. Support Center, Pittsburgh, PA.
(9) Ramini, R.V. and Clar, M.L.. 1978, "Users' Manual for Premining Planning of Eastern Surface Coal Mining - Executive Summary,"
Intragency EnergylEnvironmental Research and Development Program Report, EPA 600/7-78-180.
CHAPTER 2.

PROBLEMS O F SURFACE MINING

Table 6 gives a list of the main environmental problems in surface mining.
The operator can use this Tableto anticipate the problems which may result
from the proposed mine operation, and to learn how these problems can be
solved, largely by careful planning of the operations in advance. In the
Appendix, which follows Chapter 5, there are three Tables which describe
the Remedial Measures in more detail and the relevant Sections of the
Regulations.
The amount of water which either runs off or infiltrates during a rain
storm depends on several factors, including the slope, the cover or
vegetation, the soil and the degree of compaction. Removal of vegetation
and compaction by equipment will increase the proportion of runoff, as will
haul roads which are heavily compacted and sometimes paved. However,
the actual process of mining may result in cast spoil, full of voids and with
much greater permeability than previously and also capable of holding
much greater volumes of water if it is confined by impermeable strata. This
is the case for cast spoil but overburden moved by either scraper or truck
will tend to be consolidated and may have a runoff coefficient as great or
greater than the undisturbed site. The ratioof runoff to infiltration in natural
conditions may be 1:3 in the Eastern and Interior provinces on gently
sloping sites. The desirability of increasing the infiltration depends on the
existing groundwater and the hydrologic balance, and also whether or not
an increase of infiltration will cause instability of the spoil mass.
Increasing the groundwater storage capacity can be very valuable in
Appalachia where most of the surface mining activity is in areas where the
groundwater component is small. Curtis suggests that cast spoil may store
50" (127 cm) of water as compared to the unmined soil horizon that could
have a total retention of 19.7" (50 cm) only (9). In fact, the increase in
capacity is likely to be greater but will clearly depend on the method of
working and also the typeof spoil. Curtis suggests that "rechargezones can
be created by selecting those portions of the overburden that have the best
infiltration rates and placing them so that surfacewater can bediverted into
them" (9).
Increased infiltration usually means a greater baseflow to streams when
the water reappears in springs or seeps. This may be very desirable,
increasing stream flow during dry weather and prolonging flow in streams
which normally flow only intermittently. Studies in some small watersheds
in the New River basin of the Cumberland Mountains in Tennessee
indicated a probable increase in dry weather stream flow due to surface
mining. This was implied through continued stream flow in small disturbed
watersheds while all three streams draining undisturbed watersheds were
dry during the summer (5).
The ratio, runoff:infiltration, will also be an important factor in flooding.
Old pits on unreclaimed mine sites impound water. This detention and the
increase in storage capacity of the overburden tend to reduce flood peaks.
This theory is supported by studies in Breathitt County, Kentucky, and
Raleigh County, West Virginia, where "stream flow from surface mine
watersheds peaked (16%) lower than from adjacent or nearby unmined
watersheds." The study showed that more than 1" of rain went into
retention storage in the two mined watersheds while very little went into
storage in the unmined watersheds (7). Studies at the Northeast Forest
Experimental Station at Berea, Kentucky showed that surface mining
resulted in increases in peakflows4-5times higher during and immediately
after mining, but that peak flows were significantly lower after reclamation
was complete (9). This appears t o conflict with the previous hypothesis but
was found to be due to the intentional dewatering of pits during heavy rain.
Grading during reclamation will have a major effect on the ratio
runoff:infiltration. Small surface impoundments due to rough grades will be
eliminated during thesmoothing operation associated with grading. Slopes
will tend to be longer and continuous, giving runoff a chance to buildup on
these slopes. Larger impoundments and pits will also be eliminated and
during the process the spoil may become heavily compacted by the
passage of scrapers and other earth-moving equipment. The increase in
runoff due to reclamation activities may be reduced by various surface
modifications, such as terracing and also by various surface treatments,
such as ripping and gouging. (Scarification of regraded spoil is required in
the performance standards [816.24(a)] but terraces are only permitted with
the approval of the RA [816.102(b)].) It was found, for instance, by Curtis
that total surface runoff averaged 42% less on terraced plots of mining spoil
shale than on unterraced plots (9).
The amount of runoff and the velocity of runoff will also bea majorfactor
in the amount of erosion and hence the amount of sedimentation. This
brings us directly to water quality.

PROBLEMS - WATER QUALITY

The impact of surface mining on water quality is fairly well documented,
but the emphasis in the past has been on the impact of abandoned surface
mines on water quality. The emphasis has also tended to beon water quality
of surface water rather than on the quality of groundwater.
Experiments in small watersheds in Tennessee have shown that surface
mining has a very serious impact on stream health. Streams draining
affected areas were found to be virtually sterile relative to fish. Diatoms in
water samples were extremely deficient due to heavy sediment loads, and
the insect population showed a reduction in both population size and
number of species. Populations crashed after mining and then returned
slowly to the original size over a period of more than 20 years (thisexample
pertains to abandoned surface mines). Although the number of insects
recovered, the composition remained changed (10). A study in the Beaver
Creek basin (KY) indicated that strip mining caused changes in the
chemical quality of both surfacewaters and groundwaters in the area. Water
draining from surface mines often has a low pH, a solids content in excess
of 400 ppm and large amounts of aluminum, iron, manganese, magnesium
and sulphate (11). (The performancestandardsset maximum limits on iron,
manganese and suspended solids in discharge waters and a pH range
[816.42(a)(7)].) Work is in progress to assess the mobilization of heavy
metals and other contaminants from strip mine spoils as part of the
Appalachian Resources Project. The purpose of this is, in part, to enable
measures to be devised which are more specificand cost-effective (12). In a
study in the New River basin in the Cumberland Mountains in Tennessee,
streams unaffected by surface mining were found to be notably similar in
nearly all respects and uniform in water quality characteristics. On the
other hand, streams and basins affected by surface mining exhibited
distinct differences one from another and periodic large variations in
concentrations of constituents in the water. The concentration of
suspended solids rapidly increased following disturbance in the watershed
but in some streams the high levels (frequently in excess of 100 mg/l)
continued for prolonged periods. Disturbance also produced high levels of
calcium, magnesium, sulphate and manganese. The requirement for
contemporaneous reclamation [816.100] will undoubtedly reduce the
problem of continued pollution of both surfacewater and groundwater
following surface mining (5).
The major problems associated with water quality and surface mining are
acid mine drainage (AMD) and sedimentation.

ACID MINE DRAINAGE

Sheet 6:9 deals in detail with the problem of acid mine drainage (AMD).
This problem is caused by the oxidation of pyritic materials followed by
leaching causing sulphuric acid to pass into solution. It is estimated that in
Appalachia about 25% of the total acid drainage is caused by strip-mining
activities. The problem of acid drainage is considerably worse in the
northern one-third section of the Appalachian coal field than in the
southern two-thirds. It is reported that Pennsylvania and West Virginia
contain over two-thirds of the stream mileage which is adversely affected
by coal mine acid drainage in Appalachia. This is probably due to a larger
amount of sulphuritic material exposed per ton of coal mined in the north
than in the south (18). If oxidation can be prevented by burying pyritic
materials at levels above the water table, AMD will be minimal. "It is unlikely
that material buried several feet or more below the surface can undergo
significant oxidation because of the restriction of oxygen diffusion to these
depths" (15). It is on this premise that requirements for burying acid-
forming or toxic-forming material in the Regulations are based [816.48]. In
studies in Beathitt County, Kentucky, it was found that before mining, the
concentration of sulphate in the surface water was generally less than 15
ppm but after mining the concentration was usually more than 100 ppm.
Undoubtedly, the requirement for contemporaneous reclamation [816.100]
will reduce the concentration of salts after mining has ceased. But to mini-
mize concentration during the mining process, careful handling of spoil
[816,41(d)(2)(vii)-(viii)] and attention to site drainage [816.43] are
necessary (17). Extensive neutralization of acid drainage occurs within the
coal regions. Biesecker and George report that "the mixture of outlying
streams with mine drainage waters eventually neutralizes all acid streams in
Appalachia." Thus, acid drainage is most serious in head-water streams
near active or abandoned surface mines (18).

SEDIMENTATION
Many experiments have quantified the increase in sediment caused by
erosion on both active and abandoned surface mines. For instance, in
studies of mined and unmined watersheds in Kentucky (Leatherwood
Creek and Bear Branch), the impact of surface mining on both the
suspended sediments and the bed loads sediments in the streams was
investigated. These studies were pre-SMCRA and quantified the continued
sediment generation in areas affected by surface mining after
abandonment (1). Astudy in Beaver Creek Basin in Kentucky found that the
annual sediment production from land affected by surface mining was 42
tons/acre, 1,000 times higher than the yield of sediment from an unmined
watershed (13). Table 3 below shows representative rates of erosion from
various land uses.

TABLE 3
SEDIMENT GENERATION BY VARIOUS LAND USES

Land Use Tons/Mi2/Year Relative to Forest

Forest 24 1
Grassland 240 10
Abandoned surface 2400 100
mines
Cropland 4800 200
Harvested forest 12,000 500
Active surface 48,000 2,000
mines
Construction 48,000 2,000
Source: US EPA, October 1973, "Method for Identifying and Evaluating the Nature
and Extend of Non-point Sources of Pollutants," EPA 4030/9-73-014, Washing-
ton. DC

TABLE 4

COMPARATIVE RATES OF EROSION

FROM SURFACE MINING ACTIVITIES
Area Yield (Tons/Mi2) Factor
Unmined Watershed 28 1
Mined Watershed 1930 69
Spoil Bank 27,000 968
Haul Road 57,600 2065
Source: EPA. October 1976, "Erosion and Sediment Control Surface Mining in the
Eastern US - Planning," Technology Transfer Seminar Publication.
SOME CLIMATIC FACTORS
AFFECTING SURFACE MINING
The performance standards of the Regulations contain different
requirements in a number of cases for areas where the annual rainfall is
above 26" (66 cm) or below 26" (66 cm). For instance the extended
responsibility lasts for 5 years in areas where annual precipitation is more
than 26" (66 cm) but for 10 years when it is less [816.116(b)]. The whole of
the area covered by this Handbook, i.e. the Eastern Coal Province and
lnterior Province east of the 100th Meridian W longitude, has an annual
precipitation of more than 26" (66 cm). (Figure 1)
Figure 1. Mean Annual Precipitation (cm) and Major Coal Reserve Areas.
Eastern and lnterior Provinces.
Source: Gardner, H.R., Woolhiser, D.A., 1978, Hydrologic and Climatic
Factors," Proc. Reclamation of Drastically Disturbed Lands Symp.,
Schaller, F.W., Sutton, P. (Eds), ASA, CSA, SSSA.
The higher rainfall found in the more humid areas of the Eastern and
lnterior Coal Provinces is not necessarily indicative of a high erosion
potential as erosion is affected by rainfall intensity. The humid climate
however does favor the rapid and effective establishment of vegetation.
Consequently, meeting the requirements for revegetating Eastern and
lnterior surface mine sites is much easier than in drier regions in the west.
The proportion of rainfall which runs off to that which infiltrates into the
ground and that which is evaporated or used by plants varies a great deal,
and may be altered considerably by surface mining. The proportion which
infiltrates and then reemerges in springs and seeps is important in
maintaining the base flow of streams in dry weather. That which infiltrates
to deeper groundwater may be important in maintaining water supplies
which rely on groundwater sources. Hence the impact of surface mining on
this balance is very important.
The amount of water which can potentially be used by the vegetation is
called the potential evapotranspiration (PEVT). In the Appalachians the
rainfall is greater than the PEVT but in the west the PEVT exceeds rainfall
by 2 or 3 times, making water a crucially important factor in revegetation.
The slope, both its steepness and the direction it faces, will have an
impact on the microclimate and also the establishment of vegetation.
South-facing slopes are hotter and drier than north-facing slopes.
TABLE 5

MAJOR WATER RELATED IMPACTS OF SURFACE MINING

1. WATER QUALITY Descriptionof Impact Major Operation Causing Impact Remedlal Measures [Regulations]'

1:l Alteration of flow Disturbing the surface during mining may Removal of vegetation, and all Disturb smallest practicable area at
patterns of streams. cause increased infiltration of water. But operations involving shifting and any one time [816.45(b)(1)].
often, consolidation causes increased run- regrading and consolidation of Reclaim as contemporaneously as
off and reduced infiltration which can cause overburden. All operations which practicable [816.100].
flooding and erosion problems, and may re- increase the impermeability of the Design haul roads so as to minimize
duce recharge of aquifers and base flow of land surface. any increase in runoff [816.153].
streams. Local increases in runoff also may
originate from haul roads, etc. Runoff will
increase due to excessive compaction dur-
ing reclamation and theelimination of sur-
face storage by creating smooth slopes.
1:2 Lowering of ground- Dewatering the pit may cause a lowering of Pit dewatering. Exploration bore- Casing and sealing of drilled holes
water. the groundwater. Deep exploratory bore- holes. Mining through a stratum [816.13-816.151.
holes may also break through an imperme- which previously confined an Plan mine excavation so as to pre-
able stratum which confines an aquifer aquifer. vent adverse impact [816.50(b)].
causing the aquifer to leak to lower strata.
1:3 Change in storage Decrease in groundwater recharge may re- Clearance of vegetation. Shifting, Use straw dikes, riprap, check dams,
capacity and trans- sult from reduced permeability caused by regrading and consolidation of etc. t o r e d u c e runoff volume
missibility of over- the removal of vegetation. The removal overburden. Exploration bore- [816.45(b)(b)].
burden. and replacement of overburden will holes. Blasting which causes frac- Minimize disturbance to ~revailina
change both its storage capacity and trans- turing and disturbance of base- hydrologic balance [816.5i(b)]. -
missibility (often increasing both which ment rock.
can be a significant improvement). Vertical
leakage to underlying aquifers can in-
crease transmissibility.

2. WATER QUALITY
2:l Acidity Highly acidic runoff from mined sites Exposure of pyritic material, often Conduct coal exploration in a man-
results from the exposure of pyritic mater- lying in close proximity to coal, to ner which minimizes disturbance of
ials to air and water. Low pH tends to make oxygen and water. The cause may hydrologic environment [Part 8151.
some compounds toxic to plants, particu- be material exposed in explora- Prevent or remove water from con-
larly Al and Mn. May cause local ground- tion boreholes, material in the pit tact with acid-forming materials dur-
water supply to become less than potable. bottom, material backfilled too ing mining operations [816.43]. Bury
close to the surface, or material acid-forming spoil [816.48]. Correct
used in road construction. Also, pH before discharge of water from
careless hauling of previously site [816.42(c)]. Acid-forming mater-
identified acid-producing mater- ials may not be used in construction
ials causes this problem. of haul roads [816.152(d)(13) and
816.154(b)].
2:2 Sedimentation; Erosion of overburden materials may result All mining operations involving Minimize erosion to the greatest ex-
Suspended solids. in very high levels of sediment in runoff earthmoving. Also haul roads may tent possible [816.45(a)].
from mine sites, which causes a detertora- be serious sources of sediment. Reclaim as contemporaneously as
tion of stream health, silting of stream- practicable [816.101(a) and 816.1131.
beds, etc. Loss of topsoil. Lessens the Manage haul roads so as to cause no
potential for post-mining use. additional contribution of suspended
solids to runoff flow [816.150(b)].
Provide sedimentation ponds [816.46].
2:3 Hardness; Deposit Hardness is rarely a serious problem. How- Operations involving the treat- Monitor surface water and ground-
of iron hydroxide. ever, acid~cdrainage which is neutralized ment of acid-forming materials. water [816.52].
by treating with lime or limestone will in- Treat acid water only as needed
crease in hardness. Neutralization will cause [816.42(c)].
the deposit of iron hydroxide (Yellow Boy)
and other compounds which may cause
problems.
2:4 Groundwater pollu- Groundwater pollution can result from acid Results from placement of acid- Place backfill material to prevent
tion. water leaching into the groundwater. This forming materials during regrad- groundwater pollution [816.101(b)
may be a problem when acid-producing ing where oxidation and leaching w1.
material is placed so as not to prevent oxi- can take place.
dation and leaching. Consolidation and in
some cases sealing the acid-producing
material should prevent this problem.

3. OTHER WATER RELATED PROBLEMS

3 : l Instability. Infiltration of water into the spoil may This problem occurs mostly on Provide barrier so as to assure
cause instability and slumping. Most rec- steep sites, particularly for large stability [816.99(a)].
lamation measures seek to reduce runoff fills. Head of Hollow and Valley Backfill and grade so as to insure
and increase infiltration but in cases where Fills. Providing bench or barrier stability [816.101( b ) ( l ) ] .
spoil has low shear strength the policy on outslope. Backfilling and Construct a subdrainage system
should be to prevent excessive seepage. A grading. [816.71(e)].
slide may have an adverse effect on public
property, health, safety or the environment.
3:2 Erosion. Besides giving rise to sedimentation prob- Regrading operations. Revegeta- Reclaim as contemporaneously as
lems, gully erosion may be so serious to tion operations. practicable [816.101(a) and816.1131.
make it necessary to regrade thesite. Care- Perform regrading operations along
ful attention to surface configuration and contour [816.102(e)].
rapid protection with vegetation will avoid Regrade or stabilize rills or gullies
this problem. [816.106].

*For a detailed listing of Remedial Measures, see Tables in Appendix following Chapter 5.

9
REFERENCES:
Curtis, W.R., 1971, "Strip Mining Erosion and Sedimentation," Transactions of the ASAE, Annual Meeting,
Minneapolis, MN.
Ramani, R.V. and Clar, M.L., 1978, "Users' Manual for Premining Planning of Eastern Surface Coal Mining - Executive Summary,"
Intragency Energy/Environmental Research and Development Program Report, EPA 600/7-78-180.
Leibenguth, C., December 1974, "Strip Mining Covering the Scars," Science Digest.
Skelley and Loy. March 1978, "Environmental Assessment of Surface Mining Methods - Head of Hollow Fill and Mountain Top
Removal - Interim Report," USEPA, Cincinnati, OH.
Minnear, R.A., Tschantz, B.A., November 1976, "The Effect of Coal Surface Mining on the Water Quality of Mountain Drainage
Basin Streams" Journal WPCF.
Collier, C.R., Pickering, R.J., and Musser, J.J., 1970. "Influences of Strip Mining on the Hydrologic Environment of Parts
of Beaver Creek Basin, KY, 1055-66," USGS Prof. Paper 427-C.
Curtis, W.R., 1977, "Surface Mining and the Flood of April 1977," Northeast Forest Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service
Research Note, NE-248, Berea, KY.
Curtis, W.R., June 6-7. 1978, "Effects of Surface Mining on Hydrology, Erosion, and Sedimentation in Eastern Kentucky," Fourth
Kentucky Coal Refuse Disposal and Utilization Seminar, Lexington, KY.
Curtis, W.R., June 1978, "Planning Surface Mining Activitiesfor Water Control." Proc. Fifth North American Forest SoilsConference.
Vaughan, G.L., May 1977, "Biological Impact of Contour-Strip Mining on Small Watersheds," Appalachian Resources Project
Progress Report, Univ. of Tenn. Environmental Center, Knoxville, TN
Hanna, G.P.. March 1964, "The Relation of Water to Strip Mine Operation," Ohio Journal of Science.
Minnear, R.A., Overton, D.E., May 1977, "Mobilization of Heavy Metals and Other Contaminants from Strip Mine Spoil,"
Appalachian Resources Project Progress Report, Univ. of Tenn. Environmental Center, Knoxville, TN.
Collier. C.R., Pickering, R.J., and Musser. J.J., 1964, "Influence of Strip Mining on the Hydrologic Environment of Beaver Creek
Basin, Kentucky 1955-1959," USGS Paper 427-8.
Preate, E.D., February-March 1972, "A New Law for an Old Problem" Appalachia.
Shumate. K.S., Brant, R.A.. 1971. "Acid Mine Drainage Formation and Abatement," Water Pollution Control Research Series,
US EPA.
Ahmad, M.U.. Sept. 1973, "Coal Mining and Its Effect on Water Quality." Proc. of the First World Congress on Water Resources.
IWRA. Chicago. IL.
Dyer, K.L., and Curtis, W.R., 1977, "Effect of Strip Mining on Water Quality in Small Streams in Eastern Kentucky 1967-1975," USDA
Forest Service Research Paper NE-372, Upper Darby, PA.
Biesecker, J.E., George, J.R., 1966, "Stream Quality in Appalachia as Related to Coal Mine Drainage, 1965," USGS Circ. 526,
Washington, D.C.
 CHAPTER 3
SURFACE MINING METHODS AND
EQUIPMENT FOR SMALL MINE OPERATIONS
The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977) does not
specifically outlaw any method of mining, but it outlaws certain practices
such as the placement of spoil on the downslopes above 20 degrees in
steepness [Section 515(d)(l) of the Act]. Each mining method isdescribed
in Chapter 4. These illustrations do not try to show how the operation
should be carried out, but are intended to give the operator an easy, quick
method of identifying sections of the Regulations which are relevant to the
mining method chosen.
Skelly and Loy found that mining methods can generally be subdivided
by region as shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6

Predominant
Region Terrain Mining Method States
1 Steep Slopes Contour Mining E. KY, WV
TN, VA
2 Rolling Modified Area & PA, MD, AL,
Multiple-Cut S.E. OH
Contour
3 Flat Terrain Area Mining W. KY, IL,
Thick Overburden IN, OH, MO,
OK, KS, AR,
IA
Source: Skelley and Loy, February 1975, "Economic Engineering Analysis
of U S . Surface Coal Mines and Effective Land Reclamation," USBM Con-
tract SO241049.

Each mining method has different environmental and reclamation

problems which are covered by the Regulations. The choice of the method
of mining will still be determined mainly by economic factors. The smaller
operator will often be constrained by the equipment which he hasavailable
and therefore may not have much choice in the method of mining.

SELECTION OF MACHINERY
Operators should be very aware of the capability of machinery in terms of
capacity to shift overburden economically. The Regulations, however, do
have some implications in terms of the choice of machinery. The following
requirements should be considered carefully before selecting equipment:
1) Stripping and stockpiling of topsoil [816.22, 816.231; 2 ) Selective
handling, placement and consolidation of overburden [816.41(d)(2)(vii)-
(viii), 816.711; 3) Contemporaneous backfilling [816.101(a)]; 4) Grading,
ripping, etc. [816. 101-816.1061; 5) Replacement of topsoil, revegetation and
management [816.111-816.117].
Mine operations in hill terrain used to prefer to move overburden by blast-
ing and pushing rather than hauling. However, techniques using blasting
and pushing are not poss~blewith the new Performance Standards. This
means a different emphasis in machinery requirements with heavy invest-
ment in loaders and haul trucks. It also means more precise planning of
earthmoving operations to keep the equipment fully utilized. These
considerations may be difficult for the small operator to meet.
Clearly, versatility is one of the most important factors governing the
choice of equipment and mining method by the small operator. Machinery
that can perform at least two tasks will be preferred (dozers, pan scrapers,
front-end loaders, etc.). For instance, it is important that whatever
machinery is used for coal removal on a small site, it can be deployed on
another task also as coal removal can usually be done much faster than
removal of overburden.
Some new developments in mining machinery seem to be emphasizing
versatility but there is also a strong trend towards the development of
various continuous (rather than cyclic) methods of handling overburden
removal, involving huge capital investments far beyond the resources of the
small operator. Yet, as continuous, largely automated methods are adopted
by the large companies, the role of the small operator in exploiting deposits
unsuitable for those methods becomes increasingly important.

SCRAPERS
The removal, stockpiling and replacement of topsoil required in the new
Regulations [816.21-816.251 is likely to be carried out mostly by scrapers.
Therefore there may be a tendency to use mining methods which can also
use scrapers to remove overburden where it is unconsolidated and where
terrain makes it possible. Operational costs are usually higher for scrapers
than for a dragline of a shovel but scrapers can selectively place over-
burden material, consolidate it and regrade in the same operation. Scrapers
may cause excessive consolidation making ripping necessary. However
Section 816.24(a) requires that the surface be scarified.

FIGURE 2
The scraper has many advantages though the small operator
might only justify its employment in multiple use situations.

The flexibility of scrapers and their ability to dig, load and haul makes
them especially valuable for meeting the contemporaneous reclamation
requirements of the Regulations. In addition, their ability to handle
overburden selectively makes them valuable in meeting the requirements
for selective handling and placement of acid-forming spoil [816.48]. They
also have the versatility of being able to build and maintain their own haul
roads. Scrapers are an expensive investment for the small operator. Unless
he has plans for also using it for tasks other than topsoil removal he may be
better off to use bulldozers or front-end loaders.

FRONT-END LOADERS
The requirement of the Regulationsfor selective handling and placement
of overburden materials and the precision with which this can be done by
front-end loader/haul truck combination, together with the great range of
tasks for which front-end-loaders can be used, makes these highly versatile
machines ideal for use on many small surface mine operations. The
mobility of the front-end-loader-and-loaders, its ability to dig and load, and
its uses in construction of sedimentation ponds, diversions, etc. makes it
especially useful. The tracked versions used for difficult terrain do not have
the speed and maneuverability for most applications. They do however
have a lesser bearing pressure making them useful on sites wherecompac-
tion is to be avoided. Front-end loaders are now being used increasingly
on sites of all sizes.

DOZERS
Bulldozers will continue to be used heavily in all surface mining
operations both for earthmoving and increasingly for other operations such
as root grubbing (during site clearance prior to topsoil removal), regrading,
ripping, various cultivation operations, and push-loading scrapers, etc.
However, their use in shifting overburden may become less important
particularly in contour mining where haulback is necessary to keepspoil off
the downslope, though they will continueto beused widely forthis purpose
in area mining on small sites.
LOADING SHOVELS
Though large stripping shovels have low operating costs they do not have
the flexibility required for most small mine operations. When being used to
cast overburden, their ability to place material selectively is limited, nor is
spoil consolidated when cast. This can lead to AMD problems. Also when
casting spoil the pit isvery confined, making pit drainage important; and
dewaterina mav be a ~ r o b l e m .

Loading shovels (illustrated) used in combination w ~ t hhaul trucks solve

the problems of selective placement of acid-forming and toxic-forming
spoil. Consolidation is also achieved through the use of haulage trucks, and
the pit will be less confined. Because of their high breakout capacity how-
ever, shovels avoid the need for blasting in lightly consolidated material,
and thus the blasting restrictions in the Regulations would not apply.

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATORS
Hydraulic excavators are very versatile and may perform a number of
tasks on the mine site besides that of excavating overburden. Excavation of
sedimentation ponds with excavators with back-hoe configuration can be
accomplished quickly and easily due to their long reach.
If the excavator is digging and casting overburden, spoil is not
consolidated. If used to load haul trucks, careful placement and
consolidation is possible. Crawler tracks enable excavators to negotiate
poorly drained land.
Hydraulic excavators have much more breakout capacity than loaders
but loaders are more economic and maneuverable for loading loose
material. Thus the excavator might be used on sites with more consolidated
overburden.

DRAGLINES
Operating costs of large draglines, like shovels, are low but their
requirements for secondary equipment and their lack of maneuverability
make them inflexible for most small operations. Many small operators in
northern Appalachia though do own small draglines. They can segregate
spoil quite well but cast spoil will need grading and consolidation. In some
cases, where high infiltration rates are required, the high permeability of
ungraded spoil may be an advantage. Where scrapers have dumped the
spoil and heavy tires have compacted them the infiltration may be one or
two orders of magnitude less than dragline-dumped spoils. (3).
 The lack of consolidation of dragline cast spoil could result in
groundwater pollution where overburden contains large amounts of acid-
forming material. In cases where the proposed post-mining use is for
industrial, commercial or residential development, settlement of
unconsolidated spoil may give problems for several years.

BUCKET WHEEL EXCAVATORS

- not applicable

REVEGETATION EQUIPMENT
Reclamation requirements will create the need for various pieces of
agricultural equipment. The more sophisticated reclamation equipment
(hydroseeders, tree planters, etc.) will be provided by contractors but small
operators may find it advantageous to own disc harrows, rippers, seed
drills, fertilizer spreaders, etc.

AUGERING
Although auger mining gives a poor recovery of coal it may increase the
overall recovery rate in situations where coal cannot be further exploited by
other methods (seams too thin for underground mining or overlaid by a
thick hard sandstone stratum) but the conditions for auger mining are
rather restrictive.
 The Regulations contain specific Performance Standards for augering
[Part 8191. Probably the most d i f f i c u l t problem which the Regulations pose
for small mine operators is that of contemporaneous backfilling. The
expense o f auger equipment makes it unlikely that small operators will
operate their own and will therefore rely on contractors. But to justify using
contractors, the small operator must either have sufficient highwall
exposed at any one time to make the operation economic, or be able to
operate at sufficient speed to keep ahead o f an auger outfit which is
unlikely. It may be that on submission of a "written analysis" [ 7 8 0 . 1 8 ( b ) ( 3 ) ]
additional time may be granted for backfilling and grading [816.101].
The danger o f penetrating abandoned (or a c t i v e ) surface mines forbids
any auger hole closer than 5 0 0 ' ( h o r i z o n t a l l y ) to underground mine
workings 1816.11( b ) ] . The problem of unmapped underground workings
and the danger of sudden release of large quantities of groundwater, often
seriously polluted, is a constant hazard of auger operations in previously
mined regions.
Auger holes can be a serious source of acid mine drainage and Section
8 1 9 . 1 1 ( c ) contains very specific requirement for plugging auger holes
( w i t h i n 72 hours f o r holes discharging polluted water or within 30 days for
holes not discharging water).

REFERENCES
(1) Lusk. B.E. (Ed), Summer 1973, "Steep Slope Mining - A New Concept," Green Lands Quarterly. West Virginia Surface Mining and Reclamation
Association.
(2) .
Bertoldi, M.J 1977. "Preliminary Economics of Mining a Thick Coal Seam by Dragline. Shovel-Truck, and Scraper Mining System."
US Dept of Interior, BOM Info. Circ. 8761.
(3) Rahn. P.H , 1975, "Groundwater in Coal Strip Mine Spoils. Powder River Basin," Fort Union Coal Field Symposium, South Dakota School of Mines and
Technology. Rapid City, SD
(4) Ralston, D.S. and Wiram. V.P.. Jan. 1978. "The Need for Selective Placement of Overburden and Equipment Considerations," "Mining Congress Journal
(5) Haley. W A and Dowd, J.J., March 1957, "The Use of Augers in Surface Mining of Bituminous Coal." US Dept. of Interior. BOM, Report of
Investigations 5325.
(6) Moomau, H.F.. et al, Feb. 1974. "Feasibility Study of a New surface Mining Method - Longwall Stripping," EPA 67012-74-002.
(7) West Virginia Surface Mining Reclamation Association. October 1973. "Surface Mining Coal Via Longwall Method." Coal Mining and Processing
(8) Chronis, N.P., October 1976, "Regional Aspects Affect Planning of Surface Mining Operations." Coal Age, pp. 119-141.
(9) Chironis, N.P., October 1976, "New Equipment Concepts Abound as Surface Mining Technology is Spurred by Increased Demand for Coal." Coal
Age, pp. 91-1 13.
(10) Chiron~s,N.P , July 1977, "Haulback Reclaims Naturally." Coal Age, PP 70-83
(11) Chironis. N.P.. Jan. 1974, "West Virglnia Haulback Method. A Modern Way of Surface Mining,'' Coal Age pp. 66-68
(12) Chironis, N.P., May 1975, "Modified Block Cutting in SW Pennsylvania," p. 272.
(13) Davis, H.. Nov. 1977, "Multi-seam Mining by Haulback." Coal Age, pp. 134-137

(14) Caterpillar Tractor Company, October 1979, "Caterpillar Performance Handbook," 13th Edition, Diorva, IL
(15) Explosives Department. E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co. Inc., 1969, "Blasters' Handbook," Wilmington. DE.
116) Ramani, R.V. and Clar. M.L.. 1978, "Users' Manual for Premining Planning of Eastern Surface Coal Mining - Executive Summary," lntragency
EnergylEnvironmental Research and Development Program Report, EPA 60017-78-180.
(17) Pfleider, E.P, 1968, "Surface Mining," A.I.M.E., New York, NY.
This page intentionally left blank.
CHAPTER 4

MINING OPERATIONS
The drawings on the following pages illustrate various surface mining
methods, and the operations which are involved in each. The first drawing
for each method shows an unregulated mine, and the key below identifies
problems which arise during and after mining and the Sections of the
Regulations which are intended to solve these problems. The next drawing
for each method shows phases of a mine which meet the requirements of
the new Regulations. The key below identifies each operation, the Section
of the Regulations relevant to that operation and the title and number of
"Data Sheets" which are found in Chapters 6 and 7. These illustrations
obviously do not cover all situations encountered during surface mining.
However we hope that operators will be able to identify commonly
occurring problems in these hypothetical examples.
 AREA MINING [SINGLE SEAM) OPERATION PROBLEMS REQUIREMENTS OF T H E REGULATIONS*
- PRE-REGULATION
More coal is extracted using area mining than b y any
KEY DESCRIPTION
(NOTE Text ~nclu references to lllustratlon opposite.)
SECTION REQUIREMEN1
-
other technique. However, due t o the economics of scale
most operations are large. M u c h of the coal which is O v e r b u r d e n f r o m an - Topsoil and subsoil are not stripped from 816.21 Before disturbance of an area. tops011and
exploitable b y area surface mining is found i n states west initial box-cut is dump- the box-cut andstockpiled butaredumped subsoil to be saved must be removed and
of the 100th meridian b u t large quantities are also f o u n d ed on a spoil heap (1) with overburden segregated from other materials. This
i n midwestern states, often beneath g o o d farmland. using scrapers or shovel - Topsoil is buried beneath the soil heap. includes topsoil from areas to be used for
Small operators are probably more likely t o work a site /dump-truck combina- - Overburden on spoil heap begins to erode spoil dumps, haul roads, diversions and
using scrapers, dozers and/or loader-truck o r shovel- tion. immediately. If pyrite is present in the sedimentation ponds. Topsoil shall be
truck combinations; but some will use draglines o r spoil, acid mine drainage may be a pro- 816.23 stockpiled "only when it is impractical
shovels as t h e p r i m e earthmovers. S h o w n here is a drag- blem. to promptly redistributesuch materials on
- Sediment as a result of erosion causes 815.45 regraded areas" The temporary mound
line, working a single seam site with a ratioof overburden of box-cut spoil should be protectedfrom
surface water pollution and (in this case)
t o coal of about 8:l and swell factor of lo%, prior t o a n y is clogging roadside ditches and cul- erosion by mulching and seeding. "All
regulations requiring reclamation. Ditching verts (2). surface drainage from the disturbed
In order t o be economic, area mining operations must 816.42(a) area . . . shall be passed through a
minimize double handling of overburden. Thus, a pile of Dragline (3) casts over- - Topsoil is mixed with overburden. sedimentation pond." Discharges of
overburden i s usually made close t o the initial box-cut. burden from subse- - Acid-forming material, drift overburden water from disturbed areas are also sub-
The overburden f r o m subsequent cuts is then cast i n t o quent cuts into the one and solid overburden are cast in no order- 816.42(a)(7)ject to effluent limitat~ons.
t h e previous c u t leaving a series of hills and dales. Upon before in a continous ly way resulting in spoil of highly diverse
completion of t h e m i n i n g operations prior t o t h e digging operation. A quality, which is often unsuitable for sur- 816.101 Rough backfilling and grading shall be
enactment o f regulations, t h e final cut remained, often series of ridges and fur- vival and growth of vegetation. completed within 180 days following
partially filled with water and with the highwall exposed. rows (hill and dale) - The physical form of hill and dale does coal removal and shall not be more than
results (4). not allow any economic post-mining land 816.103 four spoil ridges behind pit being worked.
Depending o n t h e machinery and working methods
use. Any acid-forming or toxic-forming
being used, spoil was usually inverted, t h e topsoil a n d materials identified in the "Geology
subsoil being buried, the strata close t o the coal o n top. Backhoe (5) digs - A tributary of the =!ream is already Description" [779.14] must be selec-
This often resulted i n a surface layer which was diversion for stream being mined through (6) resulting in tively handled and becovered withamini-
unsuitable, chemically o r physically, t o s u p p o r t plant life. which will be mined some backflow into the pit making mum of 4' of non-toxic material.
Where this technique is used, the problems o f soil through. The size of the pit dewatering a major problem.
erosion are n o t as severe as in the case of mining i n channel is based on the - Poorly designed and c o n s t r u c t e d d l - 816.44 Diversions must be approved by the RA.
mountainous terrain; n o r is acid m i n e drainage, mostly operator's judgment. versions will result in water pollu- Temporary diversions must be designed
because runoff is easier t o control. Nevertheless, where tion, flooding and bank erosion problems. to carry runoff from a 10 yr/24 hr precip-
large areas arestripped at one time, a n d n o reclamation is itation event. Permanent diversions must
Drilling rig (7) - Probably due to fracturing of the aquifer. be designed for a 100 yr124 hr event, and
carried out, t h e impact of area mining in terms of loss of drills and shoots over- groundwater at farmers well (8) has been 816.44(d) they should be restored to "approximate
farmland, deterioration of the quality and quantity of burden. polluted and the yield has become unreliable. pre-mining stream characteristics" incl-
surface and groundwater and other environmental values
Runoff collects i n - Where overburden contains pyritic ding pools, riffles, meanders, etc.
c a n be serious.
"dales" (9) and seeps materials, acid drainage will result. This 816.62 Where mining operations are carried out
The Regulations i n t o the u n c o n s o l i - can contaminate groundwater resources. within '/2 mile of adwelling, theownercan
The Regulations require that all land which is surface dated overburden. request a pre-blasting survey which shall
mined i s restored t o its "approximate original contour." Dumping of miscel- - This is an eyesore and a nuisance to the give special attention to the condition
This means that some double handling of spoil from the laneous refuse from the nearby dwelling. It can also cause a pollu- of wells.
initial box-cut will b e required. The highwall a n d all 10 maintenance yard (10). tion hazard to surface water. 816.50 Mining shall be carried out to prevent dis-
depressions must b e eliminated and, t o d o this, hauling charge of acid, or otherwise harmful
m u c h of t h e box-cut spoil wili be necessary. All topsoil Unrestored land re- - Unrestored mine lands may continue to drainage water into groundwater systems.
must be removed separately and placed o n reclaimed sults in permanent loss erode and contribute sediment and acid
areas immediately when possible. The Regulations 11 of farmland (11 not drainage to receiving waters for years 816.89 "Disposal of non-coal wastes" shall be
r e q u i r e a m i n i m u m delay i n restoration so that it proceeds shown). after mining ceases. placed in a controlled manner in a des-
i n conjunction w i t h t h e working. ignated portion of the permit area.
These operations require careful pre-planning if Part 823 Part 823 contains special performance
machinery is t o b e fully and effectively utilized while standards for restoration of prime
meeting t h e requirements of the Regulations. farmland.
I n cases where the land is classified as "prime 816.116 Part 816, however, requires restoration of
farmland" special performance controls will be enforced. other farmland to a level of productivity
These include t h e requirement that 4' of soil and soil of at least 90% of the productivity of the
material b e reconstructed during reclamation. If an approved reference area.
operator is using scrapers t o remove topsoil and
unconsolidated (drift) overburden, a n d t o replace these
m a t e r i a l s o n r e g r a d e d areas i m m e d i a t e l y , t h i s
requirement m a y not increase costs of earthmoving

- greatly if the operations are planned carefully.

'Regulatory Program promulgated by the Office of Surface Mining of
the Department of the Interior in accordance with the Surface Minjng
i
Control and Reclamation Act of 1977.
- - -
AREA MINING, SINGLE SEAM. OPERATION REQUIREMENT O F T H E REGULATIONS' D A T A SHEET
PLANNING, MOBILIZATION, BOX-CUT PHASE 1 KEY DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION SECTION REQUIREMENT SHEET TITLE NO.

If area m i n i n g iscarefully preplanned and carriedout i n (NOTE. Numbers in text refer to illustration opposite.)
an orderly way, it is usually feasible t o restore land t o its Diversions to convey overland flow 816.43 "Overland flow . . . and flow in ephemeral Stream diversions:
original productivity within a short period and t o around the edges (1) of the site both to streams may be diverted away from thedis- Overland flow and
minimize the impact o n surface water a n d groundwater minimize interference with mining, and to turbed area by means of temporary or per- ephemeral streams
d u r i n g and after working. reduce contamination ofstormwater have manent diversions." Temporary diversions
I t is also possible t o p l a n c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s be constructed. to be designed for a 2-year storm.
reclamation operations t o o c c u r steadily as mining Flow from these diversions pass through 816.42(a)(1) "All surface drainage from the disturbed Sedimentation Ponds
progresses without incurring large increases in earth- three sedimentation ponds (2.3,4) prior area . . passed through a sedimentation
m o v i n g costs. The importance of avoiding the double to discharge from permit area (5.6). pond "
These ponds must be constructed before 816.46(a)(l) "Sedimentation ~ 0 n d Sshall . . . be con-
handling of overburden t o t h e economics of area mining structed before any disturbance of the . . .
disturbance of the site.
is recognized. However, it may be necessary t o rehandle area to be drained into the pond."
m u c h of the overburden taken f r o m the first box-cut Topsoil IS being removed by scraper (7) Topsoil: General Requirements. Clearance of vegeta-
i n order t o fill the final void a n d t o eliminate the highwall. and stockpiled (8). Topsoil beneath the Topsoil: Removal. tion and removal and
I n cases where there is excess of fill i n thesite [816.105] it spoil dump (14) was also removed. Topsoil: Storage. storage of topsoil
m a y be possible t o place m u c h of t h e overburden from Unconsolidated (drift) overburden is "The B horizon and portions of the C hori-
t h e first box-cut permanently a n d avoid the need t o being removed by scraper (9). Subsoil zon . . . shall be segregated and replaced
double handle it as backfill f o r t h e final void. is being stockpiled (10) and the rest is as subspoil if the regulatory authority
T h e control of surface water o n area mine sites is being used to cover consolidated determines that. . . [it] is necessary."
usually m u c h easier than o n c o n t o u r mines. Points at overburden on the spoil dump (14).
w h i c h drainage from the site i s discharged can be Drilling rig (11) drills consolidated A resident or owner of a dwelling within %
minimized. I n the illustrated example drainage and overburden which is then shot. mile of the permit area may request a pre-
overland flow is directed around the edge of the permit Dwelling with a water supply well (12). blasting survey to be carried out.
area i n diversions t o sedimentation ponds before Shovel digs first box-cut (13) Spoil Box-cut spoils will largely have to be trans- Temporary Spoil
discharging into receiving waters. is transported by dump truck to spoil ported to the final cut. However, the RA in
When the site is "prime farmland" the special dump (14). This is graded with maximum this case is permitting some of the box-cut
performance standards i n Part 823 apply. Whether or not slopes of lv:2h and covered with subsoil. spoils to be placed permanently and the
t h e site i s prime farmland i s determined during the left-hand slope of the spoil dump has been
topsoiled and planted
application process [779.27]. This Section contains a list A hydroseeder (15) applies seed and fer- "Stockpiled materials shall be . . . pro- Cover Crops
of conditions, any one of which will result i n the land not tilizer to the temporary spoil mound (14) tected from wind and water erosion. . . "
being classified as prime farmland. One important and to the stockpiles of topsoil and Protection is usually accomplished by
condition is that the Soil Conservation Service soil survey subsoil (8,lO). seeding with a cover crop of annual and
has n o t designated any soil map units as primefarmland. perennial species.
Probably t h e major difficulty posed b y the new Dragline assembly (16) is in progress. These Sections contain performance stan- Haul Roads
Regulations for the small surface m i n e operator will be Construction of office and mamtenance dards for Class I roads which will apply to
t h e greater amount of machinery required and the yard is complete. the area here and to theaccess tothe public
precision with which the operation must be planned t o road.
a v o i d delays. T h e requirement f o r c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s The stream has been diverted permanent- Flow from perennial streams . . . may be Stream diversions:
ly (17). The channel has been graded and diverted onlv with the aooroval of the RA. Perennial and
reclamation will increase t h e importance of scrapers i n
and constructed to reflect its natural 816.44(b)(2) Permanent diversions m k t be designed to intermittent streams.
t h e operation, and the requirement t o transport box-cut character. The design standards for carry flow from a 100 yr/24 hr precipitation
spoil (to eliminate depressions a n d t h e highwall) will permanent diversions are more stringent event.
necessitate a large number of haulage trucks. than for temporary diversions, but 816.44(d) The natural riparian vegetation and other
The Small Operator Assistance Program provides the latter must be restored. natural characteristics of thestreamshould
assistance for the small operator d u r i n g the application be restored.
process, notably with the analysis of overburden from Logging and destumping (18) are in 816.22(a) This Section requires that "vegetative Zlearance of vegeta-
core samples and assessment o f the impact of the progress along the old stream channel. cover that would interfere with the use of tion and removal and
proposed mining activities o n surface a n d groundwater Slash from clearance is being chipped the topsoil is cleared from the areas to be storage of topsoil.
[Part 7951. In spite of this assistance, the operator will be (19) for use as mulch. disturbed."
well aware of the need for careful preplanning of area Note that much of the permit area is 816.22(f)(l) "The size of the area from which topsoil is Vobilization and min-
m i n i n g operations if the requirements of the Regulations still in agricultural production (20), in this removed at any one time shall be limited." ng operations:
are t o be met. case a crop of mulch hay being harvested 816.45(b)(l) . . Disturbing thesmallest practicable area General
under contract for use during restoration. at any one time during the mining opera-
A feature of area mining is that it allows tion."
the minimum areaofthesiteto bedisturb-
ed at any one time. The new Regulations
emphasize the importance of minimizing
the area disturbed and of contemporan-
eous reclamation.
'Regulatory Program promulgatedby the Office of Surface Minmg of The operator has planted trees (21) on This action is not required by the Regula- qevegetation
the Department of the Interior in accordance with the Surface Mmng some areas of the site which will not be tions. Trees and Shrubs
Control and Reclamat~on Act of 1977. affected by mining.
AREA MINING SINGLE SEAM - PHASE 2 OPERATION REQUIREMENT OF THE REGULATIONS* DATA SHEET
MINING OPERATIONSAND CONTEMPORANEOUS RECLAMATION KEY DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION SECTION REQUIREMENT SHEET TITLE NO.
Section 816.100 (Contemporaneous Reclamation) of (NOTE Text includes references to illustrat~onopposite
t h e Regulations requries that "reclamation efforts,
Scrapers remove topsoil (1) and redistri 816.23(a) "Topsoil . .shall be stockpiled only when it Removal and storage of
including.. .backfilling, grading, topsoil replacementand
bute immediately on the area being re is impractical to promptly redistribute . . . topsoil
revegetation of all land that is disturbed b y surface stored (2). on regraded areas."
m i n i n g activities shall occur as contemporaneously as
practicable w i t h mining operations." T h e reclamation Scrapers remove subs011and unconsoli 816.22(d) The regulations do not requiresubsoil to be Replacement of top-
plan[780.18], required as part of t h e application process, dated "drift" overburden (3) redistributinc replaced separately unless the RA deter- soil and cultivation
must contain "a detailed timetable for the completion of immediately (4) following rough grading mines that it IS necessary. In the case of
of the cast spoil. Part 823 prlme farmland [Part 8231 a minimum of 4'
each major step i n the reclamation plan."
of soil material must be reconstructed.
Section 816.101 requires that i n area strip mining
"rough backfilling and grading shall be completed within Drilling rig (5) bores blast holes, anc 816.61- Preblasting surveys may be required. All
180 days following coal removal a n d shall n o t b e more shoots unconsolidated overburden. 816.68 blasting must be between sunrise and sun-
than f o u r spoil ridges behind the pit being w o r k e d . . ." In set and a blasting schedule must be pub-
t h e i l l u s t r a t e d example, t h e o p e r a t o r i s ahead of t h i s lished
deadline. Dragline (6) digs and casts overburder
Contemporaneous reclamation demands very careful onto previously mined area.
allocation o f machinery and preplanning, but the Shovel (7) digs coal which is removed b) 701.5 Roads within the "immediate mining pit Haul roads
feasibility of contemporaneous reclamation i n area road trucks which are weighed and clean 816.150- area" are not subject to the performance
m i n i n g is a feature which makes this form of m i n i n g more ed (8) prior to entering the public high. 816.176 controls relating to haul raods in Part 816,
acceptable environmentally than most other forms of way but all others are.
surface extraction. I n the example shown, t h e operator Bulldozers carry out rough grading (9) o 816.101(a)(3)"Rough grading shall be completed within Rough backfilling and
has placed a temporary ramp across the pit t o reduce the overburden followed by replacement o 180 days following coal removal and shall grading
haul for scrapers carrying o u t contemporaneous unconsolidated overburden by scrapers not be more than four spoil ridges behind
stripping and replacement of unconsolidated overburden (4). Grading should approximate to gen. the pit being worked. . ."
and topsoil. era1 nature of pre-mining topography. 816.101(b)(l) "All disturbed areas shall be returned to
C o n t e m p o r a n e o u s reclamation ensures t h a t a their approximate original contour."
m i n i m u m part of the permit area i s d i s t u r b e d at one time 816.102(a) "Post-mining final graded slopes need not
a n d therefore t h e hazards of erosion a n d water pollution be uniform but shall approximate the gen-
are minimized. Note that i n t h e illustration t h e land at the eral nature of the pre-mining topography.
left of the site has already been regraded, topsoiled and Crawler (10) sacrifles the area prior tc 816.24(a) "After final grading and before the replace- Final
Replacement
grading of topsoil
revegetated. (Disturbance of the temporary spoil m o u n d the replacement of topsoil (2) to reduce ment of topsoil . . regraded land shall be
will o c c u r at a later date.) compaction of regraded spoil. On slopinc scarified. . ." and cultivation
The temporary spoil m o u n d and the stockpiles of sites, regrading operations should bc 816.102(e) "All final grading, preparation of over-
topsoil a n d subsoil are protected from erosion b y parallel to the contour. burden before replacement of topsoil . . .
shall be done along the contour. . ."
vegetation, a n d they will remain undisturbed until the
backfilling o f the final cut begins. Lime spreader (11) in operation and the 816.25 "Nutrients and soil amendments in the Soil amendments: lime
The diversions which carry overland flow f r o m the site necessary fertilizers are also spread. amounts determined by soil tests shall be and fertilizer
t o t h e sedimentation ponds are kept m o w n i n order that applied to the redistributed surface soil
the resistance of the grass t o erosion will n o t b e reduced. layer. . ."
O n e o f t h e sedimentation ponds shown here is being Cultivation and seeding (12) takes place. 816.111(b) "All revegetation shall be. . .carried out in a Revegetation: general
dredged. This is required when sediment accumulates t o These operations should be carefully manner which encourages a prompt vege- Revegetation: herb-
60% of t h e design sediment storage volume. timed and the seed mix chosen to ensure tative cover. . ." aceous species
I n order t o clarify the method of working, some satisfactory growth. The area must be 816.113 "Seeding. . shall be conducted during the Chemical stabilizers
machines are shown more than o n c e o n thisdrawing. It is mulched unless the RA suspends the re- first normal period for favorable planting Cover crops
unlikely for instance that, o n a site of this size, there quirements. conditions. . ." Mulches
w o u l d be 4 scrapers. Coaling m a y b e d o n e with a loader 816.114(a) "Suitable mulch. . .shall be used. . ."
rather than a shovel as shown, a n d t h e operator will be A temporary ramp (13) across the work- 816.100 This facilitates the requirement of the per-
able t o find other unrealistic details i n this example. ing pit reduces the haul for scrapers in- formance controls for contemporaneous
volved in contemporaneous stripping and reclamation.
regrading. It will be mined through and
then replaced by the dragline.
Grass in thewaterways is being mown (14) 816.43 "Hydrologic balance: diversions and con- Stream diversions:
as are the embankments of the sedimen- veyance of overland flow. . ." This Section overland flow
tation ponds to ensure the erosion resis- does not require diversions to be mown but Grass waterways
tance of vegetation. this will help to prevent erosion.
Sedimentation pond is being cleaned out 816.46(h) "Sediment shall be removed from sedimen- Sedimentation ponds
'Regulatory Program promulgatedby the Office of Surface Mmng of (15) because accumulations of sediment tation ponds when the volume of sediment
the Department of the Interlor In accordance with the Surface Mmng are reducing its effectiveness. accumulates to 60% of the design storage
Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. volume.
 AREA MINING: SINGLE SEAM OPERATION REQUIREMENT OF THE REGULATIONS* DATA SHEET
FINAL RECLAMATIONAND RESPONSIBILITYPERIOD PHASE 3 KEY DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION SECTION REQUIREMENT SHEET TITLE NO
The Regulations require not only restoration of land t o N 0 T E : T e x t ~ncludesreferences to illustration opposite.
pre-mining productivity levels but also require that
Bulldozers carry out grading in the final 816.101(b)(l) ". . . all disturbed areas shall be returned to Rough backfilling
changes i n quality a n d quantity of both surface water a n d
void (1) which has been partially filled their approximate original contour. All and grading.
groundwater are minimized [816.41]. from the box-cut stock pile (2). Dump spoil shall be transported, backfilled, Temporary spoil
Section 816.116 (b) (3) requires that the success of trucks (2) bring the loads of stockpiled compacted. . . and graded to eliminate all
revegetation of areas t o be used for cropland be judged i n overburden, partially back-filling the final highwalls, spoil piles and depressions."
comparison t o an approved reference area. Areas void. The highwall, which is still just 816.102(a) "Post-mining final graded slopes need not
proposed for pasture [816.115] must have a grazing showing (3), will be completely elimin- be uniform but shall approximate the
capacity equal t o that of similar non-mined lands. The ated. The depression (1.) will remain in general nature of the pre-mining topogra-
"period of extended responsibility" under the part to form a2-acre lakefor livestockalso phy." Stockpiling and transportation of
performance b o n d requirements of Subchapter J incorporating the sedimentation pond (4). box-cut spoil to the final cut is encour-
continues for a period of five years (in areas with more 816.49(a) aged. Permanent impoundments are pro-
than 26" of rain w h i c h includes all areas covered b y this hibited unless authorized by the RA.
Handbook). "Ground cover and productivity shall equal Scraper removes stockpiled subsoil (5) 816.23(b) Stockpiled materials shall not be disturbed Rough backfilling
the approved standard for the last t w o consecutive years for spreading on the backfilled cut (6). until "required for redistribution on a grading
of the responsibility period" [816.116(b) (1) (i)]. The area of this stockpile will require soil regraded area."
When permit areas are 40 acres or less, referenceareas amendments, cultivation and seeding.
as a standard f o r revegetation success c a n be replaced b y A ripper pulled by a crawler tractor (7) 816.24(a) "After final grading and before the re- Final grading
standards set o u t i n Section 816.116(d), and then only scarifies the regraded area to reduce the placement of topsoil . . . regraded land shall
with the approval of t h e RA. The responsibility period a n d compaction of regraded spoil prior to the be scarified . . ." "All final grading, prep-
replacement of topsoil (9). On sloping 816.102(e) aration of overburden before replacement
success standards are longer and more stringent o n
sites all regrading operations must be of topsoil . . . shall be done along the con-
prime farmland [Part 8231. carried out parallel to the contour. t o u r . . ."
Note that i n t h e illustrated example, a 2-acre lake (1)
has been proposed as a farm p o n d for livestock. Under Scraper returns to topsoil stockpile 816.24(b) "Topsoil . . . shall be redistributed in a Replacement of top-
Section 816.49(a) "permanent i m p o u n d m e n t s a r e (8) after spreading (9). After removal, manner that achieves an approximate soil and cultivation
prohibited unless authorized b y the RA." T h e proposal, stockpile area must be cultivated and uniform, stable thickness consistent with
seeded. In the case of prime farmland re- the approved post-mining land uses . . .
however, is q u i t e compatible with the proposed post-
fer to Part 823. prevents excess compaction. . . and pro-
mining uses a n d w o u l d probably be allowed. Unless
tects topsoil from . . . erosion . . ."
approval for this variance i s obtained f r o m the RA, Part 823
After final grading and topsoiling, this Topsoil requirements on prime farmland.
Section 816.101(b) (1) requires that "all spoil shall be area (10) was seeded with a temporary
transported, backfilled a n d graded t o eliminate all 816.114(c) "Annual grasses and grains may be used Cover crops
cover crop as the season was not correct
highwalls, spoil piles a n d depressions." This, i n effect, for seeding the permanent species. It is alone . . . or in conjunction with another
would disallow a n y o f the box-cut spoil remaining o n t h e mulch when the RA determines that they
now being cultivated and lime and fertil-
site of the temporary d u m p as has been shown (the will provide adequate soil erosion con-
izer spread before seeding perennial
trol and will later be replaced by Soil amendments; lime
wooded slope at the left will remain and t h e remainder species.
perennial species . . ." and fertilizer
graded t o a gentle slope). However, the RA has
discretionary powers t o establish the final provisions for Lime and nutrients have been applied in 816.113 "Seeding . . . shall be conducted during the Soil amendments. . .
the disposal of box-cut a n d it is felt that, i n this example, this area (11) which is being cultivated first normal period for favorable plant- Revegetation: Herb-
and seeded. The area must be mulched ing conditions after final preparation." aceous species
transportation o f box-cut spoil t o the final c u t is 816.114(a) "Suitable mulch . . . shall be used . . . The
after seeding unless the RA suspends the Mulches
encouraged i n order that the requirements of 816.101 (b) requirement. regulatory authority may . . . suspend the Chemical stabilizers
(1) for elimination o f highwalls, spoil piles a n d requirement for mulch, if . . ." (see Regu-
depressions b e satisfied t o a reasonable degree without lations)
requiring rehandling of all box-cut spoil. These areas (12) are being managed for 816.115 When the approved use is pasture land, Revegetation: General
Note that 816.102 specifies that slopes need n o t b e grazing and cropland. "The period of ex- the grazing capacity must be approx- Revegetation: Herb-
uniform but i n "general nature" should approximate t o tended responsibility" [816.116(b)] lasts mately equal to that of "similar non- aceous species
pre-mining topography. W i t h a bulkingfactorlessthanthe for 5 years and begins "when ground mined lands." This stand must be met
ratio of coal t o overburden, t h e final grades must b e lower cover equals the approved standard after for at least 2 years of the 5-year
than i n pre-mining terrain. The important consideration is the last year of augmented seeding, fertil- responsibility period.
izing. . .or other work. . ." Note that the 5- 816.116(b)(3)For areas to be used for cropland, success
t o make sure that surface drainage i s feasible across t h e
year responsibility period is applicable of revegetation will be judged by compar-
site which w o u l d make uneven lowering of the site where annual precipitation is more than ison with an approved reference area. Crop
necessary and occasionally changing convex slopes t o 2 6 (i.e., all areas covered by this Hand- production must be equal to or greater
concave thus insuring surface drainage. book). Elsewhere the period is 10 years. than that of the approved standard for the
last 2 growing seasons of the responsibility
period.
3,14 Sedimentation ponds (4,13,14) are still in 816.46(u) Sedimentation ponds shall not be removed Sedimentation ponds
position as all reclamation in areas until the disturbed area has been restored
drained by them has not been completed. and the revegetation requirements of
'Regulatory Program promulgated by the Office of Surface Mining o f
the Department of the Interlor in accordance with the Surface Mining
Sections 816.111-816.117 are met.
Control and Reclamation Act of 1977.
 OPERATION PROBLEMS REQUIREMENTS O F T H E REGULATIONS'
PRE-REGULATION KEY DESCRIPTION SECTION REQUIREMENT
In the eighteenth century coal was discovered out- (NOTE Text include ferences to ~llustrat~on
opposlte ) Part 826 This Part contains spec~alperformance stand-
cropping i n t h e hills of Virginia. Settlers began t o d i g i n t o - Mixing of topsoil, organic debris, subsoil, ards for mtnlng on steep slopes (20degrees
these outcrops, removing the coal until the amount o f Bulldozers push trees. and overburden makes topsoil utilization or more). This Part forb~dsplacement of any
vegetation, topsoil, spoil, waste or debr~son the downslope.
overburden above t h e coal became t o o great. Then drift impossible. Destruction of trees and
tunnels were c u t i n t o t h e seams. Overburden and debris subsoil, and unconsoli- vegetation on the downslope makes it high- 826.12(e) "Woody materials shall not be buried.. ."
from these operations were pushed over t h e downslope. dated overburden over 816.22(a) "Topsoil shall be removed after vegetative
ly erodible and sedimentation problems
the downslope (1). are serious. cover. . . is cleared."
With mechanization, it was possible t o remove m u c h The field (2) has
more overburden f r o m above the coal seam before it - Spoll dumps on the downslope are often 826.12(b) ". . .the minimum staticfactorofsafety for
been affected by a unstable and landslips are common. the stability of all portions of the re-
became uneconomic. All this spoil, together w i t h trees, landslip.
vegetation and debris was pushed onto the downslope. cla~medland is at least 1.3."
These spoil banks eroded, depositing huge volumes of Drilllng rig (3) bores - In most of Appalachia thereis littleground- 816.62 ". . . a resident or owner of a dwelling . . .
sediment i n the streams. The overburden lying directly blast holes and shoots water available and that which IS available within one-half mile" of a permit area may
consolidated overbur- is usually very localized. Fracturing of request a pre-blasting survey.
above the coal was usually dumped o n the t o p of these
den. overburden due to blasting, and excava- 816.52(a) "When surface mining activities may
spoil banks, and, because this often contained p y r i t e a n d
This farm (4), within 'h tion and augering can change the avail- affect theground watersystems ... ground
o t h e r a c i d - f o r m i n g minerals, t h e drainage f r o m t h e s e ability of groundwaterand affect base-flow water levels and ground water quality
banks was frequently h i g h l y acidic. mile of the permit area.
gets water from a shal- in streams. shall be periodically monitored."
Spoil dumped o n t o steep outslopes was very unstable - The quality of groundwater can also be 816.54 The operator must "replace the water
low well.
and landslips were c o m m o n . The high rainfall a n d t h e affected, usually by acid contamination. supply" where interruption of supply or
method of d u m p i n g resulted i n unconsolidated spoil with More spoil is dumped on the downslope, contamination has resulted from mining.
Bulldozer works to- -
avery lowshearstrength. Theshearstress was high i n the worsening both the instability problems 826.12(a) The operator "shall prevent the following
gether w i t h shovel
steep terrain. Slips of abandoned spoil banks resulted i n (5) removlng the re- and the destruction of vegetation. materials from being placed or allowed to
exposure of unweathered spoil which tended t o prolong mainder of the over- - Erosion of the highwall, bench, and spoil remain on th downslope' (A) spoil; (b)
the problem of acid mine drainage, and t o delay t h e burden and exposing on the downslope causes sedimentation waste materials . . . (C) debris . . . (D)
natural colonization o f vegetation. the coal. Spoil is pushed problems. abandoned. . . eauioment."
Auger m i n i n g helps t o increase the recovery of coal onto the downslope. - Acid-formlng spoils dumped on the top of 816.42(a)(l) "All surface drainage from the disturbed
when it is n o longer economic t o strip overburden f r o m spoil banks cause acid runoff. area . . . shall be passed through a sedi-
the seam. However, t h o u g h augering increases t h e Front-end loader digs - Pyrite, in and close to the coal seam, is ex- mentation pond . . ."
recovery of coal, i t has a l o w percent recovery rate and coal and loads truck (6) posed to weathering, causing serious acid 816.48 Acid pollution of surface water or ground
effectively makes i t impossible t o extract nearby coal b y which uses a coaling mine runoff. water shall be avoided by identifying and
deep mine operations i n t h e future. Unplugged auger road located on the pre- - Runoff from the bench gathers naturally burying acid-forming materials (within 30
holes are a serious source of acid m i n e drainage. viously mined bench. and cuts deep gullies as it pours over the days after it is first exposed) and pre-
Sometimes auger holes penetrated flooded, abandoned outslopes. venting water coming into contact with
deep mines releasing large quantities of polluted water. acid-forming materials.
Auger operation (7) in - Auger operations do increase the recovery
816.42(a)(7) Discharges of water from areas dis-
When coaling was complete the mine was abandoned progress removing add- of coal, where the resource cannot be
turbed by surface mining whlch are not
and natural succession began. However, the spoil banks itional coal from the extracted by the other methods. But the
within the pH range of 6.0-9.0 must be
o n the downslopes were steep and continued t o erode exposed outcrop. rate of recovery achieved by augering is
treated using an automatic neutralization
exposing m o r e acid-forming minerals t o weathering. very low and the auger holes prevent future
process, unless a manual system is
Hence revegetation has been very slow and surface extraction by other methods Augering has
approved by the RA.
waters i n Appalachia continue t o carry heavy sediment also, in the past, led to a worsening in "Any auger mining ...shall be conducted to
acid mine drainage. 819 11(a)
loads and large amounts of acid mine drainage. maximize recoverabilityo! mineral reserves..."
The new Regulations for mining i n steep terrain - This is due to increasing the oxidation of 819.11(b) "No auger hole shall be made closer than
specifically f o r b i d placement of spoil, temporarily o r pyrite by admitting oxygen into the seam 500 feet in horizontal distance to any aban-
permanently, o n the downslope. "Steep slopes" are and also to releasing contaminated water doned or active underground mine workings..."
from the seams and abandoned under- 819.11(c) "...each auger hole ...shall be plugged so
defined i n t h e Regulations as those slopes of 20 degrees
ground workings. In future the require- as to prevent the dischargeof waterfrom the
o r more and are subject t o the special performance ment for contemporaneous reclamation
controls of Part 826. However, operations i n steep terrain hole and access of air to the coal..."
will make programming of augering very 819.1 1( c ) ( l ) "Each auger hole discharging water con-
are also subject t o the provisions of the performance difficult for small operations. taining. . . acid-forming materlal shall be
standards of Part 816. These performance standards plugged within 72 hours after completion..."
make it necessary t o clear vegetation from all areas t o b e Abandonment (8 is not - Abandoned, underdrained surface mines 819.11(c)(2) Holes not discharging water must be
affected b y mining, t o retain all spoil and debris o n the shown) continue to produce acid and sedirnent- sealed within 30 days.
bench, t o eliminate the highwall and t o regrade thesite t o rich drainage for many years following 816.101(a)(l)"Rough backfilling and grading shall fol-
the approximate original contour, and t o revegetate the coal extraction. low coal removal by not more than 60
area. I n effect, this makes it necessary t o employ some - Problems have been well documented days or 1,500 linear feet."
type of haul-back mining. This substantially increases particularly in Appalachia (see Chapter 2). 826 12(b) "The highwall shall be completely cover-
the amount o f equipment needed which may be difficult Most of the water-related problems aredue ed with compacted spoil and the disturb-
for small mine operations. It also makes operational to erosion of steep, unstable spoil banks ed area graded . . . including, but not
p l a n n i n g essential, if t h e requirements f o r which continually exposes new spoil to limited to, the return of the site to the
contemporaneous reclamation are t o be met. weathering resulting in acld dra~nageand approximate original contour."
sedimentation, and preventing coloniza- 816.21- Topsoil must be stripped and replaced on
tion of vegetation which would eventually 816.24 all surface mining sites.
'Regulatory Programpromulgated by the Offlce of Surface M~ning of provide effective protection against further 816.111(a) Operators "shall establish on all affected
the Department of the Interror ~naccordance wrth the Surface Minrno erosion. land a diverse, effective, and permanent
Control and Reclamafron Act of 1977. vegetative cover ..."
 CONTOUR MINING OPERATION REQUIREMENT OF THE REGULATIONS' DATA SHEET
- -2
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PHASES I
.&

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-

OPERATIONS AND CONTEMPORANEOUSRECLAMATION KEY DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION SECTION REQUIREMENT SHEET TITLE NO.
-~ - - m

The crucial requirement of t h e Regulations which (NOTE:Text includes references to illustration opposite.)
makes previous methods of contour surface mining
Trees on areas which will be disturbed 816.22(a) "Topsoil shall be removed after vegetative I2learance of vegeta-
obsolete i s that n o spoil is t o be placed o n thedownslope, cover that would interfere with the use of t ion, removal of
or affected by disposal of excess spoil
temporarily o r permanently. This applies specifically t o are felled (1) and branches clipped for the topsoil is cleared. . ." t opsoil
mines where slopes are i n excess of 20 degrees (about mulch. 826.12(e) "Woody materials may be chipped and dis- IMulches
1:2.7 o r 37%). I n less steep terrain t h e conditions for tributed. . .as mulch.
m i n i n g require regrading t o the approximate original <Stream
Bulldozer creates runoff diversion (2) Part 826 This Part forbids the disturbance of land a- diversions:
contour, and elimination of the highwall. I n addition,
along upper edge of proposed highwall. bove the highwall but the RA may grant a Overland flow and
Section 816.102(a) (1) requires that all overburden and variance for reasons which include the
The runoff must then be directed across ephemeral streams
spoil b e retained o n the solid portion of existing and new the permit area in chutes (3) with pro- control of runoff. (3ass waterways
benches. tected outfalls. 816.43 "Overland flow. . .may be diverted away
A feasible way t o carry out c o n t o u r stripping i n from disturbed areas.. ." if approved by the
mountainous terrain without violating t h e conditions of RA.
t h e Regulations is the "Block C u t method" o f dragline 816.42(a)(l) "All surface drainage from the disturbed Sedimentation ponds
Sedimentation ponds (4) have been in-
utilization a n d t h e "Haul-back method." I n t h e latter a b o x stalled at all points where drainage area. . .shall be passed through asedimen-
c u t i s made, f r o m which the spoil i s placed permanently leaves the permit area, including the tation pond. . .before leaving the permit
o n a n excess spoil disposal site. T h e following drainage from the Valley fill (5). area." Note the provisions in 816.42(~)(4)
cuts m a y then proceed i n one o r b o t h directions along for overland flow which is diverted.
t h e contour, the spoil from subsequent cuts being
Only three levels of the Valley fill "Spoil not required to achieve the approx- [lisposal of excess
"hauled back" t o previously worked-out cuts. This imate original contour" to be disposed of in
(5) are completed. More fill will be spoil: Head-of-Hollow
technique n o t only avoids spoil o n t h e downslope but placed on this disposal site as mining accordance with Sections 816.71-816.74. and Valley fills
also satisfies the requirement for "contemporaneous proceeds, due to the high bulking fac- Shown here is a "Valley fill" which drains to
reclamation," where, i n thecase of contour mining, rough tor and the need to maintain working the edges of the fill mass. A Valley fill, un-
backfilling and regrading must f o l l o w c o a l i n g b y n o more space in the pit. like a Head-of-Hollow fill, need not fill the
than sixty days o r 1500 feet [816.101 (a) ( I ) ] . disposal site to the ridgeline.
T h e problem of disposal of excess fill is covered i n The Regulations require a minimumof 6 o f I3emoval and storage
Topsoil is removed by a bulldozer.
Sections 816.71-816.74. However, i n Section 816.101(b) The dozer has also destumped the area topsoil to be removed and redistributed (~f topsoil
(1) t h e Regulations specifically require that "spoil shall to make topsoil removal possible and immediately on regraded areas. Only if no
b e transported, backfilled. . . , and graded t o eliminate all is pushing soil down where it is being areas are available for redistribution may
highwalls, spoil piles . . ." Exceptions are where spoil i s loaded and hauled by a scraper (6). topsoil be stored. If 6 of topsoil is not avail-
n o t required t o achieve the "approximate original Often in steep terrain topsoil is thin able, a 6" layer of topsoil and unconsoli-
contour" [816.71 (a)]. But, strictly, unless there is a high and must be supplemented with consol- dated material below should be removed
overburden: coal ratio and swell (bulking) factor, most of idated material. and redistributed.
t h e box-cut spoil would be needed t o fill t h e final cut. It i s Drilling rig (7) bores blast holes and A pre-blasting survey of the well (8) has
assumed that the term "approximate original contour" shoots consolidated overburden. been carried out.
w o u l d permit some lowering of t h e original grade i n Pre-blasting survey of well (8). Ground water and surface water monitor-
vicinity of t h e final cut, providing there was sufficient ing may be required.
spoil t o eliminate the highwall and satisfy other grading A bulldozer pushes unconsolidated over- "An undisturbed natural barrier shall be I3ough backfilling and
requirements. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t i n t h e
S u p p l e m e n t a r y I n f o r m a t i o n [816.101-816.1051 t h a t
burden (9) to a front-end loader which provided beginning at the elevation of the <~rading;acid-forming
loads it for backhaul directly to a mined lowest coal seam to be mined and extend- Imaterial
stockpiling and transportation of box-cut spoil t o the final out area (12). Front-end loader digs and ing. . .for such a distance as may be deter-
c u t i s encouraged. Obviously, operators w o u l d prefer t o loads coal (10). mined by the RA. . ." This barrier must
place box-cut spoil once and for all, a n d then t o backfill remain undisturbed throughout operation.
t h e final c u t b y "borrowing" from adjacent cuts and this Acid-forming overburden, identified in 816.103(a) ". . . all exposed coal seams. . .and all acid- Idandling pit water:
procedure has been used i n this example. the overburden analysis is selectively forming materials" shall be covered by "a k i d mine drainage
I n t h e past, mine operators have tended t o prefer placed in the bottom of the pit (11). minimum of 4' of the best available non- kid-forming material
w o r k i n g methods which involved shifting overburden b y toxic and non-combustible material. . ."
pushing o r casting rather than b y loading and hauling.
Backfilling and rough grading in pro- 816.101(a) The requirement for contemporaneous I3ough backfilling
T h e latter is almost inevitably more expensive and
gress (12). Spoil hauled directly from reclamation in contour mining is that rough md grading
involves m u c h morecareful operational planning t o keep backfilling and grading shall follow coal re-
above coal seam. Note that the highwall
equipment fully utilized. It also requires m o r e equipment is still showing at this point. moval by not more than 60 days or 1500 ft.
which, for operatorsshort of capital, m a y b e a v e r y serious 826.12(b) "The highwall shall be completely covered
problem. However, haulback methods c a n solve the with compacted spoil and the disturbed
environmental problemsassociated w i t h c o n t o u r mining. area graded. . .including, but not limited to,
the return of the site to the approximate
- 'Regulatory Programpromulgatedby the Office of Surface Mining of
original contour."

-
the Department of the Interror rn accordance with the Surface Mining
Control and Reclamation Act of 1977.
- - - -
 CONTOUR MINING OPERATION REQUIREMENT OF THE REGULATIONS'
--
DATA SHEET
FINAL RECLAMATION & RESPONSIBILITY PERIOD PHASE 3 KEY DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION SECTION REQUIREMENT SHEET TITLE NO.
S h o w n here i s t h e site illustrated o n t h e t w o previous ( NOTE Text ~ncludesreferences to ~llustrat~on
opposlte 1
pages u n d e r g o i n g final reclamation a n d revegetation. I n
In the far distance ( I ) , mining opera- 816.101(a) "Rough backfilling and grading shall follow Rough backfilling
t h e far distance (1) m i n i n g operations are continuing.
tions are still in progress, followed coal removal by not more than 60 daysor 1500 and grading
N o t i c e t h a t t h e Valley fill (2) has n o w been completed a n d by backfilling and rough grading. linear feet.
has been revegetated.
The Valley fill (2) has been completed 816.72 Performancestandards for Valley fills include Disposal of excess
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that terraces as s h o w n here m u s t specifications for underdrains, terraces, etc. spoil: Head-of-
have t h e approval o f t h e R A a n d must b e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h and revegetated. The sedimentation
The vertical distance between terraces should Hollow and Valley
t h e approved post-mining land use. T h e sedimentation pond at the toe is still in place. not exceed 50 ft. fills
p o n d (4) is b e i n g cleaned out. The RA's approval f o r The approval of the RA has been obtained 816 102(b) "On approval by the RA ... cut-and-fill terraces Terraces
retaining this after reclamation has been obtained. for the use of terraces (3) in the re- may be allowed..." The width of the individual
Grading o f reclaimed land must b e t o "approximate stored land. The diversion above the terrace bench shall not exceed20ft.. unless ... Grass waterways
original c o n t o u r " a n d m u s t eliminate the highwall, spoil highwall is the first terrace. These approved by the RA as necessary forstability,
terraces have a gentle gradient to erosion control, or roads included In the ap-
piles a n d depressions [816.101(b) ( I ) ] . Providing these proved postmining land use plan." The out-
conditions are m e t t h e operator has s o m e flexibility i n direct flow to a safe discharge polnt;
in this case, the riprap channel leading slope of 'terraces "shall not exceed lv:2hM
grading, provided that the slopes "approximate the unless approved by RA
to the sedimentation pond (4).
general nature o f pre-mining topography." T h e 816.46(h) "Sediment shall be removed ... when the vol- Sedimentation ponds
importance o f g o o d grading and revegetation i n The sedimentation pond (4) is being ume of sediment accumulates to 60% of the
conservation o f water resources b y minimizing erosion is cleaned out. This must be done if design sediment storage volume."
emphasized. Terraces m a y be approved b y the R A t o h e l p sediment accumulates to 60% of the 8i6.46(~) "Sedimentation ponds shall not be removed
design sediment storage volume Sedi- until.. . "revegetation requirements have been
achieve t h i s [816.102(b)]. Improved access t o forest land met If the RA approves retention of a sedi-
mentation ponds must remain until
i n steep terrain via roads located on t h e terraces w o u l d mentatlon pond it must meet the requirements
the site is revegetated but permanent
m a k e m o r e effective utilization o f commercial forest l a n d for permanent impoundment. [816.49and 816.561
retention requires RA's approval.
feasible. 816.102(e) "All final grading, preparation of overburden Final grading
F o r areas w h i c h are t o b e reclaimed f o r c o m m e r c i a l Final grading operations (5 is not before replacement of topsoil . . . shall be
forestry, w o o d l a n d planting for wildlife, recreation, o r shown) including scarification should done along the contour ."
non-commercial-forest uses, the success o f revegetation be done along the contour, unless this 816.24(a) "After final grading.. . regraded land shall be
is hazaradous to equipment operators. scarified ..."
i s judged b y comparison t o a "reference area." A n
inventory o f t h i s area, including what is g r o w i n g a n d i n Topsoil (6) should be spread as part of 816 24(b) Topsoil should be distributed to ach~eve"an Replacement of top-
a contemporaneous operation with topsoil approximate un~form,stable thickness." Top- soil and cultivation.
what numbers, m u s t b e carried o u t [816.117(c) ( I ) ] .
soil should be protected from erosion after it Soil amendments.
If t h e approved post-mining land use is commercial removal. The dozer here isseenspreading
IS seeded and planted. lime and fertilizer.
forestry, a five-year "period of responsibility" begins as topsoil. This slope is too steep for "Nutrients and soil amendments in the a-
soon as the area has been replanted a n d there are a t least along the contour operation, but the mounts determined by soil tests shall be ap-
cleat marks of the tracks help prevent plied to the redistributed surface soil layer ..."
450 trees a n d s h r u b s "alive and healthy" p e r acre f o r t w o
erosion. Lime and fertilizer are applied
g r o w i n g s e a s o n s [817.117(a) (ii)]. F o r c o m m e r c i a l 816.111- Requirements for revegetation. The species
and then the hillside is cultivated with a
forestry, 75% o f t h e s e s h o u l d becommercial treespecies. 816.117 used depend upon the approved postmining
slope disc (7). land use. However, generally they should be
A t t h e t i m e o f request f o r b o n d release the s t o c k i n g o f
Seed, fertilizer, mulch and binder are native species of the same type and variety as
trees a n d shrubs on the reclaimed area m u s t b e a least are found locally and they must be capable of
90% o f that on t h e reference area. In addition, t h e g r o u n d often applied to steep slopes in one mix Mulches
controlling erosion
by a hydroseeder (8); or, a power mulcher 816.113 "Seeding...shall be conducted during the first Chemical stabilizers
cover m u s t b e at least 70% of that o n t h e reference area
may spray seeded slopes with mulch after normal period for favorable planting conditions..." Cover crops
a n d m u s t b e adequate t o control erosion. seeding. If the season is not correct
Section 816.117 also sets o u t requirements f o r for permanent revegetation, a cover crop 816.117(b) Areas reclaimed for forestry must havea mini- Fievegetation:
revegetation o f non-commercial forest land, f o r wildlife, mum stocking of 450 trees or shrubs/acre. general
should be used.
and of these 75% shall be commercial tree Revegetation: trees
recreation, etc. Thefive-yearresponsibility period begins
Hand planting (9) of tree and shrub species. When the stocking is equal to or
when t h e s t o c k i n g o f trees and shrubs o n t h e reclaimed and shrubs
species is being carried out. Direct greater than 450 trees/acre the five-year
area i s 90% o f t h a t o n t h e reference area. As is the case f o r responsibility period begins.
seeding tree and shrub species with grass Revegetation:
commercial forest land, at the time of request f o r b o n d 816.116(d) On permit areas of less than 40 acres, stock-
and herbaceous species has not been ing of 400 trees or shrubs/acre (600 on steep herbaceous species.
release, stocking o f trees a n d shrubs shall b e 90% o f that very successful. Competition from her- slopes) must be achieved.
on the reference area a n d ground cover must b e a t least baceous species has resulted in poor per-
70% o f that on t h e reference area. formance of trees and shrubs. The 816.117(c) ". . . for areas where woody plants are used for
Where p e r m i t area is less than 40acres, t h e "reference wildlife management, recreation, shelter belts,
performance standards emphasize that or forest uses other than commercial forest
area" need n o t b e used if approved b y the RA. A t least 400 whatever stocking rate and ground cover land...the stocking of trees...and ground
(600 o n steep slopes) trees a n d shrubs m u s t b e is applicable, vegetation must be ade- cover ...shall approximate the stocking and
maintained f o r five full consecutive years a n d g r o u n d quate to control erosion. ground cover" on the approved reference area.
cover w h i c h a m o u n t s t o 70%. The erosion gully (10) which has oc- 816.116 The requirements of performance standards Revegetation
curred here must be filled and re- with respect to the responsibility period vary
according to the approved postmining land

m
'Regulatory Programpromulgated by the Offrceof Surface Mmng of
- seeded if it is more than 9" deep
[Section 816.1061.
use. The period begins when the approved
stocking rate and ground cover are met. The
period ends after five years if stocking rate
the Department of the Interior ,n accordance wrth the Surface ~ ! n , n ~ and ground cover meet standards specified
- Control and Reclamatron Act of 1977.
L
. - for each ~ostmininaland use in Section 816.116.
MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL OPERATION REQUIREMENT OF THE REGULATIONS'
OPERATIONS &CONTEMPORANEOUS RECLAMATION PHASES 1 & 2
DATA SHEET
KEY DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION SFCTlON REQUIREMENT SHEET TITLE NO
Part 824 of t h e Regulations states that the objectives of (NOTE: Text includes references to illustrationopposite.:
Mountaintop Removal are "to enhance coal recovery" The abandoned bench (1) from an old 824.11(a)(6) "An outcrop barrier of sufficient width" Operation -
and "to reclaim t h e land t o equal or t o higher post-mining contour mining operation is modified to must be retained at the toe of the lowest General 6:1
use," and t o protect environmental values. act as a runoff diversion during working of coal seam, unless this was removed "prior Stream diversions:
In the example shown here, t w o coal seams w i t h a site. In some sections this bench is 816.150- to May 3, 1978. . ." Overland flow 6:4
parting of about 15' r u n right through t h e ridge. The also used as a haul road. 816.176 Roads (Class I, Class II and Class Ill) Haul roads 6:2
outcrop of t h e lower of these seams was contour-mined Topsoil stockpiles (2) are mulched 816.23(b) Topsoil protection "shall be accomplished Removal and storage
several years ago. Hence, the performance standard t o and seeded with a cover crop. either by an effective cover of . . . plants of topsoil 6%
retain a n outcrop barrier [824.11 (a) (6)j does n o t apply. o r . . . other methods . . ." Cover crops 7:l
Excess spoil is being disposed of i n the Head-of-Hollow Sedimentation ponds (3) installed at 816.42(a)(l) "All surface drainage from the disturbed Sedimentation ponds 6.3
fill o n the left o f the pictures. A Head-of-Hollowfill (which all points where runoff leaves the area . . . shall be passed through a sedi-
drains t o a central rock chimney drain), rather than a permit area and at toe of Head-of- mentation pond. . ."
Valley fill (which drains t o the sides of the fill mass) is Hollow f i l l ( 8 ) . Discharge points 816.47 "Discharge from sed~mentationponds...shall
permissible i n this example as the disposal site will b e protected with riprap. be controlled ...riprap ...where necessary..."
filled t o the level of t h e adjacent ridgeline [816.73]. Logging teams (4) fell all timber on 816.22(a) "Topsoil shall be removed after vegetative Clearance of vegetation
A l t h o u g h M o u n t a i n t o p Removal o p e r a t i o n s a r e site in advance of earth-moving. All cover that would interfere with the use of Removal and storaae of
generally o n a m u c h larger scale than contour mining, it branches and other vegetataion used the topsoil is..cleared from the areas to be topsoil
.
iseasierto keepall drainagewithin t h e s i t e a n d t o l i m i t t h e as mulch on reclaimed areas. Dozers disturbed. . :'
discharge t o certain specified points. This makes the destump and scraper removes (5) top- 816.45(b)(1) "The smallest practicable area" is disturbed
control of water pollution, particularly sedimentation a n d soil and subsoil to be spread on area at any one time during the mining operation.
acid mine drainage, m u c h more effective. Section being reclaimed.
824.1 1(a) (8) requires that t h e restored land "drain inward Dozers (6) push unconsolidated over- 816.22(e) Selected unconsolidated overburden may
from t h e outslope, except at specified points where it burden down to the first bench where be used as a topsoil substitute in certain
drains over the outslope i n stable a n d protected it is loaded into dump trucks and circumstances.
channels." hauled to the area being backfilled 816.71 Performance controls covering the dispoal 3isposal of excess
In order t o c o n d u c t Mountaintop Removal, a variance and rough-graded (7) or for disposal 816.74 of excess spoil. ;poi1
in Head-of-Hollow fill (8).
from the requirement of 816.101(b) (1) for restoring
affected areas t o their "approximate original contour" Drilling rig (9) drills and shoots 816.101(b)(l)Only if a variance from the requirement to 3isposal of excess
consolidated overburden which is restore land to the "approximate original spoil
must b e granted b y the RA. Mountaintop Removal loaded by shovel (10) and hauled to contour" is granted may spoil be disposed
realizes an opportunity t o create terrain which is suitable either Head-of-Hollow fill (8) or to of in excess spoil disposal areas.
for urban and agricultural development i n country which reclamation area (7). 816.72(b)(l) Drainage of Head-of-Hollow fill.
is steep and where development land is i n short supply. A
permit for Mountaintop Removal can only be given when Coaling (11) of the upper seam with a 824.11(a)(10)"All waste and acid-forming materials . . . kid-forming material
"an industrial, commercial, agricultural, residential o r front-end loader and trucks. All toxic- are covered with non-toxic spoil t o pre- iandling pit water,
forming overburden is backfilled in the vent pollution and achieve the approved acid mine drainage
public facility (including recreational facilities) use" is bottom of the cut (12). post-mining land use. . ."
proposed and approved for the affected land [785.14].
The amount of machinery and the scale of operation The stripping of the parting between the 816.100 Overburden which is not being disposed 7ough backfilling
required for efficient Mountaintop Removal operations i s upper and lower seams (13 is not shown). of as excess spoil must be reclaimed as md grading
large a n d consequently only a few small m i n e operators Contemporaneous reclamation and rough contemporaneously as possible. The
will have sufficient resources t o carry out a n operation of grading continues (7). 816.101 period is not specified for Mountaintop
this type. However, w e show hereafairly small operation. Removal.
Some of the machinery is shown more than o n c e i n order Dragline is rough grading spoil (14) Part 072 Funds are provided to reclaim abandoned
t o explain t h e working of the site more clearly. Note that which had been dumped on the outslope mine land.
during an old contour mining operation.
the o l d bench f r o m contour mining operations isadapted
t o intercept runoff from the reclaimed area of t h e site. Excessive compaction of regraded spoil 824.11(a)(7) Slope requirements for reclamation of lough backfilling
I n this example w e a l s o s h o w t h e reclamation of orphan is being broken up with ripper (15). Mountaintop Removal operations. ~nd grading
land from a previous mining operation being carried out These operations must be carried out 816.102(e) "All final grading, preparation of over- 'inal grading
as part of this m i n i n g operation. In this case, after along the contour. burden before replacement of topsoil . . .
regrading spoil w h i c h had been dumped o n the outslope. shall be done along the contour . . ."
selected unconsolidated overburden is being used as a Scraper (16) replacing topsoil imme- 816.23(a) Topsoil "shall be stockpiled only when it leclamation: General
topsoil substitute. diately following stripping (5). Re- is impractical to promptly redistribute inal Grading
placement of topsoil should be carried 816.102(e) . . ." "Placement of topsoil shall be done leplacement of top-
out along contour. along the contour to minimize subsequent oil and cultivation
erosion and instability."
Reclamation operations involving 816.25 "Nutrients and soil amendments.. . shall be .#oil amendments
spreading and incorporation of lime applied to the redistributed surface soil Llulches
and fertilizer, cultivation, seeding. layer ..." zhemical stabilizers
'Regulatory Program promulgated by the Off~ceof Surface Mining of mulching and planting (17 not shown). 816.114 M u l c h i n g and o t h e r s o i l s t a b i l i z i n g
the Department of the Interior in accordance w~ththe Surface Mining 3evegetation
Control and Reclamatmn Act of 1977. 816.111 practices. Revegetation.
-816.117
FINAL RECLAMATION h RESPONSIBILITY PERIOD PHASE 3
- - -
MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL OPERATION REQUIREMENT O F T H E REGULATIONS* D A T A SHEET
FINAL RECLAMATION & RESPONSIBILITY PERIOD PHASE 3 EY DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION SECTION REQUIREMENT SHEET TITLE NO.
I n order t o be granted a variance f r o m the requirement OTE: Text includes references to illustration opposite)
t o restore land t o the approximate original contour,
Though no period isspecified in the Reg- 816.100 "Reclamation efforts. . shall occur as con- ?ough backfilling
necessary for a Mountaintop Removal operation, an
ulations for Mountaintop Removal, temporaneously as practicable with mining ind grading
applicant must plan t o create terrain suitable for urban, reclamation must be carried out as con- 816.101(a) operations." A time limit for backfilling and 3eclamation: General
agricultural o r public facility development. Any proposal temporaneously as possible. rough grading would be specified by the
t o create post-mining land uses which are different from RA for Mountaintop Removal.
existing uses must be consistent with the plans of the
local planning agency and must also b e accompanied b y Note the "gently rolling configuration" 824.1 1(a)(7) "The final graded slopes on the mined area Final grading
(1) of the regraded site. Thisavoids giving [shall be] less than lv:5h so as to create a Replacement of top-
a feasibility study [816.133(c)]. T h e Regulations also
the appearance of a "sawn-off" mountain level plateau or gently rolling configuration, soil
specify that a proposed change of use must not result i n and the outslopes of the plateau (shall not) Soil amendments
or ridgetop.
unreasonable delays i n reclamation. I n this example exceed lv:2h. . ." Mulches
m i x e d uses including residential, commercial, light
industrial, warehousing a n d recreation are shown, either Drainage from the regraded area must 824.11(a)(8) The regraded area is to "drain inward from Grass waterways
under construction or i n use. only drain off the site at specified points the outslope, except at specified points
(2). Internal drainage within the site where it drains over the outslope in stable
T h e A c t requires that the final graded slopes be less should be directed to these points in and protected channels."
than l v : 5 h s o as "to createalevel plateau o r g e n t l y rolling stable grass waterways (3).
configuration." In steep mountainous terrain, ridges and
Note that the Head-of-Hollow fill (4) is 816.73(a) "The fill shall be designed to completely fill Disposal of
mountains graded t o level plateaus may destroy the now complete and that it fills the disposal the disposal site to the approximate eleva- sxcess spoil
character of the landscape. However, it is hoped that this site to the low point of the adjacent ridge. tion of the ridgeline."
example illustrates t h e way i n w h i c h restored earthforms 816.73(b) Design of rock-core chimney drain system.
c a n be blended i n t o the existing topography while still The two sedimentation ponds (5,6) have 816.46(u) "Sedimentation ponds shall not be re- Sedimentation ponds
satisfying t h e conditions of Mountaintop Removal. One been removed. This must not be done un- moved until the disturbed area has been
c o n d i t i o n is that reclaimed land must be graded "to drain til the site is restored and the revegetation restored, and the vegetation requirements
i n w a r d from the outslope except at specified points, requirements are met. The regraded of Section 816.111-816.117 are met. . ." Grass waterways,
where i t drains over t h e outslope i n stable and protected channel contains rock plunge pools and 816.47 "Discharge from. . .diversionsshall be con- zhutes, flumes, etc
channels." This should not be interpreted t o mean that riffles to prevent erosion of the channel. trolled by energy dissipators, riprap chan-
t h e regraded sites should b e a shallow concave area nels and other devices where necessary.. ."
draining inwards t o one point. The use of the term The gully (7) shown here, if greater than 816.106 "When. . .gullies deeper than 9" form. . .
"inward" is t o ensure that all drainage flows within the 9" deep, should be filled and stabilized. (they) shall be filled, graded, or otherw~se
regraded area except at the specified points (as i n the stabilized and the area reseeded or re-
drawing). planted. . ."
Even if the land is proposed for urban development, the The outslope (8) from the abandoned 816.116(b)(3)"For previously mined areas.. ." theground
requirement of t h e Regulations regarding the contour mining operation has been re- cover of living plants shall not be less than
claimed as part of the operation. Some can be supported by the best available top-
replacement of topsoil still holds. Revegetation must also
subsoil "borrowed" from the Mountaintop soil or other suitable materm in the reaffect-
b e carried out, sufficient t o control erosion prior t o ed area. . ." The ground cover must be ade-
Removal operation was used to cover this
construction. "For areas t o b e developed for industrial o r slope which was then seeded and mulch- quate to control erosion and not be less
residential use less than t w o years after regrading is ed. than that existing before mining.
completed, the g r o u n d cover of living plants shall not b e The entire disturbed area, except water 816.1 11 The general requirements for revegetation. ?evegetation. General
less than required t o control erosion." All other areas are areas and roads, shall be vegetated. This 816.1 12 Use of introduced species requires approval. ?evegetation: Trees
subject t o the standards of success for revegetation set applies also to land approved for urban 816.113 Revegetation to be carried out during first and Shrubs
o u t i n 816.116 and a five-year period of responsibility development. Because there are several favorable period. qevegetation: Herb-
d u r i n g which the operator is responsible for managing different post-mining land uses on this 816,97(d)(11)"Where the primary land use is to be resi- aceous species
t h e area. Standards for success will vary according t o the site, the requirements for revegetation dential, public service, or industrial land 'ost-mlning land
proposed and approved postmining land use. differ. Generally vegetation of areas plan- use, intersperse reclaimed lands with uses
Buildings, roads, sewers, etc., constructed o n regraded ned for urbanization within two years greenbelts utilizing species of grass, shrubs
spoil m a y be subject t o settlement damage. This hazard must be capable of effective erosion con- and trees useful as food and cover for birds
trol. Areas designated for recreational and small animals. . ."
m a y be serious where overburden is largely open space will have a requirement for The standards for success of revegetation
616,116
unconsolidated material and w h e r e i t iscast with ashovel number of trees and shrubs and for are judged by comparison to a "reference
o r dragline (not the case i n t h e illustrated example). ground cover. Areas planned for grazing area." When the ground cover and produc-
Where there is a danger of settlement occurring, must have a capacity equal to that of non- tivity of plants on the revegetated area
buildings should have a reinforced concrete pad founda- mined land. equals that of the reference area for two
t i o n o r construction should not take place until settle- consecutive years during a five-year "re-
m e n t has ceased. sponsibility period." the operator Can
Note that the "period of extended respon- request bond release. There are different
sibility" under the performance bond re- 816.116(b) standards for previously mined land and for
quirement of the Regulations applies even 816.116(b)(3)areas to be developed for urban uses within
where urban development is approved for two years.
'Regulatory Program promulgatedby the Office of Surface Mming and the post-mining land-use. The period
the Department of the Interior in accordance with the Surface Mmng runs for 5 years for all areas covered in
Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. this Handbook.
CHAPTER 5

PRE-MINING SURVEYS, PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

EXPLORATION AND PLANNING FOR EXPLORATION
The Regulations of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act The performance standards for exploration require that unique habitats
(1977) contain specific pre-mining planning requirementswhich are part of for fish or wildlife should not be disturbed [816.15(a)]. The standards also
the application and permit process [Parts 779, 780, and 7851. However, require that vehicular traffic should be minimized and restricted t o graded
besides requiring preplanning, t h e Regulations dictate stringent and surfaced roads during periods when excessive damage to vegetation
performance standards [Subchapter K ] containing contemporaneous would occur [815.15(~)(1)]. Depending on whether new roads in the
reclamation requirements and other measures which make preplanning exploration area are used more or less than 6 months, they need to comply
essential if the operation is to meet the requirements. Because the with 816.150-816.166 or 816.170-816.176. Existing roads used during
requirements of the Act were recognized by Congress to place afinancial exploration shall, after exploration activities are completed, be reclaimed
burden on the SMO. "provisions were made for the RA to pay a qualified so that the requirements in 816.150-816.166 are met. All areas disturbed by
laboratory to make certain hydrologic and geologic analyses" required by exploration shall be revegetated with a cover sufficient t o stabilize the soil
the Regulations (Section 507(c) of the Act). The small operator is still surface in regards t o erosion. Requirements for handling and disposal of
required t o meet these Regulations. acid-forming toxic-forming materials in 816.48 and 816.103 must be met.
The Regulations differentiate between exploration operations involving Also the requirements for casing and sealing bore holes in 816.13, 816.14
the removal of less than 250 tons of coal [776.11] and those involving the and 816.15 must be met.
removal of more than 250 tons of coal [776.12]. Operators removing less
than 250 tons in an area to beexplored need only file awritten noticeof their
intention to explore [776.11(a)] but their actual operations are subject t o
exploration performance standards [Part 8151. If the exploration is
successful the operator must follow the normal application procedure t o
PLANNING
obtain a permit to extract the coal. If compliance with the Act is first approached with the procedure of
Premining surveys should seek to maximize the amount of information interpreting the Regulations one by one, individually, the process becomes
gained during each stage of exploration and subsequently at each stage of very complex. Table 7 serves t o capsulize this stage of premining planning
the operation. "For instance it should be possible to justify follow-up in order to communicate more e a s ~ l ywhat needs to bedone. Thecontext i n
investigations based o n the few bore holes made while looking for a coal which this Table was prepared is that premining planning is an essential
prospect" (1). EPA (1978) suggests that drill holes should be maintained as and critical stage of the surface mining process because, given that certain
observation points in case mining is feasible. The exploration holesshould environmental criteria are required by law, this stage allows the SMO t o
be plugged only if it is decided that mining is not feasible or when the comply as effortlessly and as economically as possible. The aspects of
necessary data has been obtained from them. Even then some should be planning as they are presented in the Table are, roughly, in the order in
maintained as observation wells to monitor groundwater during mining which they should be approached so that the broadest areas are covered
operations. Thus the cost of premining surveys can be minimized by first. In the actual planning prcess the SMO will jump back and forth
coordinating the requirements with exploration efforts. Parizek also between stages i n order to tie it all together.
emphasizes that a manual of practice t o guide premining planning cannot
be written with a series of hard and fast rules for each proposed mine n o
matter what the hydrological and geochemical setting. Rather he suggests
the planners and developers of modern surface mines must be fully aware
of the principles of geology, hydrology, and geochemistry and they must
carefully apply these principles during premining planning. Parizek calls
for innovation and creativity both in the design of mines and remedial
programs associated with mine reclamation (1).

REFERENCES
Ramani, R.V and Clar, M.L., 1978, "Users' Manual for Premining Plannlng of Eastern Surface Coal Mining - Executive Summary," lntragency
Energy/Envlronmental Research and Development Program Report. EPA 60017-78-180
Earl, T.A.. June 1976, "Strip M~neRestoration Through Solid Waste Disposal," Society of Mining Engineers, AlME Transactions Volume 280.
Grandt, A.F.. Aug 1974, "Reclamation Problems in Surface Mining," Mining Congress Journal.
Grube, W.E.. Jr. et al., 1973, "Characterizatlon of Coal Overburden Materials and Mme Spoils in Advance of Surface Mining," West Virginia University,
Morgantown. WV.
Plass, W.T., Nov 1975, "Reclamation of Surface Mined Lands." Ohio Journal of Science, (75-6), pp. 298-304.
Despard. T.L.. 1974. "Avoid Problem Spoils Through Overburden Analysis." USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report, NE-10.
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, Undated, "Preplanning Surface Mining for Outdoor Recreat~on,"US Department of the Interior.
Division of Plant Sciences, Dec 1971. "Mine Spoil Potentials for Water Quality and Controlled Erosion," College of Agriculture and Forestry, West
Virginia University, EPA Project #I4010 EJE.
Phelps. L.B., June 1978, "Some Relationships Between Strip Mining and Ground Water." Earth and Mineral Sciences. Penn State University.
Volume 47 No. 9.
West Virginia DNR, 1975, "Drainage Handbook for Surface Mmng," Division of Reclamation.
Smith. R.M., et al., Oct 1974, "Mine Spoil Potentials for Soil and Water Quality." College of Agriculture and Forestry. West Virginia
University, EPA 670/2-74-070.
Kimball. L.R.. 1975, "Slope Stability: Volume 1 - Report and Field Book." Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection,
Frankfort, KY.
Wischmeir, W.H. and Smith. D.D., 1965. "Predicting Rainfall - Erosion Losses from Cropland East of the Rocky Mountains," Agricultural
Handbook #282 USDA.
Ralston, D.S. and Wiram, V.P., Jan 1978. "The Need for Selective Placement of Overburden and Equipment Considerations," Mining CongressJournal.
Chironis, N.P. (Ed.), June 1977, "Deep Drilling for New Coal Sources," Coal Age, pp. 74-76.
Smith. R.M. and Sobek. A.A.. 1978. "Physical and Chemical Properties of Overburdens. Spoils. Wastesand New Soils," Proc. Reclamationof Drastically
Disturbed Lands Symp., Schaller. F.W. and Sutton, P. (Eds.). ASA. CSSA. SSSA, Madison, WI.
Riddle. J M, and Saperstem. L.W , 1978. "Premlning Planning to Maxlmize Effective Land Use and Reclamation," Proc. Reclamation of Drastically
Disturbed Lands. Symp.. Schaller. F.W. and Sutton, P. (Eds.). ASA. CSSA, SSSA. Madison, WI.
TABLE 7
ASPECTS
OF
PLANNING INFORMATION NEEDED* COMMENTS
(In chronological order) (To carry out premlnlng plannlng) This column polnts out the benefits which result from compliance with the
A narrative descrip- This column introduces the process of Data Gathering Regulations, thereby providing some incentive for the SMO.
tion of each aspect and the process of Data Presentatton, which are
needs to be ~ncludedin required m the Surface Minmg Permit Application
the Permit Appltcation. process.

SlTE INFORMATION Primarily information from existing maps (e.g. Getting an overview of all the environmental data at the outset
M ~ n elocat~on topography, geology) [General review of these enables the SMO to anticipate problems which are likely to occur
Sue sections: 779.24, 779.25, 780.141; Criteria for and to plan his operation to meet the requirements.
Breakdown of designating lands as unsuitable [Part 7621; SMO will discover if there are any areas which he will not be allowed
Area to be Sequence and timing of activities [779.12(a)]; to mine.
D~sturbed Cultural and Historic Resources [779.12(b), Enables SMO to have a more certain schedule, to be more efficient
Est~matedDurat~on 780.311; Land-use [770.22(a)(l)], especially in his overall operation, to plan for his next job.
of A c t ~ v ~ t ~ e s prime farmland investigation [779.27(a), 785.171; A disadvantage of advanced planning is that the SMO will not be as
General information on Hydrology and Geology flexible in responding to the severe fluctuations in demand on the
[779.13(b)(l)], Climate [779.18(a)] and Vegeta- spot market.
tion [779.19], and Fish and Wildlife Resources Discovering all the information about the factors which affect
[779.20]. degree of environmental degradation enables the SMO to sequence
and time his activities so that his costs of reclamation are not excessive.

MINING TYPE TO BE Detailed analysis of Geology [779.14], including SMO will have clarity in scheduling activities; after this choice is
PRACTICED Groundwater [779.15] and the Coal Seam made he can be more specific about the "breakdown of aces to be
Area [779.22(b), 780.1 1(a). 779.25(c)]; Detailed disturbed" and the "estimated duration of activities."
Contour review of Sections 779.24. 779.25, and 780.14. SMO can see what equipment is needed where and when. This
Mountaintop Study the requirements for Permits for special information also will show whether theSMO must apply for a permit
Removal categories of mining [Part 7851. for a special category of mining. This stage is an opportunity forthe
Auger SMO to plan to reclaim any abandoned surface-mine land in thearea
Experimental and to apply for grants for that.
Also, careful attention needs to be given to any abandoned under-
ground mines in the area so that they are notaccidentally broken into.

POST-MINING Analysis of productivity of existing soils Waste-land will be eliminated as an end product. The SMO will have
LAND-USE [779.21(a)(4)]; Details of Land-use [779.22]; land that has a marketable value. There is the potential that the
State and Local Land-use Plans [780.23(a)(4)]; A restored land may be more productive than before mining. After this
description of alternative uses and the support- choice is made, all operations can be planned to efficiently provide
ing details of proposed use [780.23]. for the land-use.
Compatibility with the local community and long-term community
needs.

SITE PREPARATION Slopes analysis [779.25(k)]; Surface water infor- Enables SMO, with little effort as possible to preserve water quality
Erosion Control mation [779.16]; Alternative sources of water and to control erosion and sedimentation.
Vegetation Clearing supply [779.17]; Degree ofsoil erodibility [779.21]; Enables SMO to plan for the use of vegetation debris for mulch for
Topsoil Conservation Water resources protection measures [780.11(b), soil preparation for revegetation and to conserve topsoil.
Other Premining 780.14(b)]; Details of Climate [779.18], Vegeta- Improves public relations through the appreciation of clean streams
Activities tion [779.19], and Fish and Wildlife [779.20]. and the overall aesthetic quality.

OVERBURDEN REMOVAL Physical properties of each stratum within over- Maintains SMO's position in publiceye through careforenvironmen-
Blasting burden [779.14(b)(l)] and Chemical Analyses; tal quality.
Handling Overburden Details of blasting procedures [780.13]; Dust Minimizes earthmovinghegrading to produce reclaimed land.
Overburden Placement control practices [780.15]; Overall Hydrologic Minimizes costs.
balance protection [780.21]; Earthworks [780.18 Minimizes costs in preventing acid-mine drainage.
(b)(3), 780.18(b)(4)]; Disposal plan for excess Accelerates time in which land is again productive.
spoil [780.35]. This planning opens up the possibility for the burial of Solid Wastes
within the regraded surface-mined land.

COAL RECOVERY Extent of Coal [779.22(b).779.25(~)];Outline SMO can estimate quantity and quality of coal deposit so that he is
Coal Seam [779.25(d)]; Mining [780.11(a)]; Max- prepared forthespot market. SMO can maximizethe amount of coal
imize Use and Conservation [780.18(b)(6)]. mined with least disturbance.

HAULAGE Description of surface drainage system [779.16 Maximizes SMO's ability to control erosion and sedimentation from
Road Construction (a)]; Public road location [779.24(h)]; Relocation roads.
Road Maintenance or use of public roads [780.33]; Road construc- Enables SMO to incorporate the time it takes to load and haul coal
tion [780.37]. into his sequence plan; and to do this with the least amount of disrup-
tion of public transportation arteries.

RECLAMATION AND Biotic inventory and assessment of ecological Enables SMO to comply with Regulations requiring contemporan-
REVEGETATION criteria [779.19. 779.201; Backfilling and regrad- eous reclamation.
ing plan [780.18(b)(3)]; Revegetation plan Enables SMO to plan for treating of reclaimed land with sewage
[780.18(b)(5)]; Plan for drainage control struc- effluent and/or sludge from local populations.
tures [780.25, 780.291. Insure the immediate success of revegetation.

*This is not a complete list of the requirements for Permit Application [See Subchapter GI.
 APPENDIX
I. Summary of Main Requirements of Performance Standards Concerning the Control of Erosion and Sedimentation
Topic of
Corrective Section of
Measure Activity Required Regulations
Minimization Disturb smallest practicable area at any one time. 816.45(b)(l)
of Disturbed For roads, do not clear vegetation for more than necessary width. 816.153(a) (3)
Area Reclaim as contemporaneously as practicable. 816.100
Limit the topsoil removal area. 816.22(f)
Immediately redistribute topsoil wherever practicable. 816.23(a)
Backfill and grade within the specified period. 816.101 (a)
Seed and plant as contemporaneously as practicable. 816.113

Buffer Strips Do not disturb land within 100 feet of a perennial stream or a stream with a "biological
community." 816.57(a)
Mark the buffer zone. 816.1 l ( 3 )
Avoid disturbance to habitats of high value for fish and wildlife. 816.97(d) (4)

Diversion of Divert runoff away from disturbed areas.

Water around Divert shallow groundwater flow and ephemeral streams.
Mine Area Divert perennial and intermittent streams.

Internalization Pass all surface drainage from disturbed area through a sedimentation pond.
of Drainage Retain sediment within disturbed area.
Use straw dikes, riprap, mulches, etc. to reduce overland flow velocity, reduce run-
off volume, or trap sediment.

Roads (Class I) Control or minimize erosion and siltation during all stages of operation 816.150(a)
Locate to minimize erosion. 816.151 (a)
Prohibit stream fords. 816.151(c)
Provide temporary erosion-control measures on road cuts. 816.152(c)
Provide adequate drainage. 816.153
With all transportation facilities, have concern for control of erosion. 816.180

Sedimentation Construct sedimentation ponds before beginning any surface mining activities in the
Ponds drainage area.
Design and construct to provide a minimum sediment storage volume.
Design and construct to provide the required detention time.
Remove sediment as required.
Provide discharge structure to minimize disturbance.
Clean ditches and spillways.
Stabilize embankment and surrounding area.
Do not remove pond until area has been restored.
Rehabilitate pond before abandoning permit area.

Stabilization Selectively place topsoil stockpiles to provide stability. 816.23(b)

of Slopes Do not locate diversions so as to increase the potential for land slides. 816.43(d)
During blasting, assure that no slides are imminent. 816.65(d)(l)
Locate disposal areas for excess spoil on the most moderately sloping and naturally
stable areas available. 816.71 (e)
Where slope exceeds lv:2.8h, construct keyway cuts to stabilize fill. 816.71(i)
Stabilize slopes on Valley Fills. 816.72
Stabilize slopes on Head-of-Hollow Fills. 816.73
Provide an undisturbed natural barrier at the elevation of lowest coal seam to pre-
vent slides. 816.99(a)
Prevent placement of materials on the downslope for steep slopes. 826.12(a)
Regrade or stabil~zerills and gullies. 816.106

Land Forms Shape land to minimize water pollution.

Eliminate all highwalls, spoil piles, and depressions.
Construct cut-and-fill terraces if approved by RA.
Perform final grading, placement of topsoil, etc. along the contour.

Revegetation Select substitutes or supplements if available topsoil is insufficient for vegetation.

Scarify regraded spoil to promote root penetration.
Apply nutrients and soil amendments as needed.
Protect topsoil from erosion before and after it is seeded and planted.
Seed and plant to achieve a permanent vegetative cover.
Substitute introduced species for native species only if approved.
Provide revegetation according to the standards for success.
 II. Summary of Main Requirements of Performance Standards Concerning the Minimization of Changes in Water Quantity.
Topic of
Corrective Section of
Measure Activity Reqwired Regulations

Runoff Volume Limit area of removal of vegetative cover at any one time. 816.22(f)
and Velocity Minimize changes in water quantity (hydrologic balance). 816.41 (b)
On steep slopes, consider effects on entire watershed. 826.15(b)
Provide temporary vegetation as soon as practicable. 816.41(d)(2)(iii)
Use straw dikes, mulches, etc. to reduce velocity and volume of runoff. 816.45(b)(6)
Stabilize diversions with vegetation. 816.43(b)
Prohibit impoundments. 816.49(a)(5)
Do not discharge surface water into underground mine workings. 816.55
Backfill and grade to conserve soil moisture. 816.102(b)
Locate roads to minimize flooding downstream. 816.151(d)
Place excess spoil so as to avoid interference with natural drainage. 816.71(f)
Stream Minimize changes in location of surface water drainage channels. 816.41(b)
Conditions When permanent diversions are constructed or stream channels restored:
- enhance natural riparian vegetation. 816.44(6)(1)
- restore natural meandering shape. 816.44(d)(2)
- include aquatic habitats. 816.44(d) (3)
Provide stream buffer zones. 816.57
Monitor surface water to establish the quantity of runoff. 816.52(b)

Required Construct permanent diversions to pass safely the peak runoff from an event with
Design Storms a 10-year recurrence interval. 816.43(b)
Construct stream channel diversions to pass safely the peak runoff of a 10 yr-
24 hr event for temporary diversions, a 100 yr-24 hr even for permanent diversions. 816.44(b)(2)
Construct sedimentation ponds to provide detention time for runoff from a 10 yr-24 hr event. 816.46(c)
Provide spillways for ponds to safely discharge runoff from a 25 yr-24 hr event. 816.46(i)
If embankment of pond is more than 20 feet in height. provide spillway for 100 yr-24 hr event. 816,46(q)(l)
Divert runoff of a 100 yr-24 hr event away from Valley fills. 816.72(d)
Divert runoff of a 100 yr-24 hr event away from Head-of-Hollow fills. 816.73(c)
Provide adequate drainage structures on roads to safely pass peak runoff from a 10 yr-24 hr event.816.153

Groundwater Provide a rate of recharge after mining that approximates the premining recharge rate. 816.51
Recharge Monitor infiltration rate. 816.52(a)
Capacity Conduct blasting so as to not alter the course of groundwater. 816.65(h)
Maintain base flow in streams to avoid adverse impact on fish. 816.97

Water Supply Assure that water impoundments not result in diminution of quantity of water available
for surrounding population. 816.49(a) (4)
Maintain groundwater level. 816.52(a)
Replace water supply for landowner whose source has been contaminated through mining. 816.54
Conduct pre-blasting survey to assess the water supply. 816.62(b)
Do not blast within the given minimum distance from water supply wells or supply lines. 816.65(f)
In order to provide for postmining land use, ensure that suficient water will be available. 816.133(~)(9)
Transfer a monitoring well for further use as a water supply well only with approval of RA. 816.53

Ill. Summary of Main Requirements of Performance Standards Concerning the Minimization of Changes in Water Quality.
TOD~C of
corrective Section of
Measure Activity Required Regulations
Identification of During the process of preparing the surface mining permit application:
Acid-Forming - collect test borings or core samples of each stratum and analyze them. 779.14(b)(l)
Overburden - use chemical analyses to identify those horizons which contain potential acid-forming materia1.779.14(b)(l)(iv)
- analyze coal seam to determine sulfur, pyrite, and marcasite content. 779,14(b)(l)(v)

Placement of Selectively place and seal acid-forming material.

Acid-Forming Bury acid-forming spoil as soon as practicable.
Spoil Cover acid-forming material with a minimum of 4 feet of nontoxic spoil.
Place backfilled materials so as to minimize contamination of groundwater.
Place spoil in a manner to ensure that runoff will not degrade surface or groundwaters.
Place backfilled materials so as to minimize adverse effects on groundwater.
Do not bury acid-forming materials close to a drainage course.
If necessary, treat these materials to neutralize toxicity.
Do not use acid-forming material in road surfacing.

Control Water Use changes in flow of drainage in preference to the use of water treatment facilities. 816.41(d)(l)
Flow to Pre- Direct overland flow from disturbed areas to prevent contact with acid-forming material. 816.43
vent Contact Use measures, as required by RA, to avoid any runoff contact with acid-forming material. 816.48(b)
With Acid- Prevent leaching of acid-forming materials into surface or groundwaters. 816.103(b)
Forming Construct an underdrain system to prevent infiltration of water into spoil. 816.71(1)
Materials

Acid Mine Treat water discharged from disturbed areas to meet the required effluent limitations. 816.42(a)(7)
Drainage Provide automatic lime feeder or other automatic neutralization process to raise pH above 6.0. 816.42(c)
Control mine excavations to avoid harm resulting from discharge of acid mine drainage. 816.50(b)
Monitor groundwater quality. 816.52(a)
Monitor surface water quality. 816.52(b)
For postmining land use, ensure that quality of impounded water shall be suitable
on a permanent basis. 816.49(a)(l)

40 " U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1981 0- 337-377

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I]HANDBOOK I'MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS
FOR
MEASURES GENERAL SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
PROBLEM & PURPOSE
Many o f t h e performance standards o f t h e new Regula- turbance o f t h e l a n d s u r f a c e . The use o f t h i s e q u a t i o n
t i o n s a r e designed t o p r e v e n t e r o s i o n and, subsequently, i s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e U.S. Department o f A g r i c u l t u r e ' s
sedimentation. The problems o f e r o s i o n and sedimentation Handbook No. 282 (1965).
on s u r f a c e c o a l m i n i n g s i t e s were d e s c r i b e d and q u a n t i -
f i e d i n Chapter 2. P r e v e n t i n g e r o s i o n and sedimentation A = RKLSP
s o l v e s o r h e l p s t o s o l v e t h r e e o f t h e b a s i c problems
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s u r f a c e mining. Where :
1. Sediment i n s u r f a c e waters i s a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f A = S o i l loss (tons/acre)
e r o s i o n and r e s u l t s i n s e r i o u s degradation o f stream R = Rainfall factor (reflects intensity o f r a i n fa l l )
h e a l t h and a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e c a p a c i t y o f streams t o K = E r o d i b i l i t y f a c t o r ( r e f l e c t s s o i l character-
handle f l o o d f l o w s and many o t h e r problems ( 9 ) . Sedi- istics affecting erodibility)
m e n t a t i o n w i l l be reduced by e r o s i o n c o n t r o l measures. L = Length o f s l o p e f a c t o r ( r e f l e c t s accumulation of
2. Exposure o f a c i d o r t o x i c - f o r m i n g s p o i l . A r u n o f f on l o n g slopes)
problem on abandoned mine s i t e s was t h e c o n t i n u a l S = Steepness o f s l o p e f a c t o r ( r e f l e c t s increased
exposure o f a c i d - f o r m i n g o r t o x i c - f o r m i n g s p o i l as a r u n o f f v e l o c i t y on steep s l o p e s )
r e s u l t o f e r o s i o n o f u n s t a b l e slopes. S t a b i l i z a t i o n of C = Cropping and management f a c t o r ( r e f l e c t s cover,
slopes, t o p s o i l i n g and r e v e g e t a t i o n coupled w i t h p l a n t residues, mulching, e t c . )
e f f e c t i v e e r o s i o n c o n t r o l measures w i l l p r e v e n t t h e P = Erosion c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e f a c t o r
exposure o f new a c i d - f o r m i n g s p o i l s t o t h e atmosphere I n some cases, t h e u n i v e r s a l s o i l l o s s e q u a t i o n has been
and hence r e s u l t i n improved c o n t r o l o f a c i d mine found t o g i v e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y e s t i m a t e s o f s o i l l o s s on
drainage. s u r f a c e mine s i t e s . For instance, on l o n g slopes o f
3. Revegetation. E r o s i o n r e s u l t s i n t h e l o s s o f dumped s p o i l , i t was found t h a t r u n o f f and e r o s i o n d i d
s o i l and hence reduces t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e s i t e t o s u p p o r t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n c r e a s e as was expected as i t accumu-
a v i g o r o u s v e g e t a t i o n cover. Reestablishment o f an l a t e d and gained momentum f l o w i n g down a slope. It has
e f f e c t i v e v e g e t a t i o n cover i s one o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f been suggested t h a t t h i s i s because t h e c o a r s e r m a t e r i a l ,
e f f e c t i v e e r o s i o n c o n t r o l and i s emphasized i n t h e new when dumped, tends t o segregate on t h e lower p a r t o f t h e
regulations. slope, and t h i s increases t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n and conse-
"The u n i v e r s a l s o i l l o s s equation" can be used t o q u e n t l y reduces t h e r u n o f f a t t h i s p o i n t . However, f o r
e s t i m a t e t h e r a t e o f e r o s i o n f r o m s u r f a c e mine s i t e s . s p o i l which i s s e l e c t i v e l y placed, c o n s o l i d a t e d and top-
T h i s e q u a t i o n was developed by t h e U.S. Department o f s o i l e d , t h e u n i v e r s a l s o i l l o s s e q u a t i o n g i v e s a reason-
A g r i c u l t u r e f o r use on a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d b u t g i v e s a a b l e e s t i m a t e and w i l l p r o b a b l y remain i n use u n t i l a
f a i r l y a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e f o r s o i l l o s s from any a c t i v - more p r e c i s e technique can be developed.
(i t i e s - i n v o l v i n g t h e removal o f v e g e t a t i o n and t h e d i s-
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
E i q h t major p r i n c i ~ l e si n t h e c o n t r o l of e r o s i o n and t h e s i t e . Some p r a c t i c e s such as dumping s p o i l on t h e
sedimentation-on s u r f a c e mine s i t e s a r e discussed here. d ~ w ~ i s l o pmake
e i t v e r y d i f f i c u l t indeed t o c o n t r o l
F o r a d e t a i l e d t a b u l a t i o n o f t h e main requirements o f t h e s u r f a c e water drainage and t h e r e f o r e t h i s p r a c t i c e has
new Regulations [ P a r t 8161 r e l a t i n g t o e r o s i o n and s e d i - been outlawed i n t h e Regulations. I t i s much more d i f -
m e n t a t i o n c o n t r o l see Table I o f t h e Appendix f o l l o w i n g f i c u l t f o r an o p e r a t o r i n h i l l y o r mountainous t e r r a i n
Chapter 5. t o i n t e r n a l i z e drainage than f o r an o p e r a t o r u s i n g t h e
1. M i n i m i z i n g t h e area which i s d i s t u r b e d a t any area m i n i n g method. Operators may f i n d i t e s p e c i a l l y
one time. As soon as p r o t e c t i v e v e g e t a t i o n i s removed d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t r o l sediment caused by t h e e r o s i o n o f
from t h e s i t e , e r o s i o n w i l l begin and w i l l n o t s t o p u n t i l excess s p o i l d i s p o s a l s i t e s . However, s t u d i e s o f Head-
an e f f e c t i v e v e g e t a t i o n cover i s r e e s t a b l i s h e d . of-Hollow f i l l i n g techniques have shown a s i g n i f i c a n t
M i n i m i z i n g t h e d i s t u r b e d area i s addressed i n S e c t i o n r e d u c t i o n i n t h e amount o f sediment g e n e r a t i o n ( C u r t i s ,
816.45(b)(l). The requirement o f P a r t 780 t h a t t h e 1974). Haul roads (Sheet 6:2) a l s o pose a d i f f i c u l t
o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n i n d i c a t e t h e phasing o f o p e r a t i o n s and problem l a r g e l y because o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f keeping
r e c l a m a t i o n on s u r f a c e mine s i t e s i s a l s o i n p a r t drainage w i t h i n t h e d i s t u r b e d area, and l o n g haul roads
designed t o make s u r e t h a t t h e minimum area i s d i s t u r b e d can i n v o l v e t h e o p e r a t o r i n heavy expenditures on
a t any one t i m e i n t h e planned s u r f a c e m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n . sediment c o n t r o l measures.
Segulations r e q u i r e temporary p r o t e c t i o n o f spoi 1 p i l e s 5. Slope s t a b i l i t y . Placement and compaction o f
and t o p s o i l s t o c k p i l e s t h a t must remain i n p o s i t i o n f o r s p o i l i n such a way as t o a v o i d i n s t a b i l i t y , s l i d e s and
a l o n g time. s l i p s i s c l e a r l y v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n e r o s i o n and sediment
2. M a i n t a i n i n g b u f f e r s t r i p s o f u n d i s t u r b e d l a n d c o n t r o l . The c o n t i n u e d e r o s i o n f r o m abandoned s u r f a c e
between t h e mine area and streams and bodies o f s u r f a c e mine s i t e s i s caused p a r t l y by i n s t a b i l i t y due t o s l i p s
water. The requirement of t h e r e g u l a t i o n s i s t h a t no and steep slopes where f r e s h s p o i l i s c o n t i n u a l l y expose(
l a n d w i t h i n 100 f e e t o f p e r e n n i a l streams s h a l l be d i s - t o e r o s i o n and where e f f e c t i v e v e g e t a t i o n cover cannot
t u r b e d w i t h o u t s p e c i f i c approval. g e t e s t a b l i s h e d . Many o f t h e performance standards i n
3. D i v e r s i o n o f c l e a n water around t h e d i s t u r b e d P a r t 816 a r e designed d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y t o p r e v e n t
area. The r e g u l a t i o n s c o n t a i n p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e d i v e r - these problems.
s i o n of b o t h permanent and ephemeral streams around t h e 6. Sedimentation ponds. S e c t i o n 816.42(a) (1 ) "A1 1
planned o p e r a t i o n a l area. The purpose i s t o p r e v e n t s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e from t h e d i s t u r b e d area, i n c l u d i n g
c l e a n water p i c k i n g up sediment and o t h e r p o l l u t a n t s when d i s t u r b e d areas a f t e r b e i n g graded, seeded o r p l a n t e d
passing over t h e d i s t u r b e d s i t e . C a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n t o s h a l l be passed through a sedimentation pond o r a s e r i e s
drainage i s e s s e n t i a l before any m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n s o f sedimentation ponds b e f o r e l e a v i n g t h e p e r m i t area."
begin (5). Sedimentation ponds a r e r e q u i r e d a t a p p r o p r i a t e l o c a t i o n !
4. " I n t e r n a l i z a t i o n " o f drainage w i t h i n t h e d i s - b e f o r e any m i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s s t a r t and t h e y must be
t u r b e d area. The r e g u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e sediment ponds a t r e t a i n e d u n t i l a f t e r r e v e g e t a t i o n i s complete [816.46(u)l
a l l p o i n t s a t which surface water d r a i n s from t h e s i t e , G e n e r a l l y t h e approach i s t o p r e v e n t e r o s i o n o c c u r r i n g
and t h e r e f o r e , i t i s i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e mine o p e r a t o r whenever p o s s i b l e , b u t t o t r a p sediment from e r o s i o n
t o t r v t o i n t e r n a l i z e the drainase from the disturbed which does occur, i n sedimentation ponds b e f o r e drainage
larea and t o minimize t h e p o i n t s a t which i t f l o w s from leaves t h e s i t e . . S e c t i o n 816.46 c o n t a i n s s p e c i f i c
44
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
l e t a i l s on t h e design o f sedimentation ponds i n c l u d i n g 8. Reveaetation. Performance standards r e a u i r i n a
:he sediment s t o r a g e volume r e q u i r e d , t h e d e t e n t i o n t i m e prompt r e v e g e i a t i o n a r e designed t o reduce e r o s i d n and-
tnd discharge s t r u c t u r e s . For f u r t h e r d e t a i l s on t h e sedimentation and o t h e r standards a r e designed t o ensure
i e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f sediment ponds see Sheet 6:3. t h e q u i c k e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f e f f e c t i v e v e g e t a t i o n . These
I n t h e p a s t , t h e performance o f sedimentation ponds has i n c l u d e t h e requirement t o remove and r e p l a c e t o p s o i l ,
leen e r r a t i c , b u t t h i s has been v e r y l a r g e l y due t o poor t o break up excessive compaction [816.24], and t o apply
~ o n s t r u c t i o n , poor maintenance, f a i l u r e t o remove accumu- s o i l amendments, e t c . Only a f t e r e f f e c t i v e v e g e t a t i o n
l a t e d sediments and a l s o t h e f a i l u r e t o remove t h e pond has been e s t a b l i s h e d may sedimentation ponds and o t h e r
3 f t e r t h e s i t e has been revegetated. c o n t r o l measures be removed. Note t h a t suggestions t h a t
7. Landforms. The amount o f e r o s i o n w i l l v a r y w i t h earthmoving o p e r a t i o n s should be programmed t o occur
) o t h steepness and l e n g t h o f regraded slopes. Even i f d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f low r a i n f a l l a r e n o t r e a l i s t i c on
a n d i s t o be r e s t o r e d t o t h e "approximate o r i g i n a l s u r f a c e m i n i n g s i t e s . However i t should be r e a l i s t i c
:ontour" t h e r e a r e measures which can be taken t o reduce t o program r e c l a m a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s t o f i t i n w i t h
;lope 1ength ( t e r r a c i n g , d i v e r s i o n s ) on regraded areas seasonal requirements f o r r e v e g e t a t i o n ( o r temporary
:816.102] and c u l t i v a t i o n techniques t o improve i n f i l - cover).
: r a t i o n and t o reduce t h e r u n o f f (see Sheet 7 3 ) ,

i l

Hydroseeding t o A t t a i n Prompt Revegetation Breaking Up Excessive Compaction

REFERENCE
( 1 ) C u r t i s , W.R. and Superfesky, M.J., Aug 1977, "Erosion o f Surface Mine Spoils," Proceedings o f S o i l Conserva-
t i o n S o c i e t y o f America, Richmond, VA
( 2 ) C u r t i s , W.R., Oct 22-24, 1974, "Sediment Y i e l d from S t r i p Mined Watersheds i n Eastern Kentucky," Second
Research and A p p l i e d Technology Symposium on Mined Land Reclamation, Coal and Environment Technical Conference,
N a t i o n a l Coal A s s o c i a t i o n , L o u i s v i l l e , KY.
( 3 ) West V i r g i n i a DNR, 1975, "Drainage Handbook f o r Surface Mining," Charleston, WV.
( 4 ) Tschantz, B.A., May 1977, " H y d r o l o g i c Impact o f S t r i p M i n i n g on Small East Tennessee Watersheds ," Appalachian
Resources P r o j e c t Progress Report, U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee Environment C e n t e r .
( 5 ) Hamilton, L.W., Sep 1974, "Reclamation i n Steep Slope Surface Mining," M i n i n g Congress Jour., Vol. 60, No. 9.
( 6 ) H i l l , R.D., Aug 1978, "Methods f o r C o n t r o l l i n g P o l l u t a n t s , " Proc. Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d
Lands Symposium, ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, W I
( 7 ) C u r t i s , W.R., 1977, " H y d r o l o g i c Aspects o f Surface M i n i n g i n t h e East," Proceedings S o c i e t y o f American
F o r e s t e r s , Berea, KY.
( 8 ) U.S. F o r e s t Service, undated, "Toward a Qua1it y Water Supply ," Photostory 10, USDA, F o r e s t Service, N o r t h e a s t
F o r e s t r y Experimental S t a t i o n , Upper Darby, PA.
( 9 ) M i l l s , T.R. and C l a r , M.L., October 1976, "Erosion and Sediment Control--Surface M i n i n g i n t h e Eastern U.S.--
Planning," Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency Technology T r a n s f e r Seminar Pub1i c a t i o n 62513-76-006.
10) Glover, F. e t a1 . 1978. "Gradinu & S h a ~ i n uf o r Erosion C o n t r o l and R a ~ i dV e u e t a t i o n Establishment i n Humid
' ~ e ~ i o n s , Proc.
" ~ &o lf .~ r a s t i c a l l y~ i j t u r b e dLands Symp., S c h a l l e r , F.W.
& " ~ u t t o n , P. (Eds.) Madison, W I .
11) C u r t i s , W.R., 1971, " S t r i p Mining, Erosion and Sedimentation," Transactions o f t h e ASAE, Minneapolis, MN.

7 1 MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS HANDBOOK

FOR
SMALL MINE
GENERAL
OPERATORS
 HAND6oOK
7 1 MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS
FOR

PROBLEM & PURPOSE

As much as 10% o f t h e t o t a l area a f f e c t e d by s u r f a c e
SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
s t r u c t i o n and maintenance o f good haulage roads i s
a
m i n i n a i s devoted t o coal haulaqe roads ( 1 ) . Haul roads c r i t i ' c a l t o t h e economics o f a surface mine. The
l e x t e n i beyond t h e a c t u a l mine area and they t e n d t o qua1 i t y o f a road a l s o depends v e r y 1a r g e l y upon how
i n t e r c e p t clean r u n o f f and contaminate i t w i t h sediment. w e l l d r a i n e d i t i s , b u t t h e r e i s a l s o an i m p o r t a n t r e -
I n t h e past, poor c o n s t r u c t i o n p r a c t i c e s o f haul roads l a t i o n s h i p between t h e o p e r a t i n g speed and t h e s a f e t y of
' a n d attempts t o bed down t h e roads a f t e r completion o f o p e r a t i o n . "The b e n e f i t s t o be d e r i v e d from s a f e haul -
m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n s 1 ed t o s e r i o u s and prolonged e r o s i o n age r o a d design and c o n s t r u c t i o n q u i t e o f t e n l i e unseen
and sediment problems from these sources. I n many r e - as t h e i n t a n g i b l e f a c t o r s o f reduced a c c i d e n t s and
spects, c o a l haulage roads a r e s i m i l a r t o l o g g i n g roads i n j u r i e s . However, i n many cases, t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f
i n mountainous r e g i o n s . Experiments a t Coweeta Hydro- c o r r e c t design p r i n c i p l e s can i n c r e a s e mine produc-
l o g i c L a b o r a t o r y near Frank1 i n , NC showed t h a t t h e t i v i t y "(9).
e r o s i o n from lumbering o p e r a t i o n s i n Appalachia was Some e r o s i o n and sedimentation from haul roads w i l l
m o s t l y due t o e r o s i o n from l o g g i n g roads and s k i d d i n g occur on t h e r u n s i t e s , even on t h e we1 1-managed s i t e s .
operations (6). There a r e 4 sources o f sediment from roads: t h e r o a d
Mine haulage c o s t s o f t e n r e p r e s e n t up t o 50% o f t h e surface, t h e c u t slope, t h e r o a d s i d e d i t c h e s , and t h e
J t o t a l m i n i n g c o s t s i n s u r f a c e m i n i n g and hence t h e con- f i l l s l o p e (13;. I
APPLICABILITY
r ~ p p l i c a b l et o a l l m i n i n q o p e r a t i o n s . Roads w i t h i n t h e standards i n Sections 816.150-816.176. But a l l other 1

a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f a l l roads' t o be c o n s t r u c t e d roads covered 6y t h e r e g u l a t i o n s , these are:

w i t h i n t h e proposed p e r m i t area. I t should be noted -
Class I These a r e roads used f o r t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
t h a t t h e term "road" does n o t i n c l u d e roadways w i t h i n o f c o a l . Generally, these roads remain i n p l a c e f o r
t h e immediate m i n i n g p i t area ( D e f i n i t i o n s , 701.5). t h e whole working l i f e o f t h e s i t e and t h e design
The drainage from roads w i t h i n t h e p i t i s covered by c r i t e r i a f o r t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e t h e most s t r i n g e n t .
performance standards d e a l i n g w i t h drainage water and Class I 1 - These a r e roads o t h e r than Class I roads
t h e c o n t r o l o f sediment from t h e p i t . The s t r i n g e n c y which a r e t o be used f o r 6 months o r l o n g e r .
o f performance standards f o r roads o u t s i d e t h e p i t area Class 111 - These a r e roads o t h e r than Class I roads
i s due t o 1 ) t h e h i g h r a t e s o f e r o s i o n and sedimentation which a r e t o be used f o r 6 months o r l e s s . (These
caused by d i r t roads i n c o n s t a n t use by heavy v e h i c l e s d e f i n i t i o n s can be found i n P a r t 701.5.)
and a h i g h r u n o f f from these roads due t o e x t e n s i v e The performance standards f o r a l l c l a s s e s o f roads
consol i d a t i o n ; and 2 ) t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f t r e a t i n g r u n o f f emphasize t h e importance o f t h e design, l o c a t i o n , con-
from a road because t h e r u n o f f tends t o be dispersed s t r u c t i o n , maintenance and r e c l a m a t i o n o f roads t o
o v e r a wide area. minimize e r o s i o n and sedimentation problems. A l l
It should be n o t e d t h a t S e c t i o n 816.42(a) r e q u i r e s t h a t classes o f roads have t o be removed and r e s t o r e d a f t e r
s u r f a c e drainage from a l l d i s t u r b e d areas be passed m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n s u n l e s s approved f o r post-mining l a n d
through a sedimentation pond, b u t t h a t " d i s t u r b e d areas" use o r f o r c o n t r o l l i n g e r o s i o n [816.150(c)]. Class I
i n t h i s s e c t i o n does n o t i n c l u d e roadways i f t h e y a r e roads have t o be designed b y a r e g i s t e r e d p r o f e s s i o n a l
i n s t a l l e d i n accordance w i t h t h e performance c o n t r o l s engineer. I n t h e case o f Class I 1 roads, a q u a l i f i e d
and t h e upstream area i s n o t o t h e r w i s e d i s t u r b e d by engineer need o n l y be used i f a l t e r n a t i v e s p e c i f i c a -
mining a c t i v i t i e s . t i o n s f o r t h e r o a d design o t h e r than those s p e c i f i e d
T h i s sheet covers S e c t i o n s 816.150-816.176 which apply i n t h e performance standards a r e t o be used. A r e g i s -
t o roads. T h i s handbook c o n t a i n s general g u i d e l i n e s t e r e d p r o f e s s i o n a l engineer need n o t be used by mine
o n l y and designers should check each case f o r conform-
I - o p e r a t o r s f o r t h e design o f Class I 1 1 roads.
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
Some o f t h e desiqn c r i t e r i a d e s c r i b e d on t h i s sheet a r e H o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l alinement a r e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s
rl o t s p e c i f i c req;irements o f t h e performance c o n t r o l s . i n i n s u r i n g s a f e o p e r a t i n g speeds and s t o p p i n g d i s -
1The f o l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e s a r e suggested f o r b a s i c design tances. S k e l l y and L o y ' s r e p o r t g i v e s t h e design f o r
<j u i d e l i n e s f o r haul roads: ( 9 ) , ( 7 ) and (10). h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l alinement o f haul roads i n -
I[ . LOCATION [815.151, 816.161 AND 816.1711 c l u d i n g s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e s f o r v a r i o u s weights o f
The performance standards r e q u i r e roads t o be l o c a t e d v e h i c l e s ( F i g u r e 1). The maximum grades as r e q u i r e d
jo as t o minimize erosion, sedimentation, and downstream i n t h e new Regulations a r e s i m i l a r t o most o f t h e s t a t e
f l o o d i n g as a r e s u l t o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n . Generally, r e g u l a t i o n s pre-1977 and a r e shown i n Table 1. Slopes
f o r d s are p r o h i b i t e d f o r stream c r o s s i n g s by haul o f l e s s than 3% should be avoided, i f p o s s i b l e as t h e y
Iroads. I f roads can be l o c a t e d along r i d g e l i n e s , w i l l n o t d r a i n adequately.
O.
stream c r o s s i n g s w i l l be minimized and t h e amount o f
Iw e r l a n d f l o w i n t e r c e p t e d by t h e road w i l l a l s o be min- u
i m a l . Though t h i s w o n ' t be p o s s i b l e i n most cases,
tc a r e f u l l o c a t i o n t o a v o i d seeps, wet areas and t o 30
In i n i m i z e stream c r o s s i n g s can save a l o t o f money.
Cp 25
II. HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALINEMENT E F i g u r e 1. Stoppin
H o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l alinement a r e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s -
g .
I d i s t a n c e charac-
i n i n s u r i n g s a f e o p e r a t i n g speeds and s t o p p i n g d i s - U teristics of
tances. aL"", vehicles o f less
>
The small o p e r a t o r should understand t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p 10 than 100,000
between grade steepness and haulage costs. Sometimes pounds GVW.
l o n g e r slopes c o v e r i n g t h e same v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e can 5
g i v e s u b s t a n t i a l improvement i n t r u c k performance. 0
Curves j u s t b e f o r e o r a f t e r a grade can reduce t r u c k 0 % 100 1% a30 2Jo Mo 3% 4m 4
s sw

- performance also. S T O ~ C I N O DISTANCE. rrt

46
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
.ABLE 1
MAjiIMUM GRADES FOR HAUL ROADS

Overall Pitch Permissable Length

:oad Class Grade % Grade % o f P i t c h Grade

lass 1 10 15 300 (Maximum

length within
100 f e e t )
lass 2 10 15 300 ( l e n g t h )
lass 3 10 20 1,000 ( c o n s e c u t i v e l y )
ource: Regulations
11. TRANSVERSE GEOMETRY
he t r a n s v e r s e geometry, t h e cross s e c t i o n o f t h e r o a d a r e
if g r e a t importance e s p e c i a l l y i n e n s u r i n g good drainage
f t h e r o a d and s t a b l e c o n s t r u c t i o n .
he Regulations s p e c i f y t h e w i d t h o f haul roads r e -
u i r e d . S k e l l y and L o y ' s r e p o r t g i v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g
lesign guide f o r v e h i c l e s up t o 100,000 pounds gvw.
he w i d t h f o r 1-lane (23 f t . ) and 2-lane (40 f t . ) haul Figure 3
,oads on curves a r e shown i n Table 2.
[ABLE 2 Curves on haul roads should normal 1v be s u ~ e r e l e v a t de
- - -- -- - -
(banked) f o r g r e a t e r safe-operating"speeds: Super-
RECOMMENDED WIDTHS FOR HAUL ROADS e l e v a t i o n s w i l l n o r m a l l y be banked i n t o t h e s l o p e o f
t h e l a n d a t c r e s t s and away a t sags which a l l o w s most
u r v e Radius One-Lane Two-Lane drainage t o be handled i n upslope d i t c h e s as suggested
(Ft.*) Haul Way Haul Way above. The Regulations do n o t s p e c i f y superelevations,
b u t S k e l l y and L o y ' s r e p o r t g i v e s c r i t e r i a f o r c a l c u l a -
25 27 48 t i n g s u p e r e l e v a t i o n s necessary on high-speed haul roads.
50 25 44 The Regulations s p e c i f y maximum slopes f o r c u t t i n g s
100 24 4 2. and embankments on haul roads f o r Class I and I 1 roads.
200 23 41 These a r e shown i n Tables 3 and 4.
tangent 23 40 TABLE 3
Source: ( 9 )
'On t h e i n n e r edge o f t h e pavement. MAXIMUM CUT SLOPES FOR HAUL ROADS
f t h e area upstream o f t h e haul r o a d i s a l s o d i s t u r b e d ,
11 r u n o f f from t h e r o a d must be passed through a s e d i - Road Class Unconsolidated M a t e r i a l Rock
e n t b a s i n [816.42]. Therefore i t i s c l e a r l y b e s t t o
r y t o concentrate r o a d arainage a t a few s e l e c t e d Class I lv:1.5h lv:0.25h
o i n t s . T h i s w i l l mean t h e use o f r o a d s i d e d i t c h e s , Class I 1 lv:1.5h lv:0.25h
s u a l l y l o c a t e d on t h e upslope s i d e o f t h e road, w i t h a Class I 1 1 no standards s p e c i f i e d
everse f a l l on t h e whole roadbed so t h a t a l l drainage
TABLE 4
lows t o t h e d i t c h ( F i g . 2 ) . T h i s w i l l mean a c u l v e r t
nder t h e road a t each sag i n t h e v e r t i c a l p r o f i l e . MAXIMUM SLOPES FOR EMBANKMENTS I N HAUL ROADS
n steep t e r r a i n where most haul roads w i l l be on c u t
nd f i l l , a downslope d i t c h would have t o be l o c a t e d Road Class Unconsolidated F i l l Rock
n fill ( F i g . 3) and would be l i a b l e t o washout unless
ined. The r e v e r s e f a l l a l s o p r e v e n t s o v e r l a n d f l o w Class I lv:2h lv:1.35h
rom upslope areas f l o w i n g o n t o t h e road. Cross-slope Class I 1 lv:1.5h lv:1.35h
o g i v e r a p i d drainage o f s u r f a c e water should be %-Ji"/ Class 111 no standards s p e c i f i e d
't ( 1 0 ) . However i n f l a t t e r t e r r a i n such an arrange- T o ~ s o i l i n aand t e m ~ o r a r ve r o s i o n c o n t r o l measures a r e
lent o r a cambered r o a d w i t h a d i t c h on b o t h s i d e s i s r e q u i r e d f o r c l a s s ' I an? I 1 roads i n t h e performance
l o s s i b l e when road i s i n t o t a l c u t standards f o r slopes o f lv:1.5h o r f l a t t e r ( i . e . those
slopes n o t i n r o c k o r c o n s t r u c t e d o f r o c k f i l l ) .
IV. DRAINAGE 1-816.153, 816.163 AND 816.1731
On Class I roads t h e drainage system must be designed
f o r a 10-yr, 24-hr p r e c i p i t a t i o n event. Sedimentation
c o n t r o l f o r a l l c l a s s e s of roads must comply w i t h
Sections 816.42 and 816.45 r e q u i r i n g t h a t a l l r u n o f f
from " d i s t u r b e d areas" be passed through sedimentation
ponds; however, S e c t i o n 816.42(a)(4) notes t h a t " d i s -
t u r b e d areas" do n o t i n c l u d e those areas i n which
o n l y roads a r e i n s t a l l e d i f t h e area upstream o f t h e
road i s n o t "otherwise d i s t u r b e d . " N a t u r a l drainage
channels may n o t be a1 t e r e d w i t h o u t t h e approval o f
t h e RA and may n o t be a l t e r e d a t a l l i n t h e case o f
Class II 1 roads. Drainage s t r u c t u r e s a r e r e q u i r e d
f o r a l l stream c r o s s i n g s .
4 : l D i t c h e s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r Class I road (on b o t h
s i d e s o f a t h r o u g h c u t and on t h e i n s i d e shoulder o f
a c u t - a n d - f i l l s e c t i o n ) . D i t c h e s a r e n o t necessar-
i l y r e q u i r e d f o r Class I 1 roads where d i t c h e s ,

7
1 I'MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS HANDBOOK
FOR
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OPERATORS
47
 Where d i t c h e s a r e p r o v i d e d a c r o s s f a l l o f 4" p e r t a t i o n - e v e n t be used f o r t h e design o f a l l c u l v e r t s
f o o t w i l l be adequate t o d r a i n t h e s u r f a c e o f a l l on Class I and I 1 roads where t h e end area o f t h e c u l
roads. D i t c h e s themselves may be ' V ' shaped o r v e r t i s 35 f t 2 o r l e s s . Where t h e end area i s g r e a t e
t r a p e z o i d a l b u t ' V ' shaped d i t c h e s a r e e a s i e r t o than 35 ft2 a 20 y r / 2 4 h r p r e c i p i t a t i o n event should
c o n s t r u c t w i t h o u t s p e c i a l i z e d equipment. Erosion i s be used f o r t h e design. For b o t h Class I and I 1
l i k e l y i n d i t c h e s w i t h a grade o f o v e r 4%, i n which roads t h e c u l v e r t s should be covered i n a t l e a s t 1
case they may r e q u i r e p r o t e c t i o n w i t h r i p r a p o r f t o f f i l l . Temporary c u l v e r t s may be used on Class
o t h e r l i n i n g (Table 5 ) . Avoid c o n s t r u c t i n g d i t c h e s I 1 1 roads. Temporary c u l v e r t s f o r Class I 1 1 roads
on f i l l . should be designed f o r a 1 y r / 6 h r p r e c i p i t a t i o n
4BLE 5 event. These c u l v e r t s can be c o n s t r u c t e d o f timber.
D e t a i l s o f t i m b e r c u l v e r t s a r e shown i n Figures 6
ROADSIDE DITCH LINING and 7 which a r e commonly r e f e r r e d t o as open-top
c u l v e r t s . F i g u r e 6 c o n s i s t i n g o f two l o g s h e l d
rade Lining a p a r t and p a r a l l e l by 2" planks s p i k e d a t each end
o f t h e l o g s , and t h e second t y p e ( F i g u r e 7) i s made
-3% None r e q u i r e d . up o f 3" t i m b e r s assembled i n a t r o u g h shape w i t h
- 5%

;*
Seed w i t h e r o s i o n r e s i s t a n t grass and pro- spacers o f 1 " p i p e b o l t e d across along t h e upper edge
t e c t with j u t e matting o r similar.

Toz=:C---
a t about 4 ' i n t e r v a l s f o r r i g i d i t y ( 7 ) . A photo-
v e r 5% RiDraD t o a t l e a s t 6" above max depth o f graph o f an open-top l o g c u l v e r t i s shown i n F i g . 8.
flow:
ource: ( 9 ) f sp'ke .. < $
As an a l t e r n a t i v e t o l i n i n g d i t c h e s , where t h e
grade i s t o o steep i t can be reduced by c o n s t r u c t i n g
checkdams along t h e l e n g t h o f t h e d i t c h . These not less than
checkdams may be c o n s t r u c t e d o f l o g s , r i p r a p , o r - L t 4 - 4
J 6"
-
gabions, a l t h o u g h l o g s a r e p r o b a b l y t h e cheapest on at leost 8" Ty
d8omeler log k
most f o r e s t e d s i t e s . An example o f a l o g checkdam
i s shown i n F i g u r e 4 ( 7 ) . Figure 6 Figure 7
Smooth channel l i n i n g s o r c o n d u i t s w i l l speed up t h e
flow o f water i n t h e d i t c h and an energy d i s s i p a t o r
should be i n s t a l l e d a t t h e discharge p o i n t . F i g . 5
shows a dumped r o c k energy d i s s i p a t o r t o check
erosion ( 9 ) .

Figure 4

I Figure 8
Weigle recommends t h e spacing f o r open-top c u l v e r t s
i n Table 7 (spacing i s n o t s p e c i f i e d i n t h e 2egula-
t i o n s f o r c u l v e r t s on Class I 1 1 roads).
TABLE 7
PLAN

4:2 C u l v e r t s . The maximum spacings f o r c u l v e r t s on SPACING OF OPEN-TOP CULVERTS

haul roads r e q u i r e d i n t h e performance c o n t r o l s
[ 8 1 6 . 1 5 3 . ( c ) ( v ) ] are shown i n Table 6. Road Grade (Percent) Spacing (Feet)
ABLE 6
MAXIMUM SPACING FOR CULVERTS ON HAUL ROADS
11-1 5 100-200
Class I Road Class I 1 Road Class I 1 1 Road Note: Spacing must be based on l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s and t h e
rade % Maximum Spacing Maximum Spacing Maximum Spacing t y p e o f s o i l and t h e amount o f watershed cover
p r e s e n t i n t h e area.
-3 1,000 1,000 unspecified Source: ( 7 )
-6 800 600 unspecified 4:3 Drainage Dips. Drainage d i p s a r e p e r m i t t e d i n
-10 500 400 unspecified ;he Regulations f o r Class I 1 roads. Broad-based
0 & 300 200 unspecified drainage d i p s may be used t o d i v e r t r u n o f f across
reater t h e roadbed w i t h o u t damage ( b u t n o t i n t h e case o f
ource: ( R e g u l a t i o n s ) permanent o r ephemeral streams) . These a r e normal 1y
C u l v e r t s should g e n e r a l l y have a 2-4% grade t o p r e - 20' l o n g w i t h a 3% r e v e r s e grade i n t h e roadbed.
v e n t c l o g g i n g . The Regulations r e q u i r e p r o t e c t i o n The spacing o f these d i p s i s recommended t o be 400'
o f t h e c u l v e r t a t both upstream and t h e discharge d i v i d e d by slope p e r c e n t p l u s 100' g i v i n g t h e
end t o p r e v e n t e r o s i o n and scour. A r i p r a p apron o r spacing i n Table 8.
energy d i s i p a t o r a t t h e d i s c h a r g e end o f t h e c u l v e r t
w i l l p r e v e n t t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a scour p o o l .

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I'
MEASURES HAUL ROADS

48
d
SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
RBLE 8 t h e performance standards f o r a l l c l a s s e s o f road.
5:3 Sub-base. The maintenance o f a good s u r f a c e i s
RECOMMENDED SPACING FOR DRAINAGE DIPS dependent upon a p r o p e r l y designed and c o n s t r u c t e d
sub-base. The Reaulations do n o t a c t u a l l v s o e c i f v
?oad Grade ( % ) Spacing ( f t ) sub-base standard;. The r e q u i r e d t h i c k n e s s o f sub-
base i s u s u a l l y based on t h e C a l i f o r n i a b e a r i n g
r a t i o and S k e l l y and L o y ' s r e p o r t g i v e s g u i d e l i n e s
for c a l c u l a t i n g the required thickness.
8-10 150-1 40 P l a s t i c f i l t e r c l o t h s a r e f r e q u e n t l y used below
Source: ( 6 ) haul roads t o p r e v e n t t h e pumping a c t i o n o f t r u c k
Broad-based d i p s a r e cheaper t o m a i n t a i n and more t i r e s pushing stone aggregates i n t o t h e roadbed,
oermanent than wooden c u l v e r t s b u t r e q u i r e a s k i l l e d r e s u l t i n g i n reduced t r a c t i o n and muddy c o n d i t i o n s ,
b u l l d o z e r o p e r a t o r f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n . ' ~ 9i shows
~ . which w i l l a l s o i n c r e a s e sediment g e n e r a t i o n f r o m
t h e design f a c t o r s f o r a drainage d i p . t h e road. There a r e a number o f d i f f e r e n t makes o f
these p l a s t i c f i l t e r c l o t h s , one i s shown d u r i n g
i n s t a l l a t i o n inn F i q u r e 10 ( 8 ) . Monsanto, who
manufactures Bidim' f a b r i c , emphasizes t h a t roadbed!
i n c o r p o r a t i n g f i l t e r f a b r i c d r y o u t more r a p i d l y
a f t e r r a i n f a l l . Wheel loads a r e spread over a
g r e a t e r area when a f i l t e r f a b r i c i s used.
5:4 S u r f a c i n g . S u r f a c i n g i s i m p o r t a n t n o t o n l y i n
m i n i m i z i n g delays d u r i n g adverse weather c o n d i t i o n s
and m i n i m i z i n g haulage t i m e b u t i s a l s o an i m p o r t a n t
f a c t o r i n road s a f e t y . The s u r f a c i n g w i l l a l s o
a f f e c t e r o s i o n o f t h e road s u r f a c e and sediment
problems which r e s u l t .
Road s u r f a c i n g o f g r a n i t e , crushed rock, a s p h a l t ,
etc., i s r e q u i r e d f o r b o t h Class I and Class I 1
roads, b u t f o r Class I 1 1 roads i t i s s i m p l y spec-
i f i e d t h a t t h e s u r f a c e should be adequate f o r t h e
use o f t h e road.

tow&+
ovtslope

jou-. I b d n m d e ~ w19?a Figure 9

4:4 Berms. Berms have been used w i d e l y i n haul
r o a d c a safety feature, p a r t i c u l a r l y , i n h i l l y
areas where t h e r e i s a danger o f v e h i c l e s r u n n i n g
o v e r t h e o u t s l o p e . The c o n f i g u r a t i o n and t h e design
o f berms i s discussed i n S k e l l y and L o y ' s r e p o r t F i g u r e 10
( 9 ) . The h e i g h t o f t h e berm i s t h e c r i t i c a l f a c t o r A s p h a l t s u r a c i n g i s expensive, a 4" surface c o s t i n g
and t h i s must be equal t o o r g r e a t e r than t h e
h .
about $5/yd f o r l a b o r , equipment and m a t e r i a l a t
r o l l i n g r a d i u s o f t h e v e h i c l e ' s t i r e . The use o f 1978 p r i c e s (11). A s p h a l t surfaces may a l s o become
berms w i l l a l s o h e l p i n r e d u c i n g t h e problem o f extremely s l i c k when wet, e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e r e i s
r u n o f f f l o w i n g o v e r embankments. mud on t h e road. Crushed stone i s f a r more com-
monly used on haul roads. Stone aggregate should
CONSTRUCTION
n o t c o n t a i n more than 10% f i n e s t o p r e v e n t muddy
5 : l Clearance. The Regulations r e q u i r e c l e a r i n g
c o n d i t i o n s a f t e r f r e e z i n g and thawing. Sometimes
v e g e t a t i o n f r o m t h e roadbed and t h e removal o f t o p - o p e r a t o r s s u p p l y i n g power p l a n t s w i t h coal may
s o i l f o r a l l c l a s s e s o f haul roads b e f o r e c o n s t r u c - arrange t o haul back c i n d e r s as a road s u r f a c i n g
t i o n . I t i s sometimes suggested t h a t any t r e e s material.
and v e g e t a t i o n should be wind-rowed a t t h e base o f V l . BEDDING DOWN AND RESTORATION
fill slopes ( 7 ) . The Regulations do n o t f o r b i d [816.156, 816.166 AND 816.1761
t h i s p r a c t i c e b u t i t may cause i n s t a b i l i t y i f The r e g u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e as p a r t o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n p e r -
b u r i e d by t h e f i l l . I t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o c h i p t h e formance standards t h a t a l l b r i d g e s and c u l v e r t s be
c l e a r e d s l a s h and use i t f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l on removed from haul roads. D i t c h r e l i e f c u l v e r t s should
c u t slopes and embankments as r e q u i r e d i n 816.152 g e n e r a l l y be r e p l a c e d by water bars. These should a l s o
( c ) ( 3 ) , 816.152(d)(15), 8 1 6 . 1 6 2 ( ~ ) ( 2 ) and a n g l e downgrade a t 30 degrees a t t h e spacing shown i n
816.162(d)(14). Table 9. The may be a d i t c h o r a berm (of e a r t h o r
5:2 T o p s o i l removal from t h e roadbed i s r e q u i r e d i n crushed stoney. E a r t h berms a r e useless once t h e y a r e

7
1 MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS HANDBOOK
FOR
SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
49
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
' r u t t e d so t r a f f i c must be k e p t o f f c l o s e d roads by e r e c t - TABLE 9
i n g a b a r r i c a d e across them. For Class 1 roads, t h e
rounding o f c u t and f i l l slopes t o blend w i t h t h e WATER BAR SPACING RECOMMENDATIONS
surrounding topography ( b u t n o t r e g r a d i n g t o t h e approx-
imate o r i g i n a l contour) i s r e q u i r e d . The standards f o r Grade ( % ) Spacing ( f t )
the r e s t o r a t i o n o f Class I 1 and Class I 1 1 roads are
s i m i l a r , and i n a l l cases, roadbeds a r e t o be top- 2 250
s o i l e d and revegetated i n accordance w i t h 816.111-816.116. 5 135
10 80
15 60
20 45
Source: (7)
REFERENCE
(1 ) Grim, E.C. and Hi1 1, R.D., Oct 1974, "Environmental P r o t e c t i o n i n Surface M i n i n g o f Coal ,"EPA-60712-74-093.
( 2 ) Cowhert, e t a l . , 1974, "Devel. o f Emission Factors f o r F u g i t i v e Dust Sources," EPA, Res. T r i . Park, NC 27709.
(.3 ). Kimball. L.R., 1975, "Slope S t a b i l i t y , Vol. 1,- Report . and F i e l d Book," D e ~ a r t m e n to f N a t u r a l Resources and
Environmental p r o t e c t i o n , ' ¨ rank fort,- KY.
( 4 ) Packer, P.E., 1967, " C r i t e r i a f o r Designing and L o c a t i n g Logging Roads t o C o n t r o l Sediment," F o r e s t S c i . l 3 ( 1 ) .
( 5 ) C u r t i s , W.R., 1973, " E f f e c t s o f S t r i p Mining on t h e Hydrology o f Small Mountain Watersheds i n Appalachia,"
from Hutnick, R.J. and Davis, G. (Eds.), "Ecology and Reclamation o f Devastated Land - Vol. 1," Gordon and
Breech, New York.
( 6 ) Kochenderfer, J.N., 1970, "Erosion C o n t r o l on Logging Roads i n t h e Appalachians," USDA F o r e s t Service Research
Paper, NE 158, Upper Darby, PA.
( 7 ) weigle, W.K.,-1964, " ~ e s i g n i nCoal-Haul ~ Roads f o r Good Drainage," Central States F o r e s t Experimental S t a t i o n ,
Berea, KY.
( 8 ) Advance C o n s t r u c t i o n S p e c i a l t i e s CO., Memphis, TN 38101.
( 9 ) Kaufman, W.W., A u l t , J.C., ( S k e l l e y and Loy, Engineers and Consultants), 1976, "Design o f Surface Mine Haulage
Roads, A Manual," Bureau o f Mines, P i t t s b u r g h , PA.
(10) C h i r o n i s , E.P., (Ed.), Jan 1978, "How t o B u i l d B e t t e r Haul Roads," Coal Age, pp. 122-128.
(11) Chironis, N.P., (Ed.), June 1974, Paved Haul Road, 10-Wheel Trucks Boost Output o f West V i r g i n i a Form," Coal
Age, pp. 94-95.
(12) Davis, H., Dec 1976, "Jones & Brague has been Recognized f o r Excellence o f i t s Recla. ,"Coal Age, pp. 94-97
(13) G r i e r , W.F., 1976, "Demonstration o f Coal-Mine-Haul-Road Sediment C o n t r o l Techniques," EPA 60012-76-196.

7 1 M
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7
MEASURES
1I MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS

SEDINENTATION PONDS
I HANDBOOK
SM-INE
FOR -
OPERATORS
PROBLEM & PURPOSE
Runoff water f r o m s u r f a c e mine s i t e s o f t e n c a r r i e s a upon t h e s i z e o f t h e p a r t i c l e . Large heavy p a r t i c l e s
heavy sediment l o a d which can cause severe damage i n s e t t l e r a p i d l y b u t small p a r t i c l e s may t a k e days t o
r e c e i v i n g streams. I f t h e water i s impounded i n small s e t t l e . I n some cases s e t t l e m e n t can be speeded by add-
~ o n d s , much o f t h e sediment w i l l s e t t l e o u t . The amount i n q ' f l o c c u l a n t s ' t o t h e water, b u t u s u a l l y c a r e f u l l o -
o f sediment which w i l l s e t t l e depends upon t h e p e r i o d c a t i o n , design and management o f ponds i s s u f f i c i e n t t o
d u r i n g which t h e water i s d e t a i n e d i n t h e pond and a l s o meet t h e e f f l u e n t l i m i t a t i o n s i n S e c t i o n 816.42.
APPLICABILITY
1 ~ 1 1s u r f a c e mine s i t e s must meet t h e e f f l u e n t l i m i t a - because, i n these areas, r u n o f f i s more c o n t r o l l a b l e I

I!
t i o n s i n S e c t i o n 816.42 and " a p p r o p r i a t e sediment c o n t r o l and ' i n t e r n a l i z e d ' w i t h i n t h e p e r m i t area. Operators
measures must be designed, c o n s t r u c t e d and maintained" i n steep t e r r a i n w i l l have more d i f f i c u l t y i n meeting
[816.45(a)]. I t w i l l g e n e r a l l y be e a s i e r f o r o p e r a t i o n s 1 i m i t a t i o n s on suspended s o l i d s .
in f l a t o r r o l l i n g t e r r a i n t o meet sediment l i m i t a t i o n s I
-?EVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
e c t i o n 780.25 o f t h e Regulations r e q u i r e s t h a t "each average d a i l y v a l u e f o r 30 consecutive days must n o t
p p l i c a t i o n s h a l l i n c l u d e a general p l a n f o r each pro- exceed 35 mg/l. These l i m i t a t i o n s do n o t a p p l y i f t h e
osed sediment pond." S e c t i o n 816.42 r e q u i r e s t h a t a1 1 discharge r e s u l t s from a 10 y r / 2 4 h r p r e c i p i t a t i o n event
u r f a c e drainage from d i s t u r b e d areas i n c l u d i n g d i s - o r l a r g e r . Note t h a t t h e e f f l u e n t standards f o r sus-
urbed areas t h a t have been graded, seeded o r p l a n t e d , pended s o l i d s a r e t h e same as those recommended by EPA
h a l l be passed through a sedimentation pond o r s e r i e s i n 1976 " E f f l u e n t G u i d e l i n e s and Standards."
f sedimentation ponds b e f o r e l e a v i n g t h e p e r m i t area. The design standards f o r sedimentation ponds (see F i g u r e
he sedimentation ponds must remain i n p l a c e u n t i l t h e 1 ) a r e q u i t e s p e c i f i c . Other types o f sediment c o n t r o l
i s t u r b e d area has been r e s t o r e d and t h e v e g e t a t i o n r e - impoundment can be c o n s t r u c t e d upstream o f t h e r e q u i r e d
uirements of Sections 816.111-816.117 a r e met, and t h e sedimentation pond b u t t h i s does n o t r e l i e v e t h e oper-
u a l i t y o f t h e u n t r e a t e d drainage f r o m t h e d i s t u r b e d a t o r o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r meeting t h e requirement f o r a
r e a meets a p p l i c a b l e S t a t e and Federal water q u a l i t y sediment pond o f t h e standard design. The RA does have
tandards. t h e d i s c r e t i o n however o f r e d u c i n g t h e r e q u i r e d s t o r a g e
uscharges from t h e area must n o t exceed c e r t a i n e f - volume o f t h e sediment pond i f i t can be demonstrated
l u e n t l i m i t a t i o n s [816.42(a)(7) I. Maximum a l l o w a b l e t h a t sediment removed by o t h e r measures i s e u a l t o t h e
o t a l suspended s o l i d s i s 70 mg p e r l i t e r , b u t t h e
>ISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
r e d u c t i o n i n sediment s t o r a g e volume [816.46?b)]. -
tach pond s h a l l be designed and inspected d u r i n g con- l a t e these f a c t o r s i n t o p r e c i s e design c r i t e r i a because
t r u c t i o n by a r e g i s t e r e d p r o f e s s i o n a l engineer." o f t h e many v a r i a b l e s which a f f e c t t h e performance o f
316."6(f)]. I t should be noted t h a t even when s e d i - a sedimentation pond.
w t a t i o n ponds a r e c o n s t r u c t e d according t o t h e s p e c i - The main requirements f o r t h e design o f a sedimentation
ications i n t h i s Part, t h a t the operator i s s t i l l pond i n c l u d e d i n t h e Regulations a r e shown on F i g u r e 1
~ b j e c t o t h e e f f l u e n t l i m i t a t i o n s as contained i n which shows a schematic s e c t i o n through a pond and t h e
x t i o n S?6.42[816.46(f)]. embankment. When a sedimentation pond has an embankment
i e design o f t h e sediment ponds i s n o t based on a p r e c i s e which i s more than 20' i n h e i g h t o r a s t o r a g e volume
zthod and i n c l u d e s c o n s i d e r a b l e s a f e t y f a c t o r s b u i l t g r e a t e r than 20 a c r e - f t . , a d d i t i o n a l design r e q u i r e -
i t o t h e design. While i t i s p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e ments a r e s p e c i f i e d i n S e c t i o n 816.46(q). These
? t t l e m e n t v e l o c i t y and o t h e r f a c t o r s i m p o r t a n t i n t h e l a r g e r ponds must be designed t o pass a 100 y r / 2 4 h r
? s i g n o f sediment ponds, i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o t r a n s - p r e c i p i t a t i o n event w i t h o u t damage.

EmnREMENTS @K lN€ DfSlaN OF SEDIMEM P D W .

Figure 1 NOT TO 5 M - E .

52
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
I. LOCATION d i s t u r b e d a r e a w i t h i n t h e upstream d r a i n a g e a r e a . The
T he m a i n economic c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a RA may a p p r o v e a s t o r a g e volume o f l e s s t h a n 0.1 a c r e -
S e d i m e n t a t i o n pond w i l l be t o m i n i m i z e e a r t h m o v i n g . f t . under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s [ 8 1 6 . 4 6 ( b ) ( 2 ) ] . These
T h i s demands c a r e f u l l o c a t i o n w h i c h i s made c o n s i d e r a b l y c o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e the o p e r a t o r t o demonstrate t h a t
e a s i e r by t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f a good t o p o g r a p h i c map sediment i s removed by o t h e r sediment c o n t r o l measures
d u r i n g t h e p r e - m i n i n g p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s . Sediment ponds equal t o t h e r e d u c t i o n i n sediment s t o r a g e volume. There
C an be used i n d i v i d u a l l y o r i n s e r i e s [816.46(a)]. They a r e a number o f measures w h i c h t h e mine o p e r a t o r may t a k e
mu s t be c o n s t r u c t e d b e f o r e any d i s t u r b a n c e t a k e s p l a c e , upstream o f t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n pond i n c l u d i n g o t h e r de-
a n d t h e y may n o t be c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h e c o u r s e o f t e n t i o n p o n d i n g d e v i c e s e m p l o y i n g l e s s e l a b o r a t e dams
P e r e n n i a l streams u n l e s s approved b y t h e RA. and : p i l l w a y s t h a n t h o s e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e main s e d i -
II. DETENTION TIME m e n t a t i o n pond. An e f f e c t i v e s e d i m e n t c o n t r o l impound-
T he t o t a l volume o f t h e pond w i l l depend p a r t l y on t h e ment, f o r i n s t a n c e , t o remove l a r g e r sediments can b e
S e d i m e n t s t o r a g e volume and a l s o upon t h e d e t e n t i o n c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h o u t a t r i c k l e t u b e u s i n g a permeable
t ime. The d e t e n t i o n t i m e i s c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g a 1 0 y r l r o c k dam w i t h a p l a s t i c f i l t e r c l o t h . There a r e a
2 4 h r p r e c i p i t a t i o n e v e n t and i s t h e average t i m e t h a t number o f t h e s e p l a s t i c f i l t e r c l o t h s a v a i l a b l e . F i g u r e
t he d e s i g n f l o w i s d e t a i n e d i n t h e pond. S e d i m e n t a t i o n 2 shows a h y p o t h e t i c a l s e c t i o n t h r o u g h a r o c k sediment
Ponds must p r o v i d e a t h e o r e t i c a l d e t e n t i o n t i m e o f n o t c o n t r o l dam a c r o s s a s m a l l d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l .
1ess t h a n 24 h o u r s . I n c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s [816.46 I
( c) (1 )I, t h e RA may a p p r o v e a d e t e n t i o n t i m e o f l e s s
t han 24 h o u r s b u t n o t l e s s t h a n 10 h o u r s . A p p r o v a l o f
d s h o r t e r d e t e n t i o n t i m e depends upon t h e d e s i g n e r
be i n g a b l e t o d e m o n s t r a t e an improved sediment removal
e f f i c i e n c y due t o t h e pond d e s i g n , and t h a t t h e pond i s
C a p a b l e o f a c h i e v i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g e f f l u e n t l i m i t a -
t i o n s . The RA may a l s o approve d e t e n t i o n t i m e s o f l e s s
t han 10 h o u r s i n cases where a c h e m i c a l t r e a t m e n t p r o -
C ess i s t o be used, i f i t can be d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h i s
WNil1 be h a r m l e s s t o f i s h and w i l d l i f e and w i l l a c h i e v e
, _ I 7 - - -

an d m a i n t a i n e f f l u e n t l i m i t a t i o n s . O t h e r s m a l l sediment c o n t r o l impounding d e v i c e s u s i n g
1he d e s i g n o f sediment ponds s h o u l d i n t h e o r y be based g a b i o n s , l o g dams, e t c . , may be used above t h e m a i n
0In t h e s i z e o f t h e p a r t i c l e s w h i c h a r e t o be t r a p p e d , s e d i m e n t a t i o n pond. Gabions have been used f a i r l y w i d e l j
t. h e i r s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y and hence t h e d e t e n t i o n t i m e i n t h e s u r f a c e m i n i n g i n d u s t r y and i n some cases have
r. e q u i r e d . The s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e been used f o r f a i r l y l a r g e dams. The p h o t o g r a p h ( F i g u r e
dl e n s i t y , s i z e and shape o f t h e p a r t i c l e and a l s o t h e 3 ) shows a g a b i o n t y p e s t r u c t u r e a l s o used f o r s i l t
\~ i s c o s i t yo f t h e f l u i d . T a b l e 1 shows how l o n g i t w i l l c n n t r o l i n F a y e t t e County, WV (Source: 1 ) .
itake p a r t i c l e s , w i t h a s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f 2.65, t o
:; e t t l e i n s t i l l w a t e r a t 10°C.
-
rABLE 1
SETTLING TIME FOR PARTICLES I N FLUID
(S.G. 2.65, a t 10°C)
-
Time R e q u i r e d t o
Cl i a m e t e r (mm) Settle 1'
-
1 .O c o a r s e sand 3 seconds
0.1 f i n e sand 38 seconds
0.01 silt 33 m i n u t e s
0.001 bacteria 35 h o u r s
- 0.0001 clay 230 da s
Source!
F rom T a b l e 1 , i t w i l l be a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t v e r y f i n e
C 01 l o i d a l p a r t i c l e s may t a k e c o n s i d e r a b l y l o n g e r t o
S, e t t l e t h a n t h e 1 day d e t e n t i o n t i m e r e q u i r e d i n t h e
F~ e r f o r m a n c es t a n d a r d s . However, i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e
r*equirements o f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e s t a n d a r d s , e f f l u e n t
1 i m i t a t i o n s a p p l y , and i f t h e s e a r e exceeded, t h e Figure 3
Cr p e r a t o r may be r e q u i r e d t o t a k e a d d i t i o n a l measures t o
The N o r t h e a s t F o r e s t E x p e r i m e n t a l S t a t i o n a t Berea,
r.educe t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f suspended s o l i d s . I n t h e s e
Kentucky, conducted e x p e r i m e n t s e a r l y i n t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s t o
C:ases, when d r a i n a g e w a t e r c o n t a i n s a h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f
e s t i m a t e t h e sediment g e n e r a t i o n by l a n d d i s t u r b e d b y
Ll e r y f i n e c o l l o i d a l p a r t i c l e s i t may be n e c e s s a r y t o add
cI f l o c c u l a t i n g a g e n t t o speed t h e r a t e o f s e t t l e m e n t .
s u r f a c e m i n i n g . I n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l watershed, w h i c h
c o n t a i n e d 63 a c r e s o f l a n d a f f e c t e d b y s u r f a c e m i n i n g ,
1-here a r e a number o f t h e s e a v a i l a b l e and t h e o p e r a t o r
C; h o u l d c o n s u l t a qua1 i f i e d e n g i n e e r .
t h e sediment pond t r a p p e d 0.82 a c r e - f t . o f sediment whic
was e q u i v a l e n t t o 0.54" o v e r t h e w h o l e d i s t u r b e d a r e a s .
I. I I . SEDIMENT STORAGE VOLUME P a r t l y on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e F o r e s t
1- h e r e a r e two methods b y w h i c h sediment s t o r a g e volume
S e r v i c e and t h e S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e p r e d i c t e d a
nlay be c a l c u l a t e d . The f i r s t , w h i c h i s r a t h e r c o m p l i - 0.20 a c r e - f t . s e d i m e n t y i e l d p e r a c r e o f d i s t u r b e d
c:ated, i n v o l v e s t h e use o f t h e " U n i v e r s a l S o i l Loss
acreage. T h i s p r o d u c t i o n i n c l u d e d a s a f e t y f a c t o r and
E: q u a t i o n ( s e e Sheet 6 : 1 ) , G u l l y E r o s i o n Rates and t h e
t h i s was s u b s e q u e n t l y used i n K e n t u c k y ' s s u r f a c e m i n e
:;ediment D e l i v e r y R a t i o c o n v e r t e d t o sediment volume." regulations. (6)
1-he second method, w h i c h i s much s i m ~ l e r . r ~ n u i ar ~ ~
s e d i m e n t s t o r a g e v 0 l ~ m eo f 0.1 a c r e - f t . f o r each acre o f
L-

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DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
V. DEWATERING
'A non-clogging dewatering device" (e.g. a t r i c k l e t u b e embankments should n o t exceed lv:5h. During c o n s t r u c t i o r
r i t h a t r a s h r a c k o r c o n d u i t s p i l l w a y ) s h a l l be l o c a t e d t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e embankment should be c l e a r e d o f a l l
io t h a t i t s l o w e r e l e v a t i o n i s below t h e maximum eleva- o r g a n i c m a t t e r and t h e e n t i r e f o u n d a t i o n area s c a r i f i e d .
;ion of t h e sediment o f t h e sediment s t o r a g e volume. The f i l l m a t e r i a l should be f r e e o f l a r g e r o o t s and other
:816.46(d)l F i g u r e 4 shows a simple t r i c k l e tube v e g e t a t i v e m a t e r i a l and b u i l t up i n h o r i z o n t a l l i f t s so
wrangement w i t h a t r a s h r a c k . as t o achieve good compaction. The e n t i r e embankment
should be s t a b i l i z e d a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a v e g e t a t i v e
cover, and t h e a c t i v e upstream f a c e o f t h e embankment
r i p - r a p p e d o r o t h e r w i s e s t a b i l i z e d [816.46(s)].
V I I . INLET DESIGN
I n l e t design i s an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e design o f
sediment ponds. The performance c o n t r o l s do n o t s p e c i f y
t h e design o f i n l e t s f o r sedimentation ponds. However
Figure 4 i n s e c t i o n 8 1 6 . 4 6 ( c ) ( l ) i t i s s t a t e d t h a t t h e RA may
approve a d e t e n t i o n t i m e o f l e s s than 24 hours ( b u t n o t
l e s s than 10 hours) i f an improvement i n "sediment
removal e f f i c i e n c y " can be demonstrated by " i n f l o w and
o u t f l o w f a c i l i t y l o c a t i o n s , b a f f l e s t o decrease i n f l o w
v e l o c i t y and s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g...." I f water e n t e r s a t
one p o i n t a t a h i g h v e l o c i t y , sediments a l r e a d y s e t t l e d
I. SEDIMENT REMOVAL i n t h e pond a r e l i k e l y t o be d i s t u r b e d and s e t t l e m e n t
iediment must be removed when t h e volume o f sediment i s poor. M u l t i p l e i n l e t s , b a f f l e s , o r spreading devices
~ccumulates t o 60% o f t h e design sediment s t o r a g e volume t o reduce i n l e t v e l o c i t y a r e recommended. Small m o d i f i -
-816.46(h)]. T h i s a p p l i e s u n l e s s t h e sedimentation pond c a t i o n s t o t h e i n l e t design and consequently t h e p a t t e r n
i a s been designed and c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h a d d i t i o n a l s e d i - o f f l o w o f p o l l u t e d w a t e r through t h e pond may s i g n i f i -
nent o r water s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y and approved by t h e RA. c a n t l y a1 t e r t h e percentage o f suspended s o l i d s removed.
jediment r e m v a l i s most e a s i l y accomplished u s i n g a V I I I . EMERGENCY SPILLWAY
i r a g l i n e o r a clam-she1 1 . Many small o p e r a t o r s w i l l The combination o f p r i n c i p a l and emergency s p i 1lways
lave access t o n e i t h e r o f these pieces o f equipment must be capable o f passing a 25 y r / 2 4 h r p r e c i p i t a t i o n
~ l t h o u g ha long-arm backhoe may be a v a i l a b l e i n these event w i t h o u t damage t o t h e pond. The e l e v a t i o n o f t h e
:ases. I t may be more economic t o c o n s t r u c t t h e s e d i - c r e s t o f t h e emergency s p i l l w a y must be 1 f t above t h e
nent b a s i n w i t h a l a r g e r s t o r a g e volume as i s p e r m i s s i b l e c r e s t o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s p i l l w a y , and t h e emergency s p i l l
i n S e c t i o n 816.46(h) i n o r d e r t o reduce t h e need f o r way must be capable o f passing t h e design f l o w w i t h o u t
sediment removal. damage.
/ I . DAM, EMBANKMENT IX. REMOVAL OF PONDS
-816.46(i)-(p)] The minimum e l e v a t i o n o f t h e t o p o f Sedimentation ponds may n o t be removed u n t i l t h e d i s -
the s e t t l e d embankment must be 1 ft. above t h e water t u r b e d area has been r e s t o r e d and revegetated. The
;urface i n t h e pond when t h e emergency s p i l l w a y i s drainage e n t e r i n g t h e pond must meet a p p l i c a b l e S t a t e
Flowing a t t h e design depth. A minimum o f 5% a l l o w - and Federal water q u a l i t y requirements f o r t h e r e -
ince f o r s e t t l e m e n t i n t h e h e i g h t o f t h e dam must be c e i v i n g stream. I n c e r t a i n cases, t h e RA may approve
i l l o w e d d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n . The minimum t o p w i d t h r e t e n t i o n o f a sedimentation pond i n which case i t must
) f t h e embankment s h a l l n o t be l e s s than t h e quo- meet t h e requirements f o r permanent impoundments o f
t i e n t o f (H + 35) d i v i d e d by 5 where H i s t h e h e i g h t Sections 816.49 and 816.56. Where t h e RA has approved
i n f e e t of t h e embankment as measured from t h e up- permanent r e t e n t i o n o f sedimentation pond, 816.56 r e -
stream t o e o f t h e embankment. The maximum slopes o f t h e q u i r e s t h a t o p e r a t o r s renovate t h e pond t o meet t h e
~ p s t r e a mo r downstream s i d e s o f t h e embankment should n o t c r i t e r i a s p e c i f i e d f o r permanent impoundments
2xceed 1v:Zh b u t t h e a d d i t i o n o f t h e g r a d i e n t s f o r b o t h [816.49(a)].
REFERENCE
1) Hamil ton, L.W., Sep 1974, "Reclamation i n Steep Slope Surface Mining," M i n i n g Congress J o u r n a l .
2) Carthage M i l l s , E r o s i o n C o n t r o l D i v i s i o n , " F i l t e r Handbook," 124 W. 6 6 t h St., C i n c i n n a t i , OH.
3) H i l l , R.D., 1976, "Sedimentation Ponds, A C r i t i c a l Review," US EPA, C i n c i n n a t i , OH.
4) Janiak, H., 1975, "Progress i n Methodology o f L i g n i t e Mine Waters P u r i f i c a t i o n , " C e n t r a l Research and Design
I n s t i t u t e f o r Opencast Mining, Wroclaw, Poland.
5) McCarthy, R.E., June 1973, "Surface Mine S i l t a t i o n C o n t r o l ,"M i n i n g Congress J o u r n a l .
6) C u r t i s , W.R., Oct 22-24, "Sediment Y i e l d f o r S t r i p - M i n e d Watersheds i n Eastern Kentucky," 2nd Research and
A p p l i e d Technology Symposium on Mined-Land Reclamation, N a t i o n a l Coal Association, L o u i s v i 1l e , KY.
7) H i l l , R.D., May 1975, "Sediment C o n t r o l and Surface Mining," Polish-US Symposium, Environmental P r o t e c t i o n i n
Open-Pit Mining, Denver, CO.
8) U.S. Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency, October 1976, "Erosion and Sediment C o n t r o l - Surface Mining i n t h e
Eastern U.S. - Planning," EPA Technology Transfer Seminar P u b l i c a t i o n , EPA 625/3-76-006.
9) U.S. Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency, October 1976, "Erosion and Sediment C o n t r o l - Surface M i n i n g i n t h e
Eastern U.S. - Design, " EPA Technology T r a n s f e r Seminar Pub1i c a t i o n , EPA 625/3-76-006.

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I) MO~ILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIOIS HANDBOOK
FOR
DIVERSIONS - OVERLAND FLOW AND EPHEMERAL SMAU MINE
STREAMS
OPERATORS
PROBLEM & PURPOSE
I t i s u s u a l l y i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e mine o p e r a t o r t o f l o w can be d i v e r t e d , t h e n t h e s i z e requirement f o r t h e
d i v e r t c l e a n r u n o f f and streamflow from areas upslope o r pond w i l l be t h a t much l e s s . The d i v e r s i o n i t s e l f i s
upstream o f t h e mine s i t e b e f o r e i t becomes contaminated n o t p a r t o f t h e " d i s t u r b e d area" and t h e r e f o r e flow
w i t h sediment and p o l l u t e d water on t h e mine s i t e i t s e l f . through i t need n o t be passed through a sedimentation
These d i v e r s i o n s i n t e r c e p t runoff and streamflow and con- pond [816.42(a) (4)]. Diverting overland flow before
vey i t around t h e mine working area t o a r e c e i v i n g water- i t e n t e r s t h e mine area w i l l a l s o h e l p t h e o p e r a t o r i n
course, downstream. T h i s can r e s u l t i n c o n s i d e r a b l e keeping t h e working area and t h e p i t d r y and t h e opera-
savings f o r t h e o p e r a t o r because a l l s u r f a c e drainage t i o n s r u n n i n g smoothly. I n cases where t h e overburden
from d i s t u r b e d areas must be passed through a sedimenta- c o n t a i n s a c i d - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s , d i v e r s i o n s around t h e
t i o n pond L816.421. The s i z e o f t h f s sedimentation pond workings a r e e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o reduce t h e p o s s i -
has t o be s u f f i c i e n t t o h o l d t h e flow from upstream f o r b i l i t y o f AMD and t h e p o s s i b l e need t o t r e a t t h e d i s -
I APPLICABILITY
a 24 hour p e r i o d [816.46(c)]. I f much o f t h i s upstream charge " water. I
These measures a p p l y t o a l l s u r f a c e m i n i n g s i t e s . They The measures a r e a l s o e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n steep
a r e e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t where t h e r e i s a l a r g e area t e r r a i n where e r o s i o n problems a r e most s e r i o u s , where
upslope o f t h e mine s i t e from which o v e r l a n d f l o w o r i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o keep p o l l u t e d water w i t h i n t h e mine
streamflow, which then passes o v e r t h e mine s i t e , o r i g i - s i t e , and where c o n f i n e d p i t conditons make a d r y work-
nates. I n these cases t h e r e q u i r e d s i z e o f sedimentation i n g area i m p o r t a n t f o r smooth o p e r a t i o n s .

[ ~ e f i n i t i o n s , 701.51 - d i v e r s i o n s t o be c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h i n t h e proposed p e r m i t
( i ) Ephemeral streams. These c a r r y w a t e r o n l y areas a r e r e q u i r e d under S e c t i o n 780.29.
immediately a f t e r r a i n o r d u r i n g snowmel t, o t h e r - S e c t i o n 816.43 c o n t a i n s t h e v a r i o u s performance standar
wise t h e y a r e almost d r y . f o r design and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f d i v e r s i o n s o f o v e r l a n d
( i i ) I n t e r m i t t e n t streams do n o t c a r r y water t h e f l o w and ephemeral streams, and t h e y a r e a l s o discussed
whole y e a r b u t t h e y d r a i n a t l e a s t one square m i l e , below. I t should be n o t e d t h a t i n S e c t i o n 816.42(a)(4)
r e c e i v e some f l o w from groundwater as w e l l as run- i t s t a t e s t h a t " f o r t h e purposes o f t h i s S e c t i o n o n l y
o f f and a r e a l s o below t h e l o c a l water t a b l e f o r ' d i s t u r b e d a r e a ' s h a l l n o t i n c l u d e those areas i n which
p a r t o f t h e i r l e n g t h f o r some o f t h e year. only diversion ditches .... a r e i n s t a l l e d i n accordance
( i i i ) Perennial streams, f l o w t h e whole y e a r round, w i t h t h i s Part." T h i s means t h a t i f t h e d i v e r s i o n s a r e
r e c e i v i n g f l o w from b o t h r u n o f f and groundwater. c o n s t r u c t e d t o t h e standards i n 816.43 and approved by
The requirements o f t h e performance standards f o r ephem- t h e RA, t h e f l o w i n t h e d i v e r s i o n s need n o t be passed
e r a l stream d i v e r s i o n s L816.431 a r e l e s s s t r i n g e n t than through a sedimentation pond, and t h e d i v e r s i o n w i l l
those f o r p e r e n n i a l and i n t e r m i t t e n t streams C816.441. a l s o reduce t h e s i z e o f sedimentation ponds which a r e
Temporary o r permanent d i v e r s i o n channels may be used t o r e q u i r e d . However. S e c t i o n 816.43(c) r e q u i r e s t h a t a l l
d i v e r t o v e r l a n d f l o w , o r flow i n ephemeral streams, away d i v e r s i o n s be designed, c o n s t r u c t e d and m a i n t a i n e d i n a
from d i s t u r b e d areas i n o r d e r " t o minimize erosion, t o manner which prevents a d d i t i o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f
reduce t h e volume t o be t r e a t e d and t o p r e v e n t o r remove suspended s o l i d s t o stream f l o w and t o r u n o f f o u t s i d e
d a t e r fro; c o n t a c t w i t h a c i d - f o r m i n g o r t o x i c - f o r m i n g t h e p e r m i t area.
n a t e r i a l s r816.431 b u t these d i v e r s i o n s do need t h e

--- --
L o c a t i n g a d i v e r s i o n f o r maximum e f f e c t i v e n e s s r e q u i r e s channels .
a good topographic map. No areas upslope o f t h e d i v e r - 111. CROSS SECTION
s i o n may be d i s t u r b e d o t h e r w i s e f l o w i n t h e d i v e r s i o n Waterways may be b u i l t i n p a r a b o l i c , t r a p e z o i d a l o r V-
dould have t o be passed through a sedimentation pond. shaped c r o s s s e c t i o n s . The p a r a b o l i c cross s e c t i o n s
The Regulations s p e c i f y a l s o t h a t no d i v e r s i o n should be have g e n e r a l l y proved t o be t h e most s a t i s f a c t o r y .
l o c a t e d so as t o i n c r e a s e t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r l a n d s l i d e s Waterways w i t h a t r a p e z o i d a l cross s e c t i o n , however, a r e
[816.43(d)]. T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t when l o - e a s i e r t o c o n s t r u c t . Maintenance o f grassed waterways
c a t i n g d i v e r s i o n d i t c h e s around t h e upslope s i d e o f by mowing i s a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l t o i n s u r e t h e maximum
dead-of-Hollow o r V a l l e y f i l l s , i n which case these e r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e of t h e grass. To enable f r e q u e n t
d i v e r s i o n s should be c o n s t r u c t e d on s o l i d ground. high-speed mowing t o t a k e place, s i d e slopes o f t r a p e z o i -
11. DESIGN CAPACITY d a l s e c t i o n s should n o t exceed lv:3h.
Temporary d i v e r s i o n s must be designed t o pass s a f e l y a
peak r u n o f f from a p r e c i p i t a t i o n e v e n t w i t h a 2 y r
recurrence i n t e r v a l . For permanent d i v e r s i o n s t h e r e -
currence i n t e r v a l must be 10 years. D i v e r s i o n s must
have channels which a r e capable o f passing t h e design
v e l o c i t y w i t h o u t causing e r o s i o n .
The c a p a c i t y o f t h e channel i s based on c a l u c l a t i o n o f
t h e peak discharge. T h i s i s c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e normal
way u s i n g t h e r a t i o n a l formula:
Q = CiA
Where:
Q = discharge i n c f s ;
C = runoff coefficient;
i = intensity o f rainfall;
A = drainage area i n acres.
The Soi 1 Conservation S e r v i c e ' s "Enqineering F i e l d Manual
f o r Conservation P r a c t i c e s " g i v e s several examples o f
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
The performance standards r e u i r e a f r e e b o a r d o f no l e s s n e t t i n g s a r e on t h e market and can be used t o s t a b i l i z e
than 0.3 f e e t . r 8 1 6 . 4 3 ( f ) ( 2 ) ? . grassed waterways a t t h e t i m e o f seeding. I n l a r g e r
IV. CHANNEL LINING: VEGETATIVE channels where several w i d t h s o f n e t t i n g a r e r e q u i r e d
The r e g u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t "channel l i n i n g s h a l l be de- these should o v e r l a p by 2 inches and t h e o v e r l a p be
signed u s i n g standard e n g i n e e r i n g p r a c t i c e s t o pass s a f e - s t a p l e d 4 t o 10 inches a p a r t . The ends o f t h e r o l l s
l y t h e design v e l o c i t i e s . " [ 8 1 6 . 4 3 ( f ) ( l ) ] . should a l s o be overlapped and t h e t o p ends b u r i e d i n
G r a s s - l i n e d d i v e r s i o n channels a r e g e n e r a l l y t h e most trenches 4 inches deep. A f t e r l a y i n g t h e s e nets, t h e y
economical. There i s a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p e r t i s e i n t h e should be r o l l e d w e l l t o i n s u r e good c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
design o f grass channels t o minimize e r o s i o n . The USDA soil.
S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e ' s "Engineering F i e l d Manual f o r V. REINFORCING VEGETATIVE LININGS
Conservation P r a c t i c e s " g i v e s an excel l e n t guide f o r t h e The e r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e o f a grass waterway can be i n -
design o f grass d i v e r s i o n channels. T h i s i n c l u d e s t h e creased i n d i f f i c u l t cases by r e i n f o r c i n g t h e sward w i t h
method f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e "retardance" f o r v a r i o u s types n y l o n n e t t i n g o r by i n t r o d u c i n g f i b e r g l a s s e r o s i o n
o f v e g e t a t i o n . Grass channels must be capable o f w i t h - checks a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s . Erosion checks a r e u s u a l l y
s t a n d i n g t h e a b r a s i v e a c t i o n o f w a t e r w i t h o u t damage. c o n s t r u c t e d o f f i b e r g l a s s m a t t i n g which i s i n s t a l l e d
G e n e r a l l y grass channels have slopes o f between 1 and 10 across t h e waterway. They p r e v e n t t h e f o r m a t i o n of
percent. The p e r m i s s i b l e v e l o c i t i e s f o r v a r i o u s types g u l l i e s and a i d i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f v e g e t a t i o n .
o f grass and s o i l e r o d i b i l i t y a r e shown on Table 1. P r e f e r a b l y t h e y should be i n s t a l l e d a t any changes i n
Note t h a t t h e range i s between 2-6 f p s w i t h v e l o c i t i e s g r a d i e n t and downstream from t h e confluence o f two d i -
o f 7-8 f p s used o n l y where t h e sward i s o f t h e h i g h e s t versions. I n s t a l l a t i o n involves excavating a 1 f o o t
quality. deep t r e n c h and i n s t a l l i n g a v e r t i c a l membrane o f f i b e r -
rable I. PERMISSIBLE VELOCITIES FOR CHANNELS LINED g l a s s . I t i s secured w i t h s t a p l e s , b a c k f i l l e d , compact-
ed and t h e excess f i b e r g l a s s trimmed o f f f l u s h w i t h t h e
WITH VEGETATION
surface ( F i g u r e 2 ) .
Slope
Permissible v e l o c i t y Jl
Cover range / Erosion re- Easily
s i s t a n t s o i 1s eroded s o i 1s
(percent) (fps) (fps)

0-5 8 6
3ermuda grass 5-10 7 5
o v e r 10 6 4

3ahia 1'. /--" Figure 2

3 u f f a l o grass VI. STRAW BALE AND BRUSHWOOD EROSION CHECKS
i e n t u c k y bluegrass 0-5 7 5 (ABOVE GROUND)
Smooth brome 5-1 0 6 4 I n cases where a grass channel i s e r o d i n g o r t o h e l p
31ue grama o v e r 10 5 3 s t a b i l i z e a grass channel v a r i o u s types o f above-ground
r a l l fescue e r o s i o n checks can be used.
On channels o v e r 9 f e e t wide, s t r a w b a l e checks as shown
irass mixtures -
2/ 0-5 5 4 i n F i g u r e 3 may be used. Bales a r e staked down w i t h
teed canarygrass 5-10 4 3 2 x 2 ' 6 " wooden o r metal stakes and t i e d down w i t h n y l o n
o r w i r e . Riprap i s p l a c e d t o form an apron downstream
-espedeza s e r i c e a o f t h e check f o r a minimum d i s t a n c e o f 4 f e e t and a t t h e
deeping lovegrass edge o f t h e channel on b o t h sides. On channels of l e s s
Yellow b l uestem than 9 f e e t i n w i d t h t h e small checks shown i n F i g u r e 4
Zedtop -
3/ 0-5 3.5 2.5 may be used w i t h o u t an apron. They should be spaced
llfalfa about 40 f e e t a p a r t . Checks must be removed p r i o r t o
Zed fescue final restoration

:ommon lespedeza 4/ 5/ 0-5 f

hdangrass 4J - 3.5 2.5
-

JI Use v e l o c i t i e s exceeding 5 f p s o n l y where good covers

and proper maintenance can be obtained.
g/ Do n o t use on slopes steeper than 10% except f o r veg-
e t a t e d s i d e slopes i n combination w i t h a stone, con-
crete, o r h i g h l y r e s i s t a n t vegetative center section.
g/ Do n o t use on slopes steeper than 5% except f o r veg-
e t a t e d s i d e slopes i n combination w i t h a stone, con-
c r e t e o r highly r e s i s t a n t vegetative center section.
4J Annuals--use on m i l d slopes o r as temporary p r o t e c -
t i o n u n t i 1 permanent covers a r e e s t a b l i s h e d .
Where a l o n g e r l i f e e r o s i o n check i s r e q u i r e d a t h r e e
5J Use on slopes steeper than 5% i s n o t recommended. f o o t cyclone fence i s n a i l e d on t h e upstream s i d e o f
Papid s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f grass d i v e r s i o n channels f o l l o w - 4" x 4" wooden stakes across t h e channel. Straw b a l e s
i n g g r a d i n g i s o b v i o u s l y e s s e n t i a l t o minimize erosion. a r e laced on t h e upstream s i d e as shown. These a r e
iydroseeding and mulching w i l l h e l p c o n s i d e r a b l y b u t w i r e d t o g e t h e r and t o t h e fence. R i p r a p i s placed as
i n c r i t i c a l areas o t h e r forms o f s t a b i l i z a t i o n may be f o r s t r a w b a l e checks and i n some cases, t h e s t r a w
s p p r o p r i a t e . A v a r i e t y o f j u t e , paper, and p l a s t i c b a l e s may be covered w i t h crushed stone. T h i s i n s t a l l a -

STREAM DIVERSIONS - OVERLAND FLOW AND EPHEMERAL SMALL MINE

STREAMS
OPERATORS
57
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
cion must a l s o be removed p r i o r t o r e s t o r a t i o n . When
i t r a w i s n o t a v a i l a b l e b u t when t h e r e a r e l a r g e q u a n t i -
t i e s o f brushwood on s i t e , brushwood bundles approximate-
l y 18 inches i n diameter can be made up on s i t e w i t h #9
w i r e and l a i d i n staggered f o r m a t i o n upstream o f t h e
fence and w i r e d t o t h e fence. Riprap i s placed as be-
f o r e . Wooden stakes ( u s u a l l y 4 i n c h diameter p o l e s ) may
a l s o be used i n v a r i o u s conformations t o p r o v i d e e r o s i o n
checks alone o r w i t h s t r a w o r brushwood. These a l t e r n a -
t i v e s a r e shown i n Fig. 5 and F i g . 6.
WE &ELK WITH 9TIZAw 6bhH CR E~EV~HWOOD.

V I I I . DROP STRUCTURES AND CHECK DAMS, ENERGY DISSIPATORS

These c o u n t e r a c t g u l l y e r o s i o n i n waterways by r e d u c i n g
t h e e f f e c t i v e g r a d i e n t o f t h e channel. They should be
used when t h e f l o w v e l o c i t y exceeds t h a t f o r which vege-
t a t i o n can p r o v i d e e f f e c t i v e p r o t e c t i o n . These may be
p r e f e r a b l e t o t h e use o f a concrete, a s p h a l t o r r i p r a p
l i n i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r permanent channels when such
l i n i n g s r e q u i r e t h e approval o f t h e RA. S e l e c t i o n o f
t h e t y p e o f drop s t r u c t u r e o r check dam and t h e m a t e r i a l s
t o be used w i l l depend on f l o w v e l o c i t y , c o s t , performanc~
and a e s t h e t i c aspects. M a t e r i a l s may c o n s i s t o f t i m b e r ,
rock, gabions, concrete, brush o r sod. To p r e v e n t under-
c u t t i n g t h e t o e a l l s t r u c t u r e s should be keyed w e l l i n t o
t h e e x i s t i n g ground surface. The approval o f t h e RA
should be o b t a i n e d f o r t h e use o f these s t r u c t u r e s on
permanent d i v e r s i o n s . F i g u r e s 9, 10, and 11 show
a l t e r n a t i v e s p i l l w a y s f o r d i v e r s i o n channels. I t should
be n o t e d t h a t s e c t i o n 816.43(f) ( 3 ) r e q u i r e s t h a t energy
d i s s i p a t o r s s h a l l be i n s t a l l e d where d i v e r s i o n s meet a
n a t u r a l stream i f t h e v e l o c i t y i n t h e d i v e r s i o n exceeds
t h a t i n t h e stream. See Sheet 6:2 f o r d e t a i l s of a dumpe
r o c k energy d i s s i p a t o r .

'11. CHANNEL LINING - NON-VEGETATIVE

'emporary d i v e r s i o n channels may be s t a b i 1 i z e d w i t h as-
) h a l t concrete, r i p r a p o r o t h e r non-vegetati ve 1i n i n g ,
but non-vegetative l i n i n g s may be used f o r permanent
l i v e r s i o n s o n l y w i t h t h e approval o f t h e RA. I n t h e
:ase o f a d i v e r s i o n which has permanent wetness i n t h e
)ottom, grass w i l l n o t g i v e good p r o t e c t i o n . I n these
:ases i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e t h a t i t i s an 'ephemeral' and
l o t an i n t e r m i t t e n t stream. To p r e v e n t e r o s i o n a stone
:enter d r a i n o r u n d e r d r a i n should be i n s t a l l e d . A l t e r -
l a t i v e s a r e shown i n Figures 7 and 8.

I) b I L I Z A T I O N AND MINING OPERATIONS

1 HANDBOOK
-FOR
STREAM DIVERSIONS - OVERLAND FLOW AND EPHEMERAL SMALL MINE
STREAMS
OPERATORS
58
 (1 ) USDA S o i l Conservation Service, 1975, "Engineering F i e 1 d Manual f o r Conservation P r a c t i c e s . "
(2) USDA, 1970, " C o n t r o l 1i n g Erosion and C o n s t r u c t i o n S i t e s , " S o i l Conservation Serv., A g r i c . I n f o r . B u l l e t i n 347.
(3) EPA, 1972, "Guide1 i n e s f o r Erosion and Sediment C o n t r o l Planning and Implementation."
[4) Pennsylvania Department o f Environmental Resources, Sep 1972, " S o i l Erosion and Sediment C o n t r o l Manual. "
( 5 ) S k e l l y and Loy, Engineers-Consultants, Oct 1973, "Processes, Procedures, and Methods t o C o n t r o l P o l l u t i o n from
M i n i n g A c t i v i t i e s , " EPA 43019-73-011.

7 1 -MOBILIZATION AND MINING oPERmoNs

-
HANDBOOK
FOR
STREAM DIVERSIONS OVERLAND FLOW AND EPHEMERAL SMALL MINE
STREAMS
OPERATORS
59
 HANDBOOK
7 1 MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS

u MEASURES

PROBLEM & PURPOSE

STREAM DIVERSIONS - PERENNIAL AND INTERMITTERT
STREAMS

I t may be d e s i r a b l e t o d i v e r t stream channels e i t h e r

t e m p o r a r i l y o r permanently f o r any o f t h e f o l l o w i n g
FOR
SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
w h i l e passing o v e r t h e working area.
3. D i v e r s i o n o f f l o w from upstream areas reduces
El
reasons: t h e r e q u i r e d c a p a c i t y o f sedimentation ponds as
1. To a l l o w t h e e x i s t i n g channel t o be mined o n l y t h e drainage from t h e d i s t u r b e d areas w i l l
through, e n a b l i n g t h e e x t r a c t i o n o f coal beneath f l o w through t h e pond.
and r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n . 4. D i v e r s i o n o f streams away from t h e working area
2. To d i v e r t u n p o l l u t e d stream f l o w around t h e reduces t h e problem o f p i t dewatering, and o t h e r
mine working, so a v o i d i n g contamination w i t h s e d i - problems o f h a n d l i n g drainage w a t e r on a s u r f a c e
ment o r by c o n t a c t w i t h a c i d - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s mine s i t e .
APPLICABILITY
l ~ h e s emeasures a p p l y t o a1 1 s u r f a c e m i n i n g s i t e s . D i - d i s t u r b e d l a n d above t h e mine s i t e , and i n h i l l t e r r a i n
v e r s i o n o f streams which cross t h e proposed c o a l e x t r a c - where i t w i l l be d i f f i c u l t t o c o n f i n e drainage w a t e r t o
t i o n area i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t f o r c e r t a i n types o f t h e p e r m i t area. I n t h e case o f c o n t o u r mining, d i -
m i n i n g - e.g. area m i n i n g which r e l i e s on moving t h e c u t v e r s i o n s may have t o c r o s s t h e e x t r a c t i o n area i n temp-
s t e a d i l y across t h e s i t e w i t h o u t any o b s t r u c t i o n s . Where o r a r y p i p e s o r chutes.
overburden i s t h i c k any o b s t r u c t i o n s on t h e surface The d i v e r s i o n o f streams t o reduce t h e problem o f de-
(streams, roads, e t c . ) which a r e n o t d i v e r t e d o r r e l o - w a t e r i n g t h e working area and t h e p i t w i l l be most im-
c a t e d w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e s t e r i l i z a t i o n o f a l a r g e area p o r t a n t i n cases where t h e p i t i s c o n f i n e d and where muchI
o f c o a l because o f t h e b a t t e r o f t h e h i g h w a l l when equipment i s working i n t h e bottom o f t h e p i t . I t i s a l -
m i n i n g around o b s t r u c t i o n s . so v e r y i m p o r t a n t on s i t e s where t h e overburden c o n t a i n s
D i v e r s i o n o f streams t o reduce t h e amount o f f l o w which l a r g e amounts o f a c i d - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s . I t should be
must be passed throuqh sedimentation ponds i s ver.y n o t e d t h a t d i v e r s i o n s must be approved by t h e RA b u t t h a t
l i m p o r t a n t on s i t e s where t h e r e i s a l a r g e area o f un- t h e RA may a l s o r e q u i r e d i v e r s i o n s t o be i n s t a l l e d .
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
Sheet 6:4 described t h e performance c o n t r o l and design stream d i v e r s i o n s . B u t a d i s t i n c t i o n i s made i n t h e
g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e d i v e r s i o n o f ephemeral streams and design o f permanent versus temporary d i v e r s i o n s . I t
o v e r l a n d f l o w . T h i s sheet considers t h e d i v e r s i o n o f should be n o t e d here t h a t S e c t i o n 816.42 r e q u i r e s t h a t
streams w i t h p e r e n n i a l o r i n t e r m i t t e n t f l o w . Both a l l s u r f a c e drainage f r o m d i s t u r b e d areas i s passed
p e r e n n i a l and i n t e r m i t t e n t streams may be d i v e r t e d through a sedimentation pond b u t S e c t i o n 816.42(a) ( 4 )
C816.441 b u t t h e d i v e r s i o n s must be approved by t h e RA. s p e c i f i c a l l y excludes d i v e r s i o n d i t c h e s . From t h i s
The a p p l i c a t i o n must c o n t a i n p l a n s of a l l proposed d e f i n i t i o n i t i s n o t c l e a r whether " d i v e r s i o n d i t c h e s "
stream channel d i v e r s i o n s w i t h i n t h e proposed p e r m i t i n c l u d e stream channel d i v e r s i o n s . Sections o f t h e
area under S e c t i o n 780.29. Regulations which deal s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h t h e design and
The performance standards make no d i s t i n c t i o n between c o n s t r u c t i o n o f stream d i v e r s i o n s a r e discussed below.
t h e desiqn requirements f o r permanent and i n t e r m i t t e n t
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
11. CAPACITY q u i r e s t h e o p e r a t o r t o r e s t o r e and enhance, where prac-
The combination of channel bank and f l o o d p l a i n configura- t i c a b l e , t h e n a t u r a l r i p a r i a n v e g e t a t i o n on t h e bank of
t i o n s f o r temporary d i v e r s i o n s must be adequate t o pass t h e stream.
s a f e l y t h e peak r u n o f f from a 10-yr/24-hr p r e c i p i t a - 111. BANK CONFIGURATION AND STABILIZATION
t i o n event, w h i l e t h e combination o f channel bank and A " n a t u r a l meandering" stream i s u s u a l l y c u t t i n g t h e
f l o o d p l a i n c o n f i g u r a t i o n s f o r a permanent d i v e r s i o n bank on t h e o u t s i d e o f bends ( t h e bank here b e i n g steep)
must be adequate t o pass s a f e l y t h e peak r u n o f f from a and d e p o s i t i n g on t h e i n s i d e o f t h e bend where t h e bank
100-yr/24-hr p r e c i p i t a t i o n event. I n b o t h cases t h e i s shallow. When c r e a t i n g a meandering p r o f i l e w i t h
c a p a c i t y o f t h e channel must be a t l e a s t equal t o t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e depth o f water, i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o
c a p a c i t y o f t h e unmodified stream channel immediately copy t h i s n a t u r a l s i t u a t i o n . Steep banks can be con-
upstream and downstream o f t h e d i v e r s i o n . The performance s t r u c t e d u s i n g v a r i o u s techniques and should u s u a l l y
standards r e q u i r e t h a t t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l p r o f i l e o f t h e r e l y on p l a n t i n g of n a t u r a l r i p a r i a n v e g e t a t i o n t o p r o -
stream channel and t h e f l o o d p l a i n be designed and con- v i d e permanent s t a b i l i z a t i o n . The lower r i p a r i a n zone
s t r u c t e d t o remain s t a b l e and t o p r e v e n t a d d i t i o n a l con- i n t h e N o r t h e a s t and M i d d l e A t l a n t i c S t a t e s has a
t r i b u t i o n s o f suspended s o l i d s t o stream f l o w o r r u n o f f n a t u r a l growth o f w i l l o w , a l d e r , b u t t o n bush, small
o u t s i d e t h e p e r m i t areas. maples, sweet gum and swamp rose. These v e g e t a t i o n types
11. CROSS SECTION AND CHANNEL LINING can be used t o s t a b i l i z e streambanks. The most commonly
The r e q u i r e d t r e a t m e n t o f t h e channel d i f f e r s between used of these i s w i l l o w , because o f i t s c a p a b i l i t y t o
permanent and temporary d i v e r s i o n s . Some o f t h e p r i n - develop r o o t s from c u t t i n g s and i t throws up suckers
c i p l e s d e s c r i b e d on sheet 6:4 o f u s i n g grass and o t h e r r e a d i l y . Willows can be p l a n t e d e i t h e r as i n d i v i d u a l
vegetation t o s t a b i l i z e diversions also apply t o t h a t c u t t i n g s o r bound t o g e t h e r i n v a r i o u s forms, e.g. w i l l o w
p a r t o f these d i v e r s i o n s which i s n o t permanently wet. mattresses o r bundles o r r o l l s ( F i g u r e s 1 and 2 ) .
S e c t i o n 816.44(b) ( 1 ) r e q u i r e s t h a t any e r o s i o n c o n t r o l W i l l o w r o l l s (which may a l s o c o n t a i n reeds) a r e u s u a l l y
s t r u c t u r e s , such as channel 1i n i n g s , r e t e n t i o n basins, 1 ' - 1 ' 6 " i n diameter and a r e c o n s t r u c t e d o f w i r e n e t t i n g .
a r t i f i c i a l channel roughness s t r u c t u r e s , should o n l y be A t r e n c h 1 ' 6 " wide and deep i s dug along t h e bank w i t h a
used w i t h t h e approval of t h e RA and i t i s n o t e d t h a t row o f stakes on t h e channel side. Wire n e t t i n g i s
these s t r u c t u r e s w i l l be approved f o r permanent d i v e r - s t r e t c h e d across t h e t r e n c h and about 4" coarse g r a v e l
s i o n s o n l y where t h e y a r e s t a b l e and w i l l o n l y r e q u i r e dumped o n t o i t f o r c i n g i t i n t o t h e t r e n c h . On t h i s
i n f r e q u e n t maintenance. However 816.44(d) r e q u i r e s t h a t should be placed 1 ayers o f sod, w i l l o w shoots and r e e d
t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l p r o f i l e and c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f a r e s t o r e d clumps, u n t i l t h e upper edges o f t h e w i r e wi 11 j u s t
o r permanent stream d i v e r s i o n should i n c l u d e a q u a t i c meet. The upper edge o f t h e r o l l should n o t be more
h a b i t a t s ( u s u a l l y a p a t t e r n o f r i f f l e s , p o o l s and drops than 2" above water l e v e l f o r a reed r o l l and 1 ' above
r a t h e r than u n i f o r m depths) t h a t approximate premining water l e v e l f o r a w i l l o w r o l l .
stream
- . -. c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . It also r e w i r e s t h a t the W i l l o w bundles o r ' f a s c i n e s ' have a diameter o f 3"-12"
stream be r e s t o r e d t o i t s " n a t u r a l meandering shape" w i t h and c o n t a i n w i l l o w shoots and sod and a r e t i g h t l y bound
an e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y acceptable g r a d i e n t . The S e c t i o n r e - around w i t h w i r e . On c u t banks packed f a s c i n e c r i b - w o r k -
60
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
( F i g u r e 3 ) can be employed o r s i n g l e f a s c i n e s o r w i l l o w use o f w i l l o w mattresses made from 4 ' - 6 ' w i l l o w switches.
r o l l s can be used ( F i q u r e 2 ) . The packed f a s c i n e c r i b - These a r e h e l d down bv stakes and b r a i d e d o r w i r e d t o -
~ o r kc o n s i s t s o f l a y e r s o f bundles,' secured by stakes. g e t h e r and covered l i g h t l y w i t h d i r t . These techniques
The spaces between t h e bundles a r e f i l l e d w i t h d i r t and can be adapted t o t h e l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s , v e g e t a t i o n
m o t h e r l a y e r i s added on top. Another technique i s t h e and e x p e r t i s e a v a i l a b l e .

F i g u r e 1. Willow r o l l formed o f F i g u r e 2. Willow r o l l staked a g a i n s t F i g u r e 3. Crib-work o f w i l l o w r o l l s

t i g h t l y bound bundle o f w i l l o w c u t bank and t h r o w i n g o u t new o r bundles b a c k f i l l e d w i t h s o i l
shoots, sod and coarse g r a v e l , i n shoots and coarse g r a v e l .
w i r e mesh r o l l .
I V . THE CREATION OF STILL SHALLOWS OR REED BEDS rap, t i m b e r and n a t u r a l m a t e r i a l s can be used i n t h e
dost n a t u r a l stream channels c o n t a i n s t i l l s h a l l o w areas c o n s t r u c t i o n o f j e t t i e s and r i f f l e s . F i g u r e 6 shows a
2nd beds o f reeds t h a t a r e i m p o r t a n t t o t h e b i o l o g i c a l simple w i l l o w j e t t y c o n s t r u c t e d o f r i p r a p , crushed
:onununity. These w i l l g r a d u a l l y develop i n a r e s t o r e d r o c k and s o i l .
jtream b u t t h e development can be hastened by a r t i f i c i a l
neans. Reed o r wi 1low berms can be c o n s t r u c t e d by throw-
ing up a r i p r a p and e a r t h embankment t o j u s t below t h e
nean water l e v e l which i s then p l a n t e d w i t h r e e d r o o t s
~ n d / o rw i l l o w c u t t i n g s as shown i n F i g u r e 4. These
t o u l d be c o n s t r u c t e d i n a wide s e c t i o n o f t h e r e s t o r e d
:hannel .

: i g u r e 4. Reed o r w i l l o w berms c r e a t i n g areas o f s t i l l

s h a l l o w water i n a d i v e r s i o n channel. F i g u r e 5. Willow j e t t i e s used here t o s t a b i l i z e an
'. THE CREATION OF RIFFLES AND POOLS e r o d i n g stream bank w i l l cause v a r i a t i o n i n water depth
l o s t n a t u r a l stream channels w i l l i n c l u d e r i f f l e s and V I . REMOVAL
l a t u r a l j e t t i e s which r e s u l t i n v a r i a t i o n i n t h e depth Temporary d i v e r s i o n s must be removed and t h e a f f e c t e d
~fwater. The r e c r e a t i o n of a n a t u r a l stream h a b i t a t area regraded and r e v e g e t a t e d t o t h e same standards as
:an be a c c e l e r a t e d by t h e c r e a t i o n o f c e r t i f i e d o t h e r d i s t u r b e d areas o f t h e s i t e . I f t h e removal o f the
e t t i e s and r i f f l e s . These must be c a r e f u l l y s t a b i l i z e d d i v e r s i o n w i l l cause downstream sedimentation ponds
r i t h n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n t o i n s u r e t h e i r permanence. o r o t h e r t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s t o be overtopped o r f a i l ,
' a r i o u s combinations o f gabions, gabion mattresses, r i p - t h e y must be m o d i f i e d o r removed.

8.b. -..-..--
1 ) T o u r b i e r , J. and Westmacott, R., 1974, "Water Resources P r o t e c t i o n Measures i n Land Development - A Handbook,"
U n i v e r s i t y o f Delaware, Water Resources Center, Newark, DE.

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MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS
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HANDBOOK
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MEASURES
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STREAMS
OPERATORS
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1 IIHOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS

CLEARANCE OF VEGETATION AND REMOVAL OF TOPSOIL

]
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SMAL~MNE
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OPERATORS
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PROBLEM & PURPOSE
I t has been shown t h a t one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s t o p s o i l i s t h i n , 6" of s o i l m a t e r i a l , i n c l u d i n g what-
i n r e e s t a b l i s h i n g v e g e t a t i o n on r e s t o r e d mine s i t e s i s e v e r t o p s o i l i s p r e s e n t and t h e remainder unconsolida-
r e p l a c i n g t h e t o p s o i l . The removal, s t o r a g e and replace- t e d m a t e r i a l beneath has t o be removed and t r e a t e d as
ment of t o p s o i 1 a r e t h e r e f o r e emphasized i n t h e p e r f o r - t o p s o i 1 [816.22(c)].
mance c o n t r o l s o f t h e new Regulations. Because much o f I n s i t u a t i o n s where e x i s t i n g t o p s o i l i s t h i n t h e over-
t h e l a n d planned f o r coal e x t r a c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n burden a n a l y s i s , f o r which small o p e r a t o r s can r e c e i v e
Appalachia i s f o r e s t e d , t h e clearance of v e g e t a t i o n and a s s i s t a n c e under t h e Small Operators Assistance Program,
grubbing o f stumps i s necessary b e f o r e t o p s o i l can be may r e v e a l s u i t a b l e t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e s which may be
removed. approved by t h e RA. The o p e r a t o r w i l l probably f i n d
I n some areas, i n c l u d i n g most o f Appalachia, t o p s o i l t h a t t h e s e l e c t i v e hand1 i n g r e q u i r e d t o p l a c e t h i s
i s t h i n . The R e g u l a t i o n s do n o t s p e c i f y t h e t h i c k n e s s m a t e r i a l on t o p o f regraded areas pays o f f i n g r e a t l y
o f s o i l which must be r e s t o r e d b u t i n areas where improved e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f v e g e t a t i o n .
APPl I r A R I I I T V
l ~ ~ o l i c a b tl oe a l l s u r f a c e m i n i m s i t e s . There a r e t i o n s can be c o s t l v on h e a v i l v f o r e s t e d s i t e s i n s t e e ~
s p e c i a l performance standards for t o p s o i 1 removal and t e r r a i n . The ~ e g u i a t i o n sa l s o c o n t a i n a requirement t h a t
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n on prime farmland ( P a r t 823). On s i t e s t h e minimum p r a c t i c a b l e area i s d i s t u r b e d a t one t i m e
which have been f o r e s t e d , removal o f t o p s o i l w i t h a ( d i s t u r b a n c e i n c l u d e s removal o f v e g e t a t i o n and t o p s o i l )
s c r a p e r may n o t be p o s s i b l e . I n these s i t u a t i o n s , [816.45(b) ( l ) ] . Requirements o f t h e Regulations, t h a t
e s p e c i a l l y on steep t e r r a i n , a t r a c k e d f r o n t - e n d l o a d e r r e c l a m a t i o n should be as contemporaneous as p o s s i b l e and
may have t o be used t o grub stumps and remove t o p s o i l . t h a t t o p s o i l should o n l y be s t o c k p i l e d i f immediate r e -
B u t t h i s o p e r a t i o n r e q u i r e s l o a d i n g t h e t o p s o i l f o r haul- d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n o t p r a c t i c a l , make i t i m p e r a t i v e t h a t
age t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s i t e , whereas a s c r a p e r can d i g , v e g e t a t i o n removal and t o p s o i l removal a r e planned and
load, haul and r e d i s t r i b u t e a l l i n one o p e r a t i o n , as w e l l phased v e r y c a r e f u l l y w i t h o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s on a l l s i t e s
as m a i n t a i n i t s own haul road. Therefore, these opera-
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
I. CLEARANCE OF VEGETATION 3. S o i l d e s c r i p t i o n ; and
F'ew s p e c i f i c references a r e made t o t h e clearance o f 4. Present and p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c t i v i t y o f e x i s t i n g
\ir e g e t a t i o n i n t h e Regulations. The clearance o f vegeta- soils.
t: i o n i s r e q u i r e d s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t h e Regulations o n l y t o Where t h e a p p l i c a n t wishes t o use s e l e c t e d overburden
Etnable t o p s o i l t o be s t r i p p e d [816.22]. T h i s has t h e m a t e r i a l as a t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e he must a l s o submit
'ollowing implications: t h e r e s u l t s o f c e r t a i n analyses r e q u i r e d under S e c t i o n
1. The clearance o f v e g e t a t i o n w i l l have t o i n - 316.22(e). The RA may approve t h e use o f s e l e c t e d over-
c l u d e grubbing o f t r e e r o o t s t o enable t o p s o i l t o burden as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r t o p s o i l i f i t i s determined
be removed. t h a t t h e s u b s t i t u t e m a t e r i a l i s equal t o o r more s u i t a b l e
2. S e c t i o n 8 1 6 . 4 5 ( b ) ( l ) r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e s m a l l e s t f o r s u s t a i n i n g v e g e t a t i o n than t h e t o p s o i l which i s
p r a c t i c a b l e area i s d i s t u r b e d a t any one t i m e d u r i n g a v a i l a b l e . The d e t e r m i n a t i o n w i l l depend on t h e r e s u l t s
t h e m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n . S e c t i o n 816.23(a) r e q u i r e s o f chemical and p h y s i c a l analyses o f overburden and t o p -
t h e t o p s o i l t o be s t o r e d o n l y when i t i s i m p r a c t i - s o i l , which must be c a r r i e d o u t by a c e r t i f i e d l a b -
c a b l e t o r e d i s t r i b u t e p r o m p t l y and t h i s i s i n t h e o r a t o r y approved by t h e RA. The d e t a i l s o f t h e t e s t s
o p e r a t o r ' s i n t e r e s t t o a v o i d double handling. r e q u i r e d a r e i n c l u d e d i n Section 816.22(e). They i n -
Therefore, t h e t o p s o i l should be removed i n a phased clude d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f pH, a1 k a l i n i t y , phosphorus,
sequence, and t h i s should a l s o a p p l y t o v e g e t a t i o n potassium, t e x t u r e and may a l s o i n c l u d e o t h e r analyses.
clearance and grubbing. The " d i s t u r b e d area" as Under t h e Small Operator Assistance Program, t h e RA
d e f i n e d i n 701.5 i n c l u d e s areas from which vegeta- wi 11 pay f o r these overburden analyses by a c e r t i f i e d
t i o n has been c l e a r e d . S e c t i o n 816.42 which r e - lab.
q u i r e s t h a t r u n o f f from d i s t u r b e d areas :nust pass The a p p l i c a t i o n must i n c l u d e : 1. a n a r r a t i v e e x p l a i n -
through a sedimentation pond a l s o a p p l i e s t o areas i n g t h e t o p s o i 1 handl i n g and s t o r a g e [ 7 8 0 . l l ( b ) ( 2 ) ] ; and
c l e a r e d o f v e g e t a t i o n . The clearance o f v e g e t a t i o n 2. t o p s o i l storage areas must be i n d i c a t e d on t h e op-
should be phased w i t h t o p s o i l removal t o d i s t u r b e r a t i o n s p l a n [780.(b)(5)!. It i s a l s o r e q u i r e d t h a t
t h e s m a l l e s t p r a c t i c a b l e area o f t h e s i t e a t any t h i s p l a n be prepared by o r under t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a
one time. p r o f e s s i o n a l qua1 i f i e d engineer [780.14(c)].
3. The performance standards do n o t s p e c i f y what The performance standards c o n t a i n v e r y s p e c i f i c r e q u i r e -
t h e o p e r a t o r should do w i t h t h e c l e a r e d v e g e t a t i o n . ments f o r removing, s t o r i n g and d i s t r i b u t i n a t o p s o i l
Many o p e r a t o r s i n t h e p a s t found i n s a t i s f a c t o r y t o [816.21-816.251. Some o f these a r e discussed i n t h e
windrow v e g e t a t i o n below areas o f f i l l as a sediment n e x t s e c t i o n below. T o p s o i l i n g has been shown t o be one
c o n t r o l measure. However, these windrows t e n d t o o f t h e most e f f e c t i v e means o f e s t a b l i s h i n g v e g e t a t i o n
i n t e r f e r e w i t h o t h e r requirements o f t h e Regulations on r e s t o r e d mined s i t e s . However most o f t h e p o t e n t i a l
and t h e o p e r a t o r would be advised t o c h i p a l l mine l a n d i n Appalachia has shallow i n f e r t i l e s o i l s and
c l e a r e d s l a s h ( c h i p s can be used f o r mulch) and t o much of i t i s a l s o s t e e p l y s l o p i n g . T o p s o i l i n t h i s
burn any unsaleable l o g s which cannot be used on- area i s o f t e n t h i n and i t may be necessary f o r o p e r d t o r s
s i t e f o r erosion control structures, etc. t o c a r r y o u t an overburden a n a l y s i s t o check whether
4. Other s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s i n t h e performance t h e r e a r e s u i t a b l e t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e s i n t h e overburden.
standards t o t h e clearance o f v e g e t a t i o n i n c l u d e The performance standards f o r t o p s o i l h a n d l i n g c o n t a i n
r e s t r i c t i n g t h e clearance o f v e g e t a t i o n f o r road s p e c i f i c requirements f o r t h e use o f t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e s
c o n s t r u c t i o n t o t h e w i d t h necessary f o r road and [816.22(e)]. I t should be n o t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e s p e c i a l
d i t c h c o r ~ s t r u c t i o no n l y [816.153(a)(3)1. p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e removal and h a n d l i n g o f t o p s o i l i n
I. TOPSOIL REMOVAL t h e case o f m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n s on prime farmland. These
e c t i o n 779.21 ( S o i l Resources I n f o r m a t i o n ) r e q u i r e s t h a t may be found i n P a r t 823 ( S p e c i a l Permanent Program
he a p p l i c a n t submits a s o i l survey which must i n c l u d e : Performance Standards - Operations i n Prime Farmland).
1. A map d e l i n e a t i n g d i f f e r e n t s o i l s ; One o f t h e most s t r i n g e n t requirements o f t h i s P a r t i s
2. S o i l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ; t h a t t h e minimum depth o f s o i l " t o be r e c o n s t r u c t e d f o r
 REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS (CONTINUED)
p r i m e f a r m l a n d s h a l l be 48 i n c h e s . " F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s m i n i n g on p r i m e f a r m l a n d , t h e o p e r a t o r s h o u l d r e f e r t o
on a p p l i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s and performance s t a n d a r d s f o r P a r t 823.

I. REMOVAL OF VEGETATION
I t i s i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e operator t o dispose o f sale-
a b l e t i m b e r b u t t h e a c t u a l c l e a r a n c e t e c h n i q u e w i l l depend
on t e r r a i n , t h e equipment a v a i l a b l e and v a r i o u s o t h e r
f a c t o r s . The p r a c t i c e o f w i n d r o w i n g s l a s h and d e b r i s
around t h e s i t e i s g e n e r a l l y n o t a d v i s a b l e p a r t i c u l a r l y
dhere t h e s e may b e b u r i e d i n s p o i l heaps and cause i n -
stability. It i s p r e f e r a b l e t h a t a l l s l a s h be chipped,
and t h e c h i p s used f o r m u l c h on t h e r e s t o r e d a r e a . D i s -
p o s a l of stumps, w h i c h a r e d i f f i c u l t t o b u r n , s h o u l d be
i n a designated disposal s i t e i n t h e p e r m i t area i816.891.
An example o f e f f i c i e n t u t i l i z a t i o n o f c l e a r e d v e g e t a t i o n
i s t h e Jones and Brague M i n i n g Company who c h i p t h e vege-
t a t i o n on t h e i r s i t e s and s h i p i t t o a M a s o n i t e p l a n t a t
Towanda, PA. The company uses a c h i p p e r m a n u f a c t u r e d by
Morbark I n d u s t r i e s w h i c h a c c e p t s t r u n k s up t o 22" i n d i a -
meter. (2)
11. TOPSOIL REMOVAL
S e c t i o n 816.22 s p e c i f i e s t h a t t o p s o i l s h o u l d be removed
p r i o r t o any d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e s i t e o t h e r t h a n c l e a r a n c e
of v e g e t a t i o n . D i s t u r b a n c e i n c l u d e s d r i l l i n g , b l a s t i n g
o r any form o f m i n i n g . T o p s o i l must be removed i n a sep-
a r a t e l a y e r . When t o p s o i l i s l e s s t h a n 6 " t h i c k , a 6 "
l a y e r of m a t e r i a l i n c l u d i n g whatever t o p s o i l i s a v a i l a b l e
s h o u l d b e removed and t r e a t e d as t o p s o i l . I f t h e t o t a l
unconsolidated m a t e r i a l i s l e s s than 6", whatever i s
a v a i l a b l e s h o u l d be removed and t r e a t e d as t o p s o i l
[816.22(c)]. I n some cases t h e RA may d e c i d e t h a t t o
ensure s o i l p r o d u c t i v i t y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e approved
p o s t - m i n i n g l a n d use, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o remove and r e -
d i s t r i b u t e t h e subsoil separately from t h e t o p s o i l . But
u n l e s s t h e RA d e t e r m i n e s t h i s , i t i s n o t r e q u i r e d . wind. T h i s i s b e s t a c h i e v e d i n most cases w i t h a q u i c k -
Where t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e s a r e t o be used ( t h i s has g r o w i n g c o v e r c r o p w h i c h s h o u l d be seeded o r p l a n t e d
a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r on t h e s h e e t ) , t h e sub- d u r i n g f i r s t "normal p e r i o d " a f t e r p l a c i n g t h e s t o c k -
s t i t u t e m a t e r i a l s h a l l b e removed and s e g r e g a t e d (and p i l e (see Sheet 7 : l l ) [816.23(b) ( I ) ] . The p e r f o r m a n c e
s t o r e d , i f immediate r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n o t f e a s i b l e , s t a n d a r d s r e q u i r e t h a t t h e s t o c k p i l e s s h o u l d n o t be
i n t h e same way as t o p s o i l ) . removed u n t i l t h e t o p s o i l i s r e q u i r e d f o r r e d i s t r i b u -
The o p e r a t o r may have t o l i m i t e i t h e r t h e s i z e o f t h e t i o n on a r e g r a d e d a r e a . T o p s o i l removal, s e g r e g a t i o n ,
3rea i n w h i c h t o p s o i l i s removed o r t h e t i m i n g o f r e - s t o r a g e and r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a l s o s p e c i f i c a l l y r e q u i r e d
j i s t r i b u t i o n i f e i t h e r operation r e s u l t s i n serious f o r c e r t a i n o p e r a t i o n s by t h e performance s t a n d a r d s ,
2 r o s i o n o r i f wet c o n d i t i o n s a r e r e s u l t i n g i n damage t o i n c l u d i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f stream d i v e r s i o n s
t o s o i l uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n , o r a r e c a u s i n g e r o s i o n [ 8 1 6 . 4 3 ( f ) ( 5 ) ] , t h e d i s p o s a l o f excess s p o i l [816.71 ( c ) ] ,
[876.22{f)]. and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r o a d s Classes I, 11, and 111
The d i f f i c u l t y o f u s i n g s c r a p e r s f o r t o p s o i l removal have [816.152(e), 816.162(e), 816.172(e)].
3 l r e a d y been mentioned, p a r t i c u l a r l y where a c o m p a r a t i v e - The r e g u l a t i o n s do n o t s p e c i f y any d e s i g n f o r t o p s o i l
l y l o n g h a u l i s r e q u i r e d and immediate r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s s t o c k p i l e s . Sometimes i t i s recommended t h a t t o p s o i l
~ o s s i b l eon a r e g r a d e d a r e a . ( F i g u r e 1 ) i s n o t p i l e d i n excess o f 8 ' - 1 0 ' deep, and s h o u l d p r e f -
[ I I. TOPSOIL STORAGE e r a b l y be p l a c e d i n f a i r l y n a r r o w banks. T h i s e n a b l e s
T o p s o i l , s u b s o i l ( i f r e q u i r e d ) , and any t o p s o i l sub- a e r o b i c b a c t e r i a i n t h e s o i l t o s u r v i v e . Some o p e r a t o r s
j t i t u t e s h o u l d o n l y be s t o c k p i l e d where i t i s i m p r a c - have f o u n d i t u s e f u l t o use t o p s o i l s t o c k p i l e s on t h e
t i c a l t o r e d i s t r i b u t e i t p r o m p t l y on r e g r a d e d a r e a s edge o f t h e s i t e t o s c r e e n t h e o p e r a t i o n f r o m t h e p u b l i c
816.23(a)]. S t o c k p i l e s must b e p l a c e d on a s t a b l e r o a d o r n e a r b y r e s i d e n c e s . T h i s i s commonly p r a c t i c e d
ires and p r o t e c t e d f r o m e r o s i o n e i t h e r b y w a t e r o r b y c o n t r a c t o r s o n N.C.B. s i t e s i n G r e a t B r i t a i n .

( 1 ) P l a s s , W.T., Mar-Apr 1978, " R e c l a m a t i o n o f Coal Mined Land i n Appalachia," J o u r n a l o f S o i l & Water C o n s e r v a t i o n .
( 2 ) D a v i s , H., Dec 1978, "Jones & Brague has been Recognized f o r E x c e l l e n c e o f i t s Reclamation," Coal Age, pp. 94-97.
( 3 ) Smith, R.M., Summer 1973, "Choosing T o p s o i l t o F i t t h e Needs," Green Lands Q u a r t e r l y , WV S u r f a c e M i n i n g and
Reclamation Association.

1( - M o B I ~ I z * T I o N AND MINING OPERATIoNs HANDBOOK

FOR
CLEARANCE OF VEGETATION AND REMOVAL OF TOPSOIL SMALL MINE

63
OPERATORS
161
 HANDBOOK
7 1 MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS
FOR
SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
PROBLEM & PURPOSE

somewhere t o p u t t h e s p o i l from t h e i n i t i a l c u t t o p r o - t h i s r e q u i r e s double h a n d l i n g . Most o p e r a t o r s t h e r e f o r e

v i d e t h e working space i n t h e p i t . I f t h e s w e l l o r would p r e f e r t o p l a c e t h e box-cut s p o i l s permanently and
b u l k i n g f a c t o r o f t h e overburden exceeds t h e volume o f n o t have t o t r a n s p o r t i t back t o f i l l t h e p i t . However,
c o a l t o be taken o u t , more s p o i l may have t o be removed t h e requirements o f t h e Regulations do r e q u i r e t h e
from t h e p i t as m i n i n g progresses t o m a i n t a i n working e l i m i n a t i o n o f a l l h i g h w a l l s , s p o i l p i l e s and depressions
space i n t h e p i t . Therefore, a t t h e end of t h e m i n i n g and t h a t a l l d i s t u r b e d areas be r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r
o p e r a t i o n t h e r e w i l l t e n d t o be a f i n a l v o i d and some- "approximate o r i g i n a l contour" [816.101 ( b ) ]
where e l s e on t h e s i t e a dump o r dumps o f s p o i l . T h i s
APPLICABILITY
A p p l i c a b l e t o a l l s u r f a c e coal mine o p e r a t i o n s , b u t t h e 2. S i t e s i n steep t e r r a i n o f t e n have few s u i t a b l e
problem o f temporary s p o i l dumps i s most s e r i o u s i n t h e l o c a t i o n s f o r temporary s p o i l dumps which w i l l n o t
following situations: cause s e r i o u s i n s t a b i l i t y , l a n d s l i p s and e r o s i o n .
1. Open p i t mines where overburden i s t h i c k . I n O f t e n t h e o n l y s u i t a b l e l o c a t i o n s i n v o l v e t h e opera-
o r d e r t o p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t working space i n deep t o r i n l o n g c o s t l y hauls.
p i t s , t h e amount o f s p o i l removed from t h e p i t i s 3. S i t e s where t h e overburden c o n t a i n s l a r g e quan-
v e r y l a r g e and t h i s must be s t o c k p i l e d c l o s e t o t h e t i t i e s o f a c i d - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s . I n these cases
p i t f o r ease o f b a c k f i l l i n g . I n these cases t h e t h e performance c o n t r o l s r e q u i r e t h a t m a t e r i a l i s
problem i s made worse i f t h e b u l k i n g f a c t o r i s b u r i e d w i t h i n 30 days a f t e r i t i s f i r s t exposed.
l a r g e , making i t necessary t o t a k e s p o i l o u t o f t h e T h i s means t h a t c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n o f overburden
p i t continuously t o maintain i t s size. m a t e r i a l s from t h e box-cut s p o i l s i s necessary.
RELEVANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
The Requlations a r e c l e a r t h a t s i t e s must be r e t u r n e d and any temporary s p o i l p i l e s which a r e needed, p l a c e d
t o " a p i r o x i m a t e o r i g i n a l contour," and t h a t " s p o i l s h a l l near t h e f i n a l c u t so r e d u c i n g h a n d l i n g costs.
Ibe t r a n s p o r t e d , b a c k f i l l e d , compacted and graded t o Although t h e r e i s n o t a S e c t i o n o f t h e performance stan-
Ie l i m i n a t e a1 1 h i g h w a l l s , s p o i l p i l e s and depressions" dards d e a l i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h temporary s p o i l and t h e
~ 8 1 6 . 1 0 1( b ) ( l ) ] . Although t h e r e may be a c e r t a i n t r e a t m e n t o f temporary s p o i l dumps, s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e
amount o f freedom i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e "approximate i s made i n t h e p e r m i t a p p l i c a t i o n requirements i n P a r t
o r i g i n a l contour" requirement, l e a v i n g t h e f i n a l c u t 780 ( P e r m i t a p p l i c a t i o n - Minimum requirements f o r
open and r e s t o r i n g s p o i l dumps i s c l e a r l y n o t s u f f i c i e n t r e c l a m a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n s p l a n ) . T h i s must i n c l u d e
t o meet t h e requirements o f t h e performance standards. .
C780.11 ( b ) ] "a n a r r a t i v e e x p l a i n i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n . .
I n t h e supplementary i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e Regulations i t and removal o f overburden s t o r a g e areas and s t r u c t u r e s . "
i s s t a t e d t h a t s t o c k p i l i n g and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f box- T h i s must be accompanied by maps and p l a n s [780.14(b)(5)
c u t s p o i l s t o t h e f i n a l c u t i s encouraged. The use o f o f each s p o i l s t o r a g e area and i t i s s p e c i f i e d
t h e word "encouraged" appears t o c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e spe- [780.14(c)] t h a t these maps o r pians De prepared by O r
c i f i c requirements o f t h e performance standards t o under t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a q u a l i f i e d r e g i s t e r e d p r o f e s s -
e l i m i n a t e a l l s p o i l dumps. I t has been a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t i o n a l engineer. I t should a l s o be n o t e d t h a t t h i s r e f e r
i f t h e post-mining graded slopes "approximate t h e general t o " s t o r a g e areas", which i m p l i e s t h e temporary n a t u r e
In a t u r e o f t h e pre-mining topography" [816.102(a)] that a o f t h e p i l e s . Permanent d i s p o s a l o f excess s p o i l i s
s l i g h t depression i n t h e area o f t h e f i n a l c u t and a d e a l t w i t h s e p a r a t e l y i n t h i s S e c t i o n [780.14(b)(11)
s l i g h t r i s e i n t h e area o f t h e temporary s p o i l dump would and 78O.l4(c) ( 2 ) ] and s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t h e performance
be allowed, p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e o t h e r requirements o f t h e standards i n Sections 816.71 - 816.74.
performance standards a r e met. The amount o f l a t i t u d e t h a t t h e RA w i l l p e r m i t i n i n -
Box-cut s p o i l r e q u i r e s expensive double hand1 i n g . I n t e r p r e t i n g t h e "approximate o r i g i n a l contour r e q u i r e -
some cases i t may be a p p r o p r i a t e , i n t h e proposed p o s t - ments o f t h e performance standards wi 11 become c l e a r e r
Imining use o f t h e land, t o have a water impoundment o r as t i m e goes on. I t appears, however, t h a t temporary
o t h e r area o f low t e r r a i n on t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e f i n a l s t o c k p i l i n g o f s p o i l i s one o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s f o r which
c u t b u t t h i s w i l l r e q u i r e s p e c i f i c approval o f t h e RA premining p l a n n i n g i s r e q u i r e d as p a r t o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o
and may p r o l o n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n process [816.49]. procedure, b u t t o which o n l y general performance stand-
7n s i t e s w i t h a h i g h s w e l l o r b u l k i n g f a c t o r and t h i c k ards apply, l e a v i n g i t up t o t h e d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e RA
werburden [816.105] t h e o p e r a t o r i s n o t any worse o f f , t o determine t o what e x t e n t i t i s necessary t o t h e op-
IS s p o i l i n excess o f t h a t r e q u i r e d t o achieve approx- e r a t o r t o " t r a n s p o r t box-cut s p o i l t o t h e fin:l cut"
imate o r i g i n a l c o n t o u r a t r e s t o r a t i o n may be disposed t o achieve t h e "approximate o r i g i n a l contour. Never-
)r permanently E816.71-816.741. I n f a c t , t h i s may be t h e l e s s i t i s a u i t e c l e a r i n t h e oerformance standard< "-
In advantage i n t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l box-cut s p o i l may be t h a t aradina mist "eliminate a l l hiqhwalls, spoil p i l e <
l i s o o s e d o f oermanentlv and r e s t o r e d c l o s e t o t h e c u t
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
I. PLACEMENT OF TEMPORARY SPOIL PILES a l l o t h e r areas o f t h e s i t e t o be d i s t u r b e d [816.22(b)].
Temporary s p o i l p i l e s should be placed t o a v o i d problems 11. THE PROTECTION OF TEMPORARY SPOIL PILES FROM EROSION
o f i n s t a b i l i t v . The o o e r a t o r w i l l w i s h t o o l a c e temo- I t i s emphasized t h a t temporary s p o i l p i l e s , as p a r t of
o r a r y s p o i l d h p s so as t o minimize h a n d l i n g c o s t s . ' For t h e p e r m i t area, a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e v a r i o u s requirements
i n s t a n c e t h i s m i g h t i n v o l v e placement c l o s e t o t h e f i n a l o f t h e performance standards which r e q u i r e removal o f
p i t so t h a t t h e s p o i l can be pushed i n t o t h e p i t r a t h e r t o p s o i l from t h e d i s p o s a l area and t h e c o n t r o l o f s e d i -
than a l o a d l h a u l o p e r a t i o n . W i t h these c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ment. A l l s u r f a c e drainage from t h e d i s t u r b e d area
i n mind, t h e o p e r a t o r should a v o i d steep areas ( i f t h e .
(which i n c l u d e s temporary s p o i l p i l e s ) . . s h a l l be passed
s l o p e i s i n excess o f l v : 2 . 8 h s p e c i a l measures may through a sedimentation pond. As temporary s p o i l heaps
be r e q u i r e d t o s t a b i l i z e t h e s p o i l mass) and a l s o wet may remain i n p o s i t i o n f o r t h e whole l i f e o f a s u r f a c e
areas c o n t a i n i n g seeps o r s p r i n g s which may r e s u l t i n mine s i t e . It i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e y should be placed
instability. on a s t a b l e s i t e , graded t o a s t a b l e slope and be p r o -
T o p s o i l must be removed from areas on which temporary t e c t e d from e r o s i o n by a v e g e t a t i v e cover crop. (see
s p o i l p i l e s a r e t o be placed, i n t h e same manner as f o r Sheet 7 : l l ) I n o r d e r t o achieve t h i s some t o p s o i l may be
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
r e q u i r e d . Larqe t e m ~ o r a r vs ~ o i ol i l e s w i t h l o n q Slopes
'
c. a sudden downpour o f r a i n , r e s u l t i n g i n small
a r e e s p e c i a l l y ~ v u l n e ~ a tbol' ~e r o s i o n and should-be s l i d e s and then:
t e r r a c e d (see Sheet 7:2). i. p i l i n g a d d i t i o n a l s p o i l on t h e s l i p p l a i n o f
Generally, t h e design and c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f these t e r r a c e s smaller slides;
should be s i m i l a r t o those f o r excess s p o i l d i s p o s a l ii. development o f t e n s i o n cracks;
f a c i l i t i e s (Sheet 6:8). However, as a1 1 temporary s p o i l iii. p e r c o l a t i o n o f s u r f a c e w a t e r i n t o t e n s i o n
heaps must be designed by o r under t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f a cracks, l e a d i n g t o t h e v e r t i c a l displacement
r e g i s t e r e d p r o f e s s i o n a l engineer, g u i d e l i n e s f o r l a r g e along cracks;
s p o i l heaps a r e n o t i n c l u d e d on t h i s sheet. i v . slumping due t o decrease i n shear s t r e n g t h
111. STABILITY OF TEMPORARY SPOIL PILES IN STEEP TERRAIN along t h e s l i p p l a i n r e s u l t s i n major s l i d e s .
The requirement t h a t temporary s p o i l p i l e s be designed From t h e above, i t i s apparent t h a t t h e p r i n c i -
by a p r o f e s s i o n a l engineer w i l l reduce problems o f i n - p l e s i n ensuring t h e s t a b i l i t y o f temporary
s t a b i l i t y [780.14(b)]. However, some general notes a r e spoil p i l e s include the following:
i n c l u d e d here on t h e p r i n c i p a l causes o f s l i d e s . They 1. S e l e c t i o n o f a s t a b l e , g e n t l y s l o p i n g s i t e ;
a r e based l a r g e l y on a r e p o r t b y t h e S t a t e o f Kentucky, 2. Removal o f t o p s o i l and any o r g a n i c m a t t e r
Department o f N a t u r a l Resources and Environmental Pro- from t h e d i s p o s a l s i t e and i f necessary a key
t e c t i o n ( 1 ) . S l i d e s w i l l t e n d t o occur when t h e r e i s a cut;
h i g h shear s t r e s s and a low shear s t r e n g t h and w i l l be 3. S p o i l m a t e r i a l should n o t be p l a c e d when
a r e s u l t o f 4 main ~ r a c t i c e s . t o o wet;
1. The removai o f l a t e r a l s u p p o r t may be caused by 4. placement should be c a r r i e d o u t i n such a
t h e a c t i o n o f streams, weathering ( w e t t i n g , d r y i n g , way t o ensure good compaction;
s w e l l i n g , s h r i n k i n g ) , f r o s t a c t i o n o r subsidence. 5. A t t e n t i o n should be p a i d t o drainage o f t h e
2. The removal o f u n d e r l y i n g support may be caused p i l e p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e d i v e r s i o n o f surface water
by t h e u n d e r c u t t i n g o f streams, f r o s t a c t i o n o r around t h e base o f t h e p i l e .
underground mining. I V . ACID AND TOXIC-FORMING SPOIL I N TEMPORARY SPOIL PILE5
3. Surcharge may r e s u l t from excess fill on t h e Ifs p o i l i s a c i d o r t o x i c - f o r m i n g , as i d e n t i f i e d and
p i l e o r be due t o heavy r a i n o r snow r e s u l t i n g i n analyzed i n t h e geology d e s c r i p t i o n [779.14], i t should
saturation. n o t be s t o c k p i l e d b u t s h o u l d be b u r i e d w i t h i n 30 days
4. L a t e r a l pressure due t o water o r i c e may a l s o a f t e r i t i s f i r s t exposed on t h e mine s i t e as r e q u i r e d
cause i n s t a b i l i t y . i n S e c t i o n 816.48(c).
( i m b a l l ( 1 ) suggests t h a t t h e sequence of events f o r t h e Temporary s t o r a g e o f a c i d - f o r m i n g o r t o x i c - f o r m i n g s p o i l
i n i t i a t i o n o f s l i d e s i n stacked s p o i l i s : may be approved by t h e RA if i t i s n o t f e a s i b l e t o b u r y
a. s t a c k i n g t o o much s p o i l on an u n s t a b l e s i t e i n o r t r e a t w i t h i n 30 days and if i t w i l l n o t r e s u l t i n any
a l o o s e and g e n e r a l l y wet c o n d i t i o n ; water p o l l u t i o n r i s k s ; however, t h i s t o o must be b u r i e d
b. i n i t i a l slumping of t h e s p o i l caused by over- a t the e a r l i e s t possible opportunity.
loading o r f a i l u r e i n spoil material ;

F i g u r e 3. Temporary S p o i l P i l e s
a. U n c o n t r o l l e d b. Controlled c. Being Removed

--
I ) Kimbal i, L. R., 1975, "Slope S t a b i l i t y , Volume 1, Report and Field-Book,"
Environmental P r o t e c t i o n . KY.
Department OF
N a t u r a l Resources and
I
7
1"MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS HANDBOOK
FOR
SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
65
 HANDBOOK
7 1 MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS
FOR
I1.
MEASURES

PROBLEM & PURPOSE

DISPOSAL OF EXCESS SPOIL - HEAD OF HOLLOW AND
VALLEY FILLS

Disposal o f excess s p o i l i n s u r f a c e mine o p e r a t i o n s

SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
o f excess s p o i l . S p o i l may be i n excess due t o
may be necessary f o r v a r i o u s reasons. T h i s sheet t h i c k overburden and a h i g h b u l k i n g f a c t o r o r
deals w i t h t h i s o p e r a t i o n on s i t e s i n steep t e r r a i n because t h e RA has a l l o w e d a v a r i a n c e from t h e
as o f t e n found i n Appalachia. Here t h e need f o r "approximate o r i g i n a l contour" requirement o f t h e
d i s p o s a l o f excess s p o i l i s o f t e n c r e a t e d by moun- performance standards f o r regrading.
t a i n t o p removal o p e r a t i o n s . 3. The methods covered on t h i s sheet do n o t a p p l y t o
2. T h i s sheet does n o t cover t h e temporary s t o c k p i l i n g " d u r a b l e r o c k f i l l s 1 ' which a r e covered s e p a r a t e l y
o f box-cut s p o i l (see Sheet 6:7). The techniaues i n t h e performance standards I816.741.
described o n ' t h i s ' s h e e t a r e for'permanent placement
APPLICABILITY
I
r T. .h. i. s- sheet
-- ..- - a u u l i e s o n l v t o s i t e s i n mountainous o r On s i t e s w i t h t h i c k overburden and a h i a h b u l k i n a
f a c t o r [ S e c t i o n 816.1051 i t w i l l n o t be p o s s i b l e t o
- I
s t e e p l y r o l l i n g t e k r a i n . ~ k ~e e ~ u l a t i o nr es q u i r e t h a t
a l l d i s t u r b e d areas s h a l l be r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r " a p p r o x i - regrade t o t h e approximate o r i g i n a l contour. I n these
mate o r i g i n a l contour" [816.101]. However t h e r e a r e cases, Head-of-Hollow o r V a l l e y f i l l s may be used. The
p r o v i s i o n s f o r o b t a i n i n g variances from t h i s requirement o p e r a t o r w i l l p r o b a b l y w i s h t o dispose o f t h i s box-cut
i n cases o f mountaintop removal [Section 785.141 and i n s p o i l permanently i n a Head-of-Hollow o r V a l l e y f i l l and
some o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g steep s l o p e m i n i n g c r e a t e temporary s p o i l dumps as t h e need a r i s e s t o main-
[ S e c t i o n 785.161. I f these variances a r e granted, t h e r e t a i n working space i n t h e p i t . I n t h i s way t h e h a u l
w i l l be a need t o dispose o f l a r q- e q. u a n t i t i e s o f excess d i s t a n c e f o r t r a n s ~ o r t i n- am. o i l t o f i l l t h e f i n a l p i t i s
I s p o i 1. minimized. I
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
I Because t h i s sheet concentrates on t h e design on t h i s sheet we c o n c e n t r a t e on f i l l s o f
requirements o f t h e Regulations f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g - ~ e a d - o f - 1,000,000 c u b i c y a r d s [816.72(b)(3)1.
Hollow o r V a l l e y f i l l s , t h e S e c t i o n s o f t h e Regulations The Regulations c o n t a i n general requirements
c o n t a i n i n g design s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e covered under r816.711 c o v e r i n g t h e d i s p o s a l o f excess s p o i l . These
" G u i d e l i n e s " below. i n c l u d e t h e placement o f s p o i l i n a manner t o p r e v e n t
I t i s emphasized t h a t t h e design o f " V a l l e y and degradation o f s u r f a c e and ground water and t o i n s u r e
Head-of-Hollow f i l l s " must be c e r t i f i e d by a p r o f e s s i o n a l the s t a b i l i t y o f the fill.
engineer. It i s s t a t e d i n t h e Regulations [78O. l 4 ( c ) ( 2 ) ] The Regulations d i s t i n g u i s h between " V a l l e y f i l l s
t h a t s p o i l d i s p o s a l f a c i l i t i e s , maps, plans, and cross and "Head-of-Hollow f i l l s " . The V a l l e y f i l l s do n o t
s e c t i o n s may o n l y be prepared by a r e g i s t e r e d professional completely f i l l t h e v a l l e y between t h e r i d g e l i n e s
engineer. S e c t i o n 780.35 s p e c i f i e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n r e - which i s a requirement o f Head-of-Hollow f i l l s . The
quirements f o r t h e d i s p o s a l o f excess s p o i l . I t should Regulations c o v e r i n g Val l e y f i l l s [816.72] a l s o a p p l y
be n o t e d t h a t t h e Regulations a r e g e n e r a l l y more s t r i n - t o Head-of-Hollow b u t t h e r e a r e a d d i t i o n a l performance
qent f o r s p o i l s l a r g e r than 1,000,000 c u b i c y a r d s b u t standards f o r Head-of-Hol low f i l l [816.731.
1-
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
I n March 1978, EPA p u b l i s h e d an assessment bv p r a c t i c e o f windrowinq c l e a r e d v e g e t a t i o n a t t h e t o e of
Skel l y and Loy comparing' t h e methods o f ~ e a d - o f - & l low t h e s l o p e i s n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y mentioned and p r o b a b l y
f i l l i n West V i r g i n i a and Kentucky. The r e p o r t i n c l u d e d would n o t be a l l o w e d bv t h e RA. S k e l l v and L o v ' s
t h e c o n s u l t a n t s recommendations. The Regulations a r e assessment o f ~ead-of-'Flollow f i 11 prac'tices p G n t s o u t
v e r y s i m i l a r t o these recornendations and much o f t h e t h a t c a r e l e s s l y p l a c e d windrows may be b u r i e d by f i l l
i n f o r m a t i o n and d a t a f o r t h e drawings on t h i s sheet a r e m a t e r i a l and r e s u l t i n i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e f i l l mass.
d e r i v e d from t h a t r e p o r t ( 1 ) . ( S p e c i a l performance standards f o r steep slopes
I. SITE SELECTION [ P a r t 8261 f o r b i d b u r y i n g woody m a t e r i a l s i n t h e back-
A p p l i c a t i o n s must i n c l u d e a g e o t e c h n i c a l i n v e s t i - f i l l e d areas.)
g a t i o n and a s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s [780.351. Section S p e c i f i c regulations f o r the construction o f sedi-
816.7l(e) r e q u i r e s t h a t d i s p o s a l areas be l o c a t e d on ment basins w i t h V a l l e y o r Head-of-Hollow f i l l s a r e
t h e most moderate slopes a v a i l a b l e , and t h e % s i t e s w i t h i n c l u d e d i n Sections 816.71-816.73 b u t i t i s s p e c i f i e d
few seeps o r drainage channels w i l l reduce t h e amount t h a t l e a c h a t e o r t h e r u n o f f must n o t exceed t h e e f -
o f under-drainage r e q u i r e d . When t h e average slope o f f l u e n t l i m i t a t i o n s i n S e c t i o n 816.42. That Section
t h e d i s p o s a l s i t e exceeds l v : 2 . 8 h (36%), keyway c u t s o r r e q u i r e s t h a t "any s u r f a c e drainage f r o m t h e d i s t u r b e d
rock-toe buttresses are required [816.7l(i)]. It i s area ... s h a l l be passed through a sedimentation pond
n o t e d t h a t S k e l l y and L o y ' s recommendation i s t h a t b e f o r e l e a v i n g t h e p e r m i t area1' [816.42(a)(1)1. Skelly
s t a b i l i z i n g s t r u c t u r e s should be u t i l i z e d when " t h e and Loy recommend t h a t "sediment c o n t r o l ponds must be
s l o p e o f t h e h o l l o w a t t h e proposed t o e o f t h e f i l l c o n s t r u c t e d near t h e proposed t o e of t h e f i l l " (1 ) .
exceeds 10°," l v : 5 . 7 h ( 1 ) . S e c t i o n 816.71 ( h ) ( l ) does 111. DESIGN
n o t s p e c i f y t h e s i z e o f keyway c u t s o r r o c k t o e b u t t - S e c t i o n 816.71(d) r e q u i r e s t h a t d i v e r s i o n d i t c h e s
resses and o n l y r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e s i z e be based on a conform t o t h e requirements o f S e c t i o n 816.43. I n addi-
s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s . I n cases where t h e t o e o f t h e s p o i l t i o n t o t h e main underdrain, l a t e r a l d r a i n s must be
r e s t s on a downslope, t h e d e t a i l s shown i n F i g u r e s 1 and b u i l t t o any s p r i n g s , w a t e r courses o r seeps. The main
2 s h o u l d be taken o n l y as guide1 i n e s , and s i t e s p e c i f i c u n d e r d r a i n and these l a t e r a l s must be p r o t e c t e d w i t h a
designs must be c a r r i e d o u t by t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l engineer. f i l t e r system. The Regulations do n o t s p e c i f y t h e m i n i -
11. PREPARATION mum s i z e o f l a t e r a l d r a i n s . The main u n d e r d r a i n may be
S e c t i o n 816.71(c) r e q u i r e s t h a t v e g e t a t i v e and made o f d u r a b l e non-acid r o c k (no more than 10% may be
o r g a n i c m a t t e r be removed from t h e d i s p o s a l area and l e s s than 12 inches i n s i z e and none l a r g e r than 25% o f
t h a t t h e t o p s o i l be removed, s t o r e d and r e p l a c e d t h e d r a i n w i d t h ) . The w i d t h and h e i g h t o f underdrains
r816.21-816.251. The RA may a l l o w o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l t o f o r f i l l s o f l e s s than 1,000,000 c u b i c yards a r e shown i r
be used as a mulch t o c o n t r o l s o i l e r o s i o n b u t t h e Table 1.
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
Table 1 i s allowed a t t h e head o f t h e f i l l t o i n t e r c e p t runoff
Minimum Dimensions o f Underdrain and discharge i t through o r over t h e r o c k chimney d r a i n .
S k e l l y and L o y ' s r e p o r t notes t h a t surge ponds l o c a t e d
a t t h e head o f t h e r o c k core i n West V i r g i n i a ' s f i l l s ,
Size Of Drain (feet) though n o t i n t e n d e d t o r e t a i n t h e water, d i d so w i t h
Type o f F i l l Width Height r e s u l t a n t i n s t a b i 1it y problems when water s a t u r a t e d t h e
fill.
Sand Stone 10 4 The design c r i t e r i a f o r t h e f i l l mass as shown i n
Shale 16 8 F i g u r e 1 a p p l y b o t h t o V a l l e y and Head-of-Hollow f i l l s .
But i n t h e case o f Head-of-Hollow f i l l s , which must
Note - these dimensions a r e t h e same i n t h e case of completely f i l l t h e d i s p o s a l s i t e t o t h e e l e v a t i o n o f
s h a l e as S k e l l y and L o y ' s recommendations ( 1 ) . t h e r i d g e l i n e , t h e s u r f a c e drainage o f t h e f i l l may be
S e c t i o n 816.71(g) p e r m i t s no depressions o r impoundments d i r e c t e d inwards t o a r o c k chimney d r a i n as shown i n
on t h e f i l l mass. However, an e x c e p t i o n i s made f o r F i g u r e 2 [816.73(a)].
Head-of-Hol low f i l l s . A "drainaqe pocket" [816.73(e)(3)1

----_
__--

ations require that p l a

7 1 MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS

-
HANDBOOK
FOR
DISPOSAL OF EXCESS SPOIL HEAD OF HOLLOW AND SMALL MINE
VALLEY FILLS
OPERATORS
1 ) S k e l l y and Loy, Mar 1978, "Environmental Assessment of Surface M i n i n g Methods: Head-of-Hollow F i l l , Mountain
Top Removal ," I n t e r i m Report, U.S. EPA C i n c i n n a t i .
!) C h i r o n i s , N.P., Nov 1977, " B e t t e r Ways t o B u i l d Hollow F i l l s , " Coal Age, pp. 104-110.
3 ) K i m b a l l , L.R., 1975, "Slope S t a b i l i t y , " Volume I Report and F i e l d Book, Dept. Nat. Res. & Env. P r o t e c t i o n , KY.
$1 Hamil ton, L.W., Sep 1974, "Reclamation i n Steep Slope Surface Mining," M i n i n g Congress J o u r n a l , 6 0 ( 9 ) .
5 ) Huang, Y.H., Mar 1978, " S t a b i l i t y of S p o i l Banks and Hollow F i l l s Created by Surface Mining," IMMR, U n i v e r s i t y
o f Kentucky.

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PROBLEM & PURPOSE
OPERATORS
rom t h e o p e r a t o r ' s p o i n t o f view, k e e ~ i n qt h e p i t f r e e I t i s estimated t h a t i n t h e Appalachian r e q i o n 6,000 t o n s
f water i s i m p o r t a n t t o minimize delays and t o ' improve o f s u l f u r i c a c i d i s being produced d a i l y through t h e
o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n . Water which accumulates i n t h e p i t o x i d a t i o n o f p y r i t e and t h a t t h e a c i d drainage from
s l i k e l y t o be h e a v i l y p o l l u t e d w i t h sediment o r d i s - s t r i p mines accounts f o r about 15% o f t h e t o t a l a c i d
o l v e d s a l t s o r both. Therefore, p i t dewatering i s l i k e - p r o d u c t i o n . Note t h a t t h i s was i n 1971 ( 4 ) .
y t o r e s u l t i n heavy p o l l u t i o n loads i n t h e r e c e i v i n g Another s t u d y found t h a t a c i d produced i n Appalachian
a t e r s . I n a d d i t i o n , i f t h e coal l i e s below t h e ground- area c o a l mines (1969) was t h e g r e a t e s t from abandoned
a t e r , pumping t o keep t h e p i t d r y may lower t h e water deep mines (53%). A c t i v e underground mines produced
a b l e which may reduce t h e y i e l d o f w e l l s , s p r i n g s and 19% and abandoned s u r f a c e mines o n l y 11% ( 7 ) . The
eeps. There a r e p r o v i s i o n s i n t h e Regulations f o r p a t t e r n o f a c i d discharge i s e r r a t i c . Stream damage may
i v e r t i n g s u r f a c e w a t e r around d i s t u r b e d areas so t h a t be caused by continuous a c i d discharges caused u s u a l l y
t w i l l n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e problem o f dewatering t h e a t l o w and moderate l e v e l s b u t a l s o by extremely h i g h
i t . Water may e n t e r t h e p i t from v a r i o u s sources: discharges caused by dewatering o f mines d u r i n g p e r i o d s
1. Groundwater: i f c o a l i s below t h e water t a b l e of h i g h p r e c i p i t a t i o n which o f t e n causes dramatic stream
t h e flow o f groundwater i n t o t h e p i t may be more o r damage (21). The low pH r e s u l t i n g from a c i d mine d r a i n -
l e s s continuous and consequently t h e p i t may r e q u i r e age may n o t be a problem i n i t s e l f . Low pH does make
continuous dewatering. c e r t a i n heavy metals e x c e s s i v e l y a v a i l a b l e t o p l a n t s and
2. Abandoned deep mine workings : f r e q u e n t 1y , abar- cause t o x i c i t y . Manganese and a1 uminum a r e two cases.
doned deep mine workings a r e encourntered d u r i n g sur- Other heavy metals i n t o x i c amounts may a l s o be found
f a c e m i n i n g and may r e s u l t i n sudden f l o w o f l a r g e i n a c i d mine water and c e r t a i n m e t a l s a r e found a s s o c i -
volumes o f w a t e r i n t o t h e p i t . T h i s water may be a t e d w i t h a h i g h suspended s o l i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t e n
seriously polluted. a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a c i d mine drainage. Fe, Zn and N i were
3. R a i n f a l l and r u n o f f : heavy r a i n f a l l and r u n o f f g e n e r a l l y found t o be more abundant i n f i n e sediment i n
w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e accumulation o f q u a n t i t i e s o f mine r u n o f f ( 1 9 ) . There i s c o n s i d e r a b l e work i n progress
w a t e r i n t h e p i t and i n e v i t a b l y t h i s w i l l c a r r y t o t r y t o assess t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f heavy metals by
heavy sediment loads. a c i d mine w a t e r and a l s o t h e i r a v a i l a b i l i t y t o p l a n t s
Whatever t h e source, t h e water i n t h e p i t bottom w i l l (19).
come i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h c o a l and o t h e r m a t e r i a l s which However, e x t e n s i v e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f a c i d drainage o f t e n
f r e q u e n t l y a r e h i g h i n p y r i t e and o t h e r t o x i c - f o r m i n g occurs w i t h i n t h e c o a l regions. I n f a c t Biesecker and
o r a c i d - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s . Therefore p i t water i s George r e p o r t t h a t a c i d drainage i s most s e r i o u s i n head
u s u a l l y a s e r i o u s p o l l u t i o n hazard and, i n o r d e r t o min- water streams near a c t i v e o r abandoned mines b u t t h a t t h r
i m i z e t h e need f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f drainage water, t h e m i x t u r e of a l k a l i n e streams w i t h mine drainage waters
o p e r a t o r should make every e f f o r t p o s s i b l e t o d i v e r t e v e n t u a l l y n e u t r a l i z e a l l a c i d streams i n Appalachia.
water b e f o r e i t f l o w s i n t o t h e p i t as i t i s l i k e l y t h a t N e u t r a l i z a t i o n i s u s u a l l y due t o t h e presence o f c e r t a i n
water pumped from t h e p i t w i l l need some form o f t r e a t - s o l u b l e r o c k minerals, i n c l u d i n g c a l c i u m b i c a r b o n a t e
ment b e f o r e i t i s discharged from t h e p e r m i t area. (CaCo3), which a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t i e s t o n e u t r a -
When water comes i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h p y r i t e , which i s i r o n l i z e d r a i n a g e water. A problem i s t h a t t h i s process
s u l f i d e (Fe S Z ) i n t h e presence o f oxygen, f e r r i c s u l - increases t h e t o t a l hardness o f t h e water through t h e
f a t e (FeSO,,) and s u l f u r i c a c i d a r e formed. The reac- a d d i t i o n o f c a l c i u m and magnesium.
t i o n and t h e speed o f t h e r e a c t i o n depends p a r t l y on t h e When t h e a c i d stream c o n t a c t s an u n p o l l u t e d o r a l k a l i n e
presence o f c e r t a i n b a c t e r i a . U n f o r t u n a t e l y p y r i t e stream, i t i s p a r t l y n e u t r a l i z e d and t h e i r o n begins t o
occurs n a t u r a l l y and i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o c o a l seams i n p r e c i p i t a t e o u t as f e r r i c h y d r o x i d e f r o m i n g a y e l l o w
many c o a l m i n i n g areas p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e Northern c o a t i n g on t h e streambed, l o c a l l y known as " y e l l o w boy."
Appalachians. M i n i n g exposes q u a n t i t i e s of p y r i t i c As i r o n , aluminum and manganese a r e a c i d s o l u b l e , m e r e l y
m a t e r i a l s t o t h i s o x i d a t i o n process. Preventing oxygen n e u t r a l i z i n g t h e w a t e r ( i n c r e a s i n g t h e pH) w i l l a l s o
and water coming i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h p y r i t i c m a t e r i a l s p r e c i p i t a t e these i o n s b u t as, i s noted by Walmer,
t h e r e f o r e i s u s u a l l y t h e approach taken t o c o n t r o l l i n g t h i s i s n o t as easy as i t sounds, as several f a c t o r s
a c i d mine drainage (AMD) and o n l y i f t h i s i s i n e f f e c t i v e , c o m p l i c a t e t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n . B u t t h e approach t o
i s t r e a t m e n t of a c i d w a t e r considered. The problem i n s o l v i n g a c i d d r a i n a g e problems i s t o p r e v e n t oxygen and
t h e p a s t has been t h a t , due t o t h e method of removal o f water coming i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h p y r i t i c m a t e r i a l s and
overburden, a c i d - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s tended t o end up on t r e a t i n g o n l y as a l a s t r e s o r t . Treatment has t h e ad-
t o p o f s p o i l heaps where t h e y were exposed b o t h t o vantage o f r e s u l t i n g n o t o n l y i n a water w i t h a h i g h e r
oxygen and t o t h e l e a c h i n g a c t i o n and r u n o f f o f water. pH, b u t i t a l s o tends t o p r e c i p i t a t e o u t some o f t h e
I n s t a b i l i t y o f these s p o i l heaps a l s o tended t o expose heavy m e t a l s such as i r o n , aluminum and manganese.
f r e s h a c i d - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s c o n t i n u o u s l y t o weathering. Even i f a c i d drainage f r o m new s u r f a c e m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n s
AMD problems a r e s e r i o u s i n r e g i o n s where t h e r e i s a h i g h can be c o n t r o l l e d e f f e c t i v e l y , t h e problem o f a c i d
c o n t e n t o f p y r i t e i n c o a l seams and i n overburden s t r a t a . drainage from abandoned underground mines and f r o m
The s t a t e s of West V i r g i n i a and Pennsylvania i d e n t i f i e d abandoned s u r f a c e mines w i l l remain f o r many y e a r s .
a c i d mine drainage as t h e i r w o r s t w a t e r p o l l u t i o n prob- There i s a o p p o r t u n i t y f o r new surface mine o p e r a t i o n s
lem. I n f a c t AMD i s c o n s i d e r a b l y worse i n t h e n o r t h e r n t o reduce some o f these problems as p a r t of ongoing
113 of t h e Appalachian coal f i e l d than i n t h e southern s u r f a c e m i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s : i n t h e case o f abandoned
213. T h i s i s p a r t l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s more underground mines by d a y l i g h t i n g and s e a l i n g t h e o l d
c o a l mined i n t h e n o r t h e r n Appalachia than i n t h e south working; and i n t h e case o f abandoned s u r f a c e mines by
b u t t h e amount of s u l f u r i t i c m a t e r i a l exposed f o r each s h i f t i n g and b u r y i n g abandoned s p o i l p i l e s i n t h e work-
t o n o f coal mined i n t h e n o r t h may be g r e a t e r than i n t h e i n g p i t .
south (21). See F i g u r e 1 i n s e c t i o n on A p p l i c a b i l i t y .
APPLICABILITY
The problem o f p i t dewatering w i l l
a p p l y t o a l l s i t e s . But t h e impact
o f dewatering on water p o l l u t i o n and
t h e groundwater hydrology w i l l v a r y
g r e a t l y . The groundwater i n f o r m a t i o n
r e q u i r e d as p a r t o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n
i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n procedure [ S e c t i o n
779.151 w i l l i n d i c a t e whether any
coal l i e s below t h e water t a b l e and
consequently whether p i t dewatering
i s l i k e l y t o a f f e c t groundwater y i e l d .
The "Geology d e s c r i p t i o n , " a l s o r e -
q u i r e d as p a r t o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n p r o -
cedure t o i d e n t i f y p o t e n t i a l a c i d
forming m a t e r i a l s i n t h e overburden
o r p i t water i n o r d e r t o c o n t r o l AMD.
Therefore, t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f these
measures depends l a r g e l y on t h e hy-
d r o l o g i c and g e o l o g i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of t h e area. Measures t o c o n t r o l
p o l l u t i o n from p i t water and AMD a p p l j
t o a l l s i z e s o f o p e r a t i o n b u t small
mine o p e r a t o r s should n o t e t h a t t h e RP
w i l l pay f o r a l a b o r a t o r y t o analyze
t e s t b o r i n g s and t o assess t h e l i k e l y
impact o f o p e r a t i o n s on t h e hydrology
EXPLANATION and water q u a l i t y o f t h e area.

Appalachm boundan. ar
defined In Pubhe Law
89-4 (1965)

S C A M i 5 0000W
=. im ,00M 8 r E S Figure 1
iEVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
he requirements f o r a "Geology d e s c r i p t i o n " which i t o r i n g when surface m i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s may a f f e c t ground-
d e n t i f i e s (amongst o t h e r t h i n g s ) p o t e n t i a l a c i d - w a t e r o r s u r f a c e water systems. T h i s would be t h e case
orming m a t e r i a l s i n t h e overburden [ S e c t i o n 779.141 where continuous pumping i s r e q u i r e d t o keep t h e p i t f r e e
nd f o r groundwater i n f o r m a t i o n which i d e n t i f i e s t h e of groundwater i n f l o w . A l l discharges f r o m t h e p e r m i t
e p t h o f t h e p i t below t h e s u r f a c e and t h e h o r i z o n t a l area must meet e f f l u e n t l i m i t a t i o n s C816.421 and a l l
x t e n t o f t h e w a t e r t a b l e and s q u i f e r s [ S e c t i o n 779.151 drainage from d i s t u r b e d areas must be passed through a
ave a l r e a d y been mentioned. There a r e p r o v i s i o n s i n sedimentation pond. Ift h i s i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t f o r d r a i n -
he Small Operators Assistance Program f o r r e s u l t s o f age water t o meet e f f l u e n t standards "adequate f a c i 1it i e s
e s t b o r i n g s t o be analyzed and assessment o f p o s s i b l e s h a l l be i n s t a l l e d , operated and m a i n t a i n e d t o t r e a t any
y d r o l o g i c impact t o be made by a c e r t i f i e d l a b and w a t e r discharged from t h e d i s t u r b e d area so t h a t i t com-
a i d f o r by t h e RA. p l i e s w i t h a l l f e d e r a l and s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n s . " I f t h e
e c t i o n 816.48 s p e c i f i c a l l y addresses t h e problem o f pH of t h e water i s below 6.0 an automatic l i m e feeder
a n d l i n g a c i d - f o r m i n g and t o x i c - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s . T h i s i s r e q u i r e d unless t h e flow i s i n f r e q u e n t i n which case
roblem i s covered i n more d e t a i l i n t h i s Handbook on t h e RA may a u t h o r i z e t h e use o f a manual l i m e feeder
h e e t 6:lO. [816.42(c)].
e c t i o n 816.52 r e q u i r e s s u r f a c e and groundwater mon-
)ISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
l e approach t o c o n t r o l o f a c i d drainage . i n t h e Regula- t o 9.0, some form o f t r e a t m e n t w i l l be necessary. An
i o n s i s based l a r g e l y upon t h e s e l e c t i v e hand1 i n g , automatic l i m e feeder o r o t h e r automatic n e u t r a l i z a t i o n
Arying and s e a l i n g o f a c i d - f o r m i n g s p o i l s (see Sheet process i s r e q u i r e d by t h e RA unless t h e f l o w of a c i d
: l o ) , exposed coal seams and o l d deep mine workings, water i s i n f r e q u e n t and "presents small and i n f r e q u e n t
i d g e n e r a l l y p r e v e n t i n g drainage water f r o m coming i n - t r e a t m e n t requirements t o meet a p p l i c a b l e standards. "
I contact w i t h acid-forming spoils. Measures on Sheet The drainage water from s u r f a c e mine s i t e s i s u n l i k e l y
:5 t o d i v e r t water around d i s t u r b e d areas w i l l h e l p t o be h i g h l y a c i d i c and t h e r e f o r e some o f t h e processes
m s i d e r a b l y , b u t i t w i l l n o t be f e a s i b l e t o p r e v e n t which have been developed f o r a c i d mine drainage o r i g i -
i t i r e l y water coming i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h a c i d - f o r m i n g n a t i n g from underground mines a r e i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e
i t e r i a l s . Runoff f r o m a l l d i s t u r b e d areas must be m i l d l y a c i d i c water f r o m s u r f a c e mines. These i n c l u d e
issed through a sedimentation pond b e f o r e l e a v i n g t h e r e v e r s e osmosis and o t h e r e l a b o r a t e t r e a t m e n t tech-
m n i t area [816.42(a)] which w i l l remove suspended niques. Although i t may be necessary t o p r o v i d e some
,lids. But i f t h e drainage water f a i l s t o meet t h e s e t t l i n g pond i n which i n s o l u b l e s a l t s can s e t t l e a f t e r
F f l u e n t standards s e t o u t i n 816.42(a)(7) p a r t i c u l a r l y neutralization, the disposal o f a c i d brines o r b r i n e
i r e s p e c t t o pH, which must be w i t h i n t h e range o f 6.0 sludge which r e s u l t s f r o m t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n process of

IMOBILIZATIDN AND MINING OPERATIONS HANDBOOK

FOR
HANDLING PIT WATER, ACID MINE DRAINAGE SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
71
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CON7'INUED)
s t r o n g l y a c i d mine waters, w i l l genera l l y be un-
necessary.
I n t h e cases where t h e RA p e r m i t s manual t r e a t m e n t and
t h e water can be e a s i l y impounded, i t may be p o s s i b l e t o
spread l i m e manually from baqs o n t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e
impounded water. However l i m e i s n o t r e a d i l y s o l u b l e
i n water and some form of m i x i n g must be a p p l i e d t o
obtain s a t i s f a c t o r y u t i l i z a t i o n o f the lime. This i s
most e a s i l y accomplished by i n s t a l l i n g a pump a t one
end o f t h e pond b u t t h e r e may be a problem on some min-
i n g s i t e s where no e l e c t r i c a l o u t l e t s a r e a v a i l a b l e a t
t h e pond s i t e . A f t e r t r e a t m e n t t h e t r e a t e d water should
be t r a n s f e r r e d t o a s e t t l i n g b a s i n t o remove t h e sus-
pended s o l i d s and sludge p r i o r t o discharge.
Automatic feeders t o dose a c i d drainage w i t h l i m e s l u r r y
have automatic pH c o n t r o l s and g e n e r a l l y use hydrated
l i m e . I f limestone can be used i n treatment p l a n t s i n -
stead o f l i m e s i g n i f i c a n t savings can occur, b u t t h e r e
i s a drawback i n t h a t l i m e s t o n e has a slow r e a c t i o n r a t e
and o f t e n a c o a t i n g o f i r o n hydroxide forms on t h e sur-
face o f t h e limestone. The problem o f c o a t i n g can be
s o l v e d by some s o r t of a b r a s i v e o r tumbling a c t i o n
which a l s o breaks o f f f i n e s and exposes a r e a c t i v e
l i m e s t o n e surface. Tumbling drums a r e an e f f e c t i v e
means o f t r e a t i n g a c i d mine drainage i n cases where
t h e r e i s enough h y d r a u l i c head t o power t h e drum.
Limestone i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e drum which i s d r i v e n by F i g u r e 3. Limestone B a r r i e r s Source: (11)
a waterwheel. The o u t s i d e diameter o f t h e waterwheel
should be 1.5 times t h e diameter o f t h e t u m b l i n g drum p r o v i d e s a l a r g e s u r f a c e area f o r t h e attachment and
( F i g u r e 2 ) ( 1 5 ) . Tumbling drums a r e g e n e r a l l y most c o l o n i z a t i o n o f t h e b a c t e r i a which o x i d i z e f e r r o u s i r o n
s u i t a b l e f o r complete n e u t r a l i z a t i o n of m i l d l y a c i d i c i n a c i d water t o an i n s o l u b l e form which p r e c i p i t a t e s
mine water i n c o n t r a s t t o l i m e s t o n e b a r r i e r s which a r e o u t . However, t h i s d e v i c e has a h i g h c a p i t a l c o s t and
more s u i t a b l e f o r p a r t i a l n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f h i g h l y a t p r e s e n t i s i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r use f o r small s u r f a c e
a c i d i c waters. mining operations.
I t was noted p r e v i o u s l y t h a t t h e most e f f e c t i v e method
o f s e a l i n g a c i d - f o r m i n g s p o i l from o x i d a t i o n i s t o b u r y
i t i n s p o i l m a t e r i a l and c o n s o l i d a t e i t . Shumate and
B r a n t (1971) s t a t e s t h a t " I t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t m a t e r i a l
b u r i e d s e v e r a l f e e t o r more beneath t h e s u r f a c e can under
go s i g n i f i c a n t o x i d a t i o n because o f t h e r e s t r i c t i o n
o f oxygen d i f f u s i o n t o these depths" ( 4 ) . The use of
o t h e r s u r f a c e s e a l a n t s has n o t been p a r t i c u l a r l y success-
f u l . Lime, gypsum, sodium s i l i c a t e and v a r i o u s rubber
l a t e x s e a l s have sometimes been e f f e c t i v e . They r e q u i r e
repeated a p p l i c a t i o n and maintenance and a r e n o t recom-
\ Figure 2
mended f o r general use. Water b a r r i e r s can p r o v i d e an
.itnestone b a r r i e r s a r e p r o b a b l y t h e most commonly used e f f e c t i v e seal a g a i n s t o x i d a t i o n o f p y r i t e , b u t a safe-
nethod o f AMD t r e a t m e n t . Experiments c a r r i e d o u t by t y f a c t o r t o a l l o w f o r e v a p o r a t i o n i s necessary. Also,
'earson and McDonald t e s t e d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f f o u r i f t h i n g s go wrong, s e a l i n g a c i d - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s w i t h
types o f b a r r i e r and l e d t o a suggested design procedure water may i n i t s e l f r e s u l t i n s e r i o u s p o l l u t i o n o f sur-
For limestone b a r r i e r s which can be found i n r e f e r e n c e face o r groundwater.
11. See a1 so F i g u r e 3. Some experiments have been done u s i n g i r r i g a t i o n o f
Some experiments have been done t o t r y t o i n h i b i t t h e t r e a t e d a c i d mine water t o f u r t h e r improve i t s q u a l i t y .
a c t i v i t i e s o f b a c t e r i a which a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e I t was found i n one study t h a t a c i d mine drainage
formation o f a c i d i n mine water. I r o n o x i d i z i n g bac- f i l t e r i n g through 40 inches o f calcareous s o i l r e s u l t e d
t e r i a ( T h i o b a c i l l u s f e r r o - o x i d a n s and Thiobaci 11us t h i o - i n a p e r c o l a t e t h a t had a s l i g h t l y a l k a l i n e r e a c t i o n
>xidans) a r e a c t i v e i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s u l f u r i c a c i d and was completely devoid o f Fe, A1 , Mg , Zn & Cu.
From i r o n p y r i t e , and i t has been found t h a t c e r t a i n Even a c i d s o i l s were e f f e c t i v e i n improving water a l -
i e t e r g e n t s and o r g a n i c a c i d s can i n h i b i t t h e a c t i v i t y though n o t as e f f e c t i v e as calcareous s o i l s ( 1 ) . The
)f these b a c t e r i a . However, g e n e r a l l y t h e use o f these use o f a c i d mine w a t e r f o r i r r i g a t i o n on p a r t i c u l a r l y
techniques i s s t i l l i n experimental stages and i s n o t d r y r e c l a m a t i o n s i t e s may r e s u l t i n improved qua1 it y
j u f f i c i e n t l y r e l i a b l e t o j u s t i f y general use. o f v e g e t a t i o n and p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t erosion.
I t h e r b a c t e r i a a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e breakdown o f
dastewater c o n s t i t u e n t s and a d e v i c e c a l l e d " t h e r o t a -
t i n g b i o l o g i c a l c o n t a c t o r " u t i l i z e s these micro-
wganisms f o r t r e a t m e n t o f a c i d drainage. T h i s d e v i c e

7
1I IMOBILIZATIONAND MINING OPERATIONS HANDBOOK
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SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
 REFERENCE
( 1 ) Ciolkosz, E.J. e t a l . , Dec 1973, " S o i l as a Medium f o r t h e Renovation of A c i d Mine Drainage Water," I n s t i t u t e
f o r Research on Land and Water Resources, Penn S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , U n i v e r s i t y Park, PA.
.
( 2 ) Fehrenbacher, J.B. e t a1 , 1977, "Reclaiming Surface Mine Spoils-Completed and Proposed Studies ," I 1 1 i n o i s
Research, U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , College o f A g r i c u l t u r e .
( 3 ) Zaval , F.J. and Robins, J.D., Nov 1972, "Revegetation Augmentation by Reuse o f T r e a t e d A c t i v e Surface Mine
Drainage," EPA R2/72-119.
( 4 ) Shumate, K.S. and Brant, R.A., 1971, " A c i d Mine Drainage Formation and Abatement," Water P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l
Research Series, US EPA.
( 5 ) Ahmad, M.U., Sep 1973, "Coal M i n i n g and I t s Effect on Water Quality," Proc. o f t h e F i r s t World Congress on
Water Resources, I n t e r n a t i o n a l Water Resources A s s o c i a t i o n , Champaign, I L .
( 6 ) U n i r o y a l , Inc., Research Center, June 1972, "Use o f Latex as a S o i l Sealant t o C o n t r o l A c i d Mine Drainage,"
Commonwealth o f Pennsylvania and EPA.
( 7 ) H i l l , R.D., May 1975, "Non-Point P o l l u t i o n from M i n i n g and M i n e r a l E x t r a c t i o n , " N a t i o n a l Environmental Research
Center, US EPA, C i n c i n n a t i , OH.
( 8 ) Dugan, P.R., 1975, " B a c t e r i a l Ecology o f S t r i p Mine Areas and I t s R e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e P r o d u c t i o n o f A c i d i c
Mine Drainage," Ohio Journal o f Science, 75(6), pp. 226-279.
( 9 ) B l a k e l y , E.W., J u l y 1979, " B a c t e r i a Eat I r o n i n Mine Drainage," I n s t i t u t e f o r Research on Land and Water
Resources, Newsletter, Penn S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , U n i v e r s i t y Park, PA, Vol. 10, No. 1.
10) Berger, H. (Ed.), June 1979, " B i o l o g i c a l C o n t r a c t o r T r e a t s Mine Water," I n t e r - C o l l e g e Research, Penn S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y , U n i v e r s i t y Park, PA.
11) Pearson, F.H. and McDonnell, A.J., June 1975, "Limestone B a r r i e r s t o N e u t r a l i z e A c i d i c Streams," Journal o f
t h e Environmental Engineering D i v i s i o n , ASCE, pp. 425-440.
12) Wilmoth, R.C. and S c o t t , R.B., 1976, "Water Recovery from A c i d Mine Drainage," US EPA, C i n c i n n a t i , OH.
13) Boyer, J.F. and Gleason, V.E., June 1977, "Coal and Coal Mine Drainage," Journal WPCF, pp. 1163-1172.
14) Pearson, F.H. and McDonnell , A. J., Apr 1978, "Limestone Packed Tumbling Drums f o r A c i d i t y Reduction," Journal
of Water P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Fed.
15) Wilmoth, R.D. and Kennedy, J .L., 1977, "Treatment Options f o r A c i d Mine Drainage C o n t r o l ," I n d u s t r i a l
Environmental Research Lab, EPA C i n c i n n a t i , OH.
16) Wilmoth, R.D. and H i 1 1, R.D., 1973, "Mine Drainage P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l V i a Reverse Osmosis," M i n i n g Engineering
25(3).
17) Wilmoth, R.C., Dec 1973, " A p p l i c a t i o n s o f Reverse Osmosis t o A c i d Mine Drainage Treatment," N a t i o n a l Environ-
mental Research Center, US EPA C i c n c i n n a t i , OH, EPA 670/2-73-100.
18) Environmental Research and A p p l i c a t i o n s , Inc., Sep 1971, "The Disposal o f A c i d B r i n e s from A c i d Mine Drainage
i n M u n i c i p a l Wastewater Treatment," EPA 14010 FBZ, W i l ton, CT.
19) Minear, R.A. ,and Overton, D.E., May 1977, " M o b i l i z a t i o n o f Heavy M e t a l s & Other Contaminants from S t r i p - M i n e
Spoil," Appalachian Res. P r o j . , Progress Report, U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee Environmental Center, K n o x v i l l e , TN.
20) Biesecker, J.E. and George, J.R., 1966, "Stream Q u a l i t y i n Appalachia as R e l a t e d t o Coal Mine Drainage - 1965,"
USGS C i r c u l a r 526.
21) Grady, W.C. and Akers, D.J., J r . , Apr 1976, " U t i l i z a t i o n o f A c i d Mine Drainage Treatment Sludge," Proc. o f
F i f t h M i n e r a l Waste U t i l i z a t i o n Symp., West V i r g i n i a U n i v e r s i t y , Morgantown, WV.
22) Brougton, R. e t a l . , 1973, " A c i d Mine Drainage and The Pennsylvania Courts," Duquesne Law Review, Vol 11. .
23) H i l l , R.D., 1978, "Methods o f C o n t r o l 1i n g P o l l u t a n t s ," Proc. Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands Symp.,
S c h a l l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds.), ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, W I .
24) Hanna, G.P., Mar 1964, "The R e l a t i o n o f Water t o S t r i p Mine Operations," Ohio Journal o f Science 6 4 ( 2 ) , pp.
120-124.
25) Phel ps, L.B., June 1978, "Some R e l a t i o n s h i p s Between S t r i p M i n i n g and Groundwater," E a r t h and M i n e r a l Sciences,
Penn S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , U n i v e r s i t y Park, PA, Vol. 47, No. 9.

1- IOBILILATION AND MINING OPERATIONS HANDBOOK

FOR
HANDLING PIT WATER, ACID MINE DRAINAGE SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
[O.OUPI MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS HANDwx)K
FOR
ACID FORMING MATERIAL, ROUGH BACKFILLING AND
GRADING
SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
PROBLEM & PURPOSE
l ~ h erequirement o f 816.100 " t h a t a l l reclamation, occur c a r r y o u t rough grading has an important impact on the
3s contemporaneously as p r a c t i c a b l e w i t h mining opera- i n f i l t r a t i o n o f surface water i n t o the ground. "Where
tions," and t h e need t o minimize double handling, makes scrapers have dumped s p o i l and the heavy t i r e s compacted
it necessary t o plan the b a c k f i l l i n g operation t o occur the s p o i l , the i n f i l t r a t i o n may be one o r two orders
ss p a r t o f the task o f overburden removal. The way i n o f magnitude l e s s than i n cases where a d r a g l i n e dumps
~ h i c hb a c k f i l l i n g and rough grading are c a r r i e d o u t may the s p o i l s " (13). Therefore, i t may be i n cases where
have a major e f f e c t on both groundwater recharge and rough grading i s c a r r i e d o u t on s p o i l s c a s t by a drag-
streamflow. Not o n l y must the s p o i l be regraded so t h a t l i n e using a bulldozer o r even a d r a g l i n e bucket,
i t can remain s t a b l e b u t i t should be regraded so as t o s u b s o i l i n g using a r i p p e r may n o t be necessary t o
n a i n t a i n i n f i l t r a t i o n and p e r c o l a t i o n o f r a i n f a l l so as reduce the amount o f compaction.
t o recharge groundwater sources on which both d r y Generally, the Regulations r e q u i r e regrading t o
weather streamflow, water supply t o springs and seep "approximate o r i g i n a l contour". The degree o f approx-
areas, and the safe y i e l d o f springs and w e l l s depend. imation which w i l l be permitted by the RA w i l l depend
I t may a l s o affect the establishment o f an e f f e c t i v e upon a number o f f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g the approved post-
vegetation cover, p a r t i c u l a r l y o f t r e e species, as the mining l a n d use, the impact o f any change on the
amount of i n f i l t r a t i o n w i l l a f f e c t the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f natural drainage pattern, hydrology and landscape of
water f o r plants. the area, etc.
The amount o f compaction o f the s p o i l which occurs during The sequence i n which b a c k f i l l i n g o f s p o i l m a t e r i a l s
regrading w i l l a f f e c t the amount o f r u n o f f and conse- i s c a r r i e d o u t and the methods used are o f v i t a l im-
quently w i l l a f f e c t erosion. Therefore, p r i o r t o f i n a l portance i n minimizing AMD.
grading i t may be necessary t o pass a r i p p e r over the Acid-forming m a t e r i a l s are f r e q u e n t l y found i n asso-
s i t e t o reduce c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f rough-graded s p o i l which c i a t i o n w i t h coal, u s u a l l y w i t h i n t h e coal i t s e l f and
may occur during f i n a l grading operations, c u l t i v a t i o n , i n s t r a t a close t o t h e coal. Careful handling i s t h e
etc. (see Sheet 7:3) This process should be c a r r i e d o u t key t o preventing a c i d drainage i n order t o prevent
along the contour t o achieve an optimum l e v e l o f i n f i l - o x i d a t i o n and the forming o f a c i d s o l u t i o n by exclud-
t r a t i o n and t o minimize erosion. i n g a i r and water.

t o a l l s i t e s , b u t the requirements o f the Regulations

vary according t o the mining method as t o the p e r i o d
t o areas where the analysis o f core samplea ,. .-.
shows s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f acid-forming m a t e r i a l s . I n
o r distance a1 lowed before contemporaneous reclamation the case o f small mine operations, t h i s analysis wi 11 be
must begin. p a i d f o r by the RA under t h e provisions o f the Small
I
The s p e c i f i c requirements o f t h e Reaulations a f f e c t i n g Operator Assistance Program. I
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
11. BACKFILLING AND ROUGH GRADING. post-mining land use and they must be "appropriate sub-
A d e t a i l e d timetable f o r the completion o f each major step s t i t u t e s f o r construction o f lower grades on the r e -
i n reclamation, i n c l u d i n g a p l a n f o r b a c k f i l l i n g and claimed land." Further discussion on the use o f t e r -
grading, i s required as p a r t o f the reclamation plan races f o r water conservation and erosion c o n t r o l can be
[780.18]. The plan f o r b a c k f i l l i n g and grading should found on Sheet 7:2.
c o n s i s t o f contour maps and/or cross sections t h a t show 11. BACKFILLING AND GRADING (THIN OVERBURDEN -
the a n t i c i p a t e d f i n a l surface c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f the pro- SECTION 916.104).
posed permit area. The performance standards contain d i f f e r e n t requirements
Reclamation e f f o r t s , including.. . b a c k f i l l i n g and f o r b a c k f i l l i n g and grading i n s i t u a t i o n s o f " t h i n over-
grading ... s h a l l occur as contemporaneously as p r a c t i c a - burden and t h i c k overburden. " Thin overburden applies
b l e w i t h mining operations" [816.100]. Section 816.101 t o s i t u a t i o n s where the f i n a l thickness ( T f ) i s l e s s
a c t u a l l y s p e c i f i e s time 1i m i t s f o r rough b a c k f i l l i n g and than 0.8 o f t h e i n i t i a l thickness ( T i ) . Where T i = the
grading o f surface mine s i t e s . I n the case o f contour sum of the pre-mining thickness o f t h e overburden (Tb)
mining, backfi 11i n g and grading must f o l l o w coal removal + the thickness o f the i n - s i t u coal (Tc). The f i n a l
by n o t more than 60 days o r 1,500 f e e t . I n the case o f thickness ( T i ) = t h e product o f the pre-mining thickness
area s t r i p - m i n i n g 180 days i s allowed f o l l o w i n g coal r e - o f the overburden (Tb) x the b u l k i n g f a c t o r (K).
moval, b u t rough grading may be more than 4 s p o i l ridges Thus: T i = Tb + Tc.
behind the p i t which i s being worked. I n the case of T f = Tb x K.
open p i t mining the t i m i n g o f b a c k f i l l i n g and grading Section 816.104 applies when T f i s l e s s than 0.8 x T i .
must be i n accordance w i t h the time schedule approved by I n these s i t u a t i o n s there i s u n l i k e l y t o be s u f f i c i e n t
t h e RA. Section 816.101 (b) contains t h e requirement s p o i l a v a i l a b l e t o achieve the grades which approximate
t h a t a l l disturbed areas s h a l l be returned t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l contours. I f t h i s i s the case, the grading
"approximate o r i g i n a l contour." I t a l s o requires t h a t must achieve adequate drainage and a l l acid-forming and
a1 1 s p o i l s h a l l be transported, backf i1led, compacted toxic-forming m a t e r i a l must be covered as required i n
and graded t o e l i m i n a t e a l l highwalls, s p o i l p i l e s and Section 816.103, i.e., w i t h a minimum o f 4 ' o f non-
depressions, the term "approximate" i m p l i e s a c e r t a i n t o x i c s p o i l o r non-toxic m a t e r i a l .
l a t i t u d e i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h i s requirement and Section A l l highwalls must be e l i m i n a t e d by grading o r back-
816.102 states t h a t "post-mining f i n a l graded slopes f i l l i n g t o s t a b l e slopes which may n o t exceed lv:2h
need n o t be uniform b u t s h a l l approximate t o t h e general (50%) unless steeper slopes are approved by t h e RA
nature o f t h e pre-mining topography." I t a l s o requires [816.104(b) (Z)]. I n s i t u a t i o n s where s p o i l i s i n s u f f i -
t h a t f i n a l graded slopes s h a l l n o t exceed the grade o f c i e n t t o achieve the approximate o r i g i n a l contour, a
the pre-mining slopes b u t t h a t b a c k f i l l i n g and grading comnon technique f o r grading t h e s i t e i s t o leave an
should be c a r r i e d o u t t o t h e most moderate slope possi- impoundment i n t h e area o f the f i n a l cut. An impound-
b l e . Cut and f i l l terraces are o n l y permissible i n ment which i s planned must be approved by the RA and
s i t u a t i o n s expressively i d e n t i f i e d i n Section 816.102 t h i s approval i s c o n d i t i o n a l upon the impoundment being
and r e q u i r e approval from t h e RA. To o b t a i n t h i s s u i t a b l e f o r the approved post-mining l a n d use. Approva
approval, terraces must be compatible w i t h t h e approved o f an impoundment i n the area o f t h e f i n a l c u t does n o t
 REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS (CONTINUED)
r
r e l i e v e t h e o p e r a t o r o f t h e requirement t o e l i m i n a t e t h e and 816.103 ( B a c k f i l l i n a and Gradina: Coverinq coal and
h i g h w a l l . Where t h e RA approved a permanent impoundment -
a c i d - f o r m i n g 'and t o x i c - i o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s ) .
as p a r t o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n plan, i t must meet t h e r e - S e c t i o n 816.48 s p e c i f i e s t h a t acid-forming o r t o x i c -
quirements o f Section 816.49. forming s p o i l s must be b u r i e d w i t h i n 30 days of ex-
111. BACKFILLING AND GRADING (THICK OVERBURDEN - posure on t h e mine s i t e . I n some cases temporary
SECTION 816.105) storage o f acid-forming s p o i l s may be approved b y
Section 816.105 o f t h e performance standards a p p l i e s t h e RA i f b u r i a l i s u n f e a s i b l e w i t h i n 30 days, b u t
where t h e f i n a l t h i c k n e s s o f overburden i s g r e a t e r than o n l y i f t h i s w i l l n o t r e s u l t i n water p o l l u t i o n
1.2 o f t h e i n i t i a l t h i c k n e s s u s i n g t h e same method o f problems.
c a l c u l a t i o n as i n t h e previous paragraph. That i s , i t Section 816.103 r e q u i r e s t h a t acid-forming and t o x i c -
a p p l i e s when T f i s more than 1.2 x T i . forming m a t e r i a l s and a l l exposed coal seams a f t e r
T h i s S e c t i o n [816.105] a p p l i e s i n those s i t u a t i o n s where m i n i n g a r e covered w i t h a minimum o f 4 ' o f " t h e b e s t
t h e volume o f s p o i l i s demonstrated t o be "more than available non-toxic ... material." I f necessary these
s u f f i c i e n t " t o achieve t h e approximate o r i g i n a l contour. m a t e r i a l s must be t r e a t e d t o n e u t r a l i z e t o x i c i t y and i n
I n these cases, t h e mine area should be graded t o t h e some cases t h e RA may s p e c i f y t h i c k e r cover and s p e c i a l
approximate o r i g i n a l contour and any excess s p o i l should compaction and i s o l a t i o n measures t o prevent c o n t a c t
be hauled and disposed o f i n excess s p o i l d i s p o s a l areas w i t h groundwater.
i n accordance w i t h t h e r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n s of t h e p e r f o r - The requirements o f Section 816.52(a) and ( b ) , t h a t
mance standards L816.71-816.741. As i s t h e case f o r a l l groundwater and s u r f a c e water be monitored, means t h a t
o t h e r s u r f a c e mines, h i g h w a l l s and depressions must be i f s e l e c t i v e handl i n g o f acid-forming o r t o x i c - f o r m i n g
eliminated. m a t e r i a l s i s n o t e f f e c t i v e and groundwater o r surface
I V . SELECTIVE HANDLING OF ACID-FORMING MATERIALS. water p o l l u t i o n r e s u l t s t h e RA w i l l be a b l e t o t r a c e
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and a n a l y s i s o f p o t e n t i a l acid-forming, t h e source o f t h e problem [816.104(b)(2)].
toxic-forming o r alkalinity-producing materials are The performance c o n t r o l s c o v e r i n g t h e d i s p o s a l o f excess
r e q u i r e d as p a r t o f t h e Geology D e s c r i p t i o n s p o i l i n Sections 816.71 t o 816.74 do n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y
[779.14(b) (1 )]. These w i l l p r o v i d e t h e o p e r a t o r w i t h prevent t h e d i s p o s a l o f acid-forming o r t o x i c - f o r m i n g
a good b a s i s f o r p l a n n i n g t h e s e l e c t i v e h a n d l i n g o f m a t e r i a l i n V a l l e y o r Head-of-Hollow f i l l s . But t h e r e i s
these m a t e r i a l s , as i s r e q u i r e d i n t h e performance a general requirement i n S e c t i o n 816.71 t h a t " t h e leach-
standards, and o f t h e p o t e n t i a l b u f f e r i n g o r n e u t r a l i z - a t e and s u r f a c e r u n o f f from t h e f i l l w i l l n o t degrade t h e
i n g c a p a c i t y o f o t h e r s t r a t a i n t h e overburden. Section s u r f a c e groundwaters o r exceed t h e e f f l u e n t l i m i t a t i o n s .
780.18(b)(7) r e q u i r e s as p a r t o f t h e r e c l a m a t i o n p l a n Also, acid-forming o r t o x i c - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s a r e s p e c i f -
"a d e s c r i p t i o n o f measures t o be employed t o i n s u r e i c a l l y outlawed f o r use i n under-drainage systems i n
t h a t . . .a1 1 acid-forming and t o x i c - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s a r e excess s p o i l disposal s i t e s .
disposed o f i n accordance w i t h Section 816.103." There Coal processing wastes a r e a major source o f water
a r e two s e c t i o n s i n t h e performance c o n t r o l s which p o l l u t i o n i n m i n i n g areas. T h i s problem i s n o t s p e c i f i -
s p e c i f i c a l l v cover t h e handl i n s o f t o x i c - f o r m i n g o r c a l l y covered i n t h i s Handbook. For performance stan-
a c i d - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s . ~ h e s e - a r eSection 816.48 (Hydro- dards c o v e r i n g t h e handl i n g and disposal o f coal proc-
l o g i c Balance: Acid-forming and t o x i c - f o r m i n g s p o i l s ) e s s i n g wastes see Sections 816.81 t o 816.93.
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
I. BACKFILLING AND ROUGH GRADING. t i o n s by most operators. An example i s V e c e l l i o &
B a c k f i l l i n g and rough grading, i n o r d e r t o meet t h e r e - Grogan who were c i t e d f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n r e c l a m a t i o n by
quirements o f t h e Regulations f o r contemporaneous West V i r g i n i a ' s Dept. o f N a t u r a l Resources f o r t h e i r
reclamation, have t o be planned as p a r t o f the t a s k o f 285-acre mountaintop removal o p e r a t i o n near Beckley,
overburden removal. I n o r d e r t o minimize double handling, WV, where r e c l a m a t i o n goes on c o n t i n u o u s l y as coal i s
t h e techniques of a c h i e v i n g contemporaneous b a c k f i l l i n g mined. I t i s a loader/haul t r u c k o p e r a t i o n w i t h
and r e q r a d i n q w i l l v a r v w i t h t h e tvDe o f minina ooeration. scraoers used t o remove and r e o l a c e 2 ' - 4 ' o f s o i l on
I n contour mining, t h e - p r a c t i c e o f haulback wa; b e i n g reclaimed areas ( 4 ) .
used by many m i n i n g companies p r i o r t o 1977. The haul- I n area m i n i n g being c a r r i e d o u t w i t h a d r a g l i n e , t h e
back method o f s u r f a c e mining, by b a c k f i l l i n g simul t a - o p e r a t i o n o f b a c k f i l l i n g i s o f course p a r t o f t h e over-
neously w i t h excavation, c u t s t h e area o f d i s t u r b e d burden removal process. Rough grading i s usual l y
lands by t w o - t h i r d s ( 3 ) . I n doing so, t h i s method a l s o c a r r i e d o u t w i t h dozers. S p o i l c a s t by a d r a g l i n e i s
meets t h e requirement o f SMCRA f o r contemporaneous r e c - unconsolidated and t h e r e f o r e may be l i a b l e t o s e t t l e -
lamation, and reduces t h e d i s t u r b e d area c o n t r i b u t i n g ment f o r several years a f t e r mining. T h i s may cause
t o erosion. It was found t h a t haulage d i s t a n c e f o r problems when r e v e g e t a t i n g due t o e x c e s s i v e l y r a p i d
s p o i l i n s i n g l e seam haulback o p e r a t i o n s averaged 500'. p e r c o l a t i o n o f water and d r y i n g out. Unconsolidated
(The Regulations a1 low 1,500'. ) T h i s o p e r a t i o n i n v o l v e s s p o i l i n areas a f f e c t e d b y area o r open p i t m i n i n g has t h
3 d i s t i n c t o p e r a t i o n s : loading, haulage, and regrading. p o t e n t i a l f o r underground water storage, i n e f f e c t by c r e
This, however, makes s e l e c t i v e handl i n g and rep1 acement a t i n g an a q u i f e r .
o f overburden p o s s i b l e and a l s o can achieve much more The problem o f h a n d l i n g and r e g r a d i n g o f box-cut s p o i l s
compaction o f s p o i l than i n cases o f overburden c a s t was discussed on Sheet 6:7. I n area mining, t h e r e may
w i t h a d r a g l i n e o r shovel. Greater compaction o f a c i d - be more f l e x i b i l i t y i n p l a n n i n g t h e d u r a t i o n and sequence
forming m a t e r i a l s can s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduce a c i d forma- o f working so as t o minimize t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e
t i o n by e x c l u d i n g a i r . temporary s p o i l dump and t h e f i n a l c u t . Some double
Generally, s m a l l e r o p e r a t o r s w i l l n o t be i n v o l v e d i n h a n d l i n g o f box-cut s p o i l s t o e l i m i n a t e t h e h i g h w a l l and
mountaintop removal operations. The l a r g e amounts o f o t h e r requirements o f Section 816.101 ( B a c k f i l l i n g and
overburden t o be removed i n these cases makes v e r y Grading: General Requirements) i s unavoidable.
c a r e f u l planning, programming and contemporaneous r e c l a - S e l e c t i v e h a n d l i n g o f overburden when i t contains a c i d -
mation e s s e n t i a l . U s u a l l y a l s o t h e r e i s a need f o r forming m a t e r i a l s i s n o t easy w i t h a d r a g l i n e . Placement
disposal of excess s p o i l (see Sheet 6:8); consequently, o f t h e acid-forming m a t e r i a l , consol i d a t i o n and s e a l i n g
even p r i o r t o t h e 1977 Act, contemporaneous r e c l a m a t i o n w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y impermeable s p o i l m a t e r i a l cannot be
was p r a c t i c e d as p a r t o f mountaintop removal opera- c a r r i e d o u t w i t h a d r a g l i n e o r a s t r i p p i n g shovel. The

1( MOBILIZATION AND MINING OPERATIONS HANDBOOK

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ACID FORMING MATERIAL, ROUGH BACKFILLING AND SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
75
:he overburden may j u s t i f y a change i n the method o f
pera at ion and machinery chosen.
lough grading o f unconsol idated drag1 i n e spoi 1s can be
ccomplished using dozers w i t h very wide blades, and some
n t e r e s t i n g innovations have been t r i e d o u t t o increase
.he c a p a b i l i t i e s o f bulldozers i n t h i s operation. The
lush-Tow concept i s described by Howland o f the Pittsburgh
md Midway Mining Co.
lnder the Push-Tow concept, a p p l i c a t i o n o f additional
lorsepower t o the angle blade i s made through a s i n g l e
boint h i t c h t o the leading edge o f the blade. Through
l i r e c t i o n a l changes, the lead t r a c t o r helps counteract
;ide t h r u s t forces imposed upon the angle blade and
'pushu t r a c t o r . With a 40 degree angle o f attack, the 40'
,lade has a maximum e f f e c t i v e width o f 30' for s p o i l re-
location west o f the centerline, as shown i n the above
I l l u s t r a t i o n , and 30' east o f the c e n t e r l i n e on the
.eturn pass when t r a c t o r s are moving north.
ieneral l y , acid-forming s p o i l which i s compacted and
:overed w i t h r e l a t i v e l y impermeable material and a
minimum o f 4' o f non-toxic overburden requires no other
sealant t o prevent oxidation. I n the past, various
;ealants have been t r i e d t o prevent the oxidation o f
) y r i t e i n acid-forming spoils. I t was found t h a t
jeneral l y compacted c l a y i s the most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e
nethod o f achieving t h i s . More expensive materials,
including concrete, b i tumin and various 1atex sealers,
qave been t r i e d b u t the r e s u l t s have generally been
variable and t h e i r use i s n o t recomnended f o r covering
surface mine spoils, a1though i n some cases t h e i r use
i s recomnended f o r sealing deep mine workings.

(1 ) Gardner, H.R. and Wool hiser, D.A., 1978, "Hydrologic & Climatic Factors," Proc. Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y
Disturbed Lands Svmo.. Schaller, F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds. 1, ASA. CSSA. SSSA. Madison, W I .
(2) Vondle, D., May 1 ~ 7 ~ , ~ ' ' ~ o w - ~ oBoost s t ~ ~~ar o~dsu c t i v i t y , ' ~coal ~ g e , pp.-117-li9.
(3) Chironis, N.P., J u l y 1977, "Haulback Reclaims Naturally," Coal Age, pp. 70-83.
(4) Chironis, N.P., Nov 1977, "Mountaintopping an Old S t r i p Mine," Coal Age, pp. 60-62.
(5) Chironis, N.P., J u l y 1977, "Imaginative Plans Make Mined Lands B e t t e r Than Ever," Coal Age, pp. 48-51.
(6) Howland, J.W., 1973, "New Tools and Techniques for Reclaiming Land," The Pittsburgh & Midway Coal Mining Co.,
Research & Applied Technology Symposium on Mined Land Reclamation, NCA, Pittsburgh, PA.
(7) D i v i s i o n o f Plant Sciences, Dec 1971, "Mine Spoil Potentials f o r Water Q u a l i t y and Control Erosion," College
o f A g r i c u l t u r e and Forestry, West V i r g i n i a University, EPA P r o j e c t #I4010 EJE.
(8) Smith, R.M. e t al., Oct 1974, "Mine Spoil Potentials f o r S o i l and Water Quality," College o f A g r i c u l t u r e and
Forestry, West V i r g i n i a University, EPA 67012-74-070.
(9) Dyer, K.L., and Curtis, W.R., 1977, "The E f f e c t o f S t r i p Mining on Water Q u a l i t y on Small Streams i n Eastern
Kentucky, 1967-1975," USDA Forest Service Research Paper NE-372.
10) Grube, W.E. e t al., "Characterization o f Coal Overburden Materials and Mine Spoil i n Advanced Surface Mining
EPA (VB).
11) Kirk, K.G., June 1972, "A Study o f the Effectiveness o f B a c k f i l l i n g i n C o n t r o l l i n g Mine Drainage," Proc. o f
F i r s t International Meeting o f Society o f Engineering Science, Tel Aviv, I s r a e l .
12) Curtis, W.R., June 6-7, 1978, "Effects o f Surface Mining on Hydrology, Erosion and Sedimentation i n Eastern
Kentucky," Fourth Kentucky Coal Refuse Disposal and U t i l i z a t i o n Seminar, Univ. o f Kentucky, Lexington, KY.
13) Rahn, P.H., 1975, "Groundwater i n Coal Strip-Mine Spoils, Powder River Basin," F o r t Union Coal F i e l d Symp.

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7 1I I HANDBOOK
MEASURES
RECLAMATION AND REYEGETATION

GENERAL
FOR
SMALL MINE
.
OPERATORS
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
'The i i e g u l a t i o n s c o n t a i n v e r y s p e c i f i c performance standards The Reclamation Plan must i n c l u d e d e t a i l s o f t h e pro-
Co v e r i n q reclamation o f s u r f a c e mine s i t e s . Some o f t h e posed post-minin! l a n d use l780.231 "Where a l a n d
S tandarzs were a l r e a d y i n force i n coal-producing s t a t e s use i s proposed, t h e p l a n must c o n t a i n the m a t e r i a l s
Pr i o r t o 1977. The Regulations, i n e f f e c t , make i t nec- s p e c i f i e d i n Section 816.33. Land uses d i f f e r e n t from
e ssary f o r t h e s u r f a c e mine o p e r a t o r t o consider r e c l a - t h e pre-mining uses may be approved by the !W i f they
ma t i o n and t o c a r r y i t o u t , as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f , and a r e compatible w i t h t h e adjacent l a n d uses, i f t h e
inseparable from, t h e a c t u a l coal e x t r a c t i o n o p e r a t i o n . necessary p u b l i c s e r v i c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e . and c e r t a i n
The o p e r a t o r must n o t o n l y c a r r y o u t t h e r e c l a m a t i o n b u t o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s i n Section 816.133(c) are being met.
he must a l s o p r e p l a n h i s reclamation. The Reclamation Throughout t h e performance standards t h e r e are a number
P l a n i s a necessary p a r t o f the a p p l i c a t i o n process and, o f cases where i t i s s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e c l a m a t i o n must
s i g n i f i c a n t l y , i t i s i n the same p a r t o f t h e Regulations he compatible w i t h t h e approved post-mining use o f t h e
a s t h e Operations Plan ( P a r t 780 Surface M i n i n g P e r m i t land. The performance standards o f t h e Regulations p u t
Ap p l ication-Minimum Requirement f o r Reclamation and a l o t o f emphasis on r e v e g e t a t i o n [816.111-816.1171.
0 p e r a t i o n s Plan). Both t h e requirements and t h e methods f o r j u d g i n g t h e
0 ne o f t h e requirements of t h e Regulations which makes standards f o r success o f r e v e g e t a t i o n vary w i t h t h e
it necessary f o r the o p e r a t o r t o consider reclamation approved post-mining use o f the l a n d [816.116]. The
as p a r t o f the m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n i s Section 816.100 which emphasis p l a c e d on r e v e g e t a t i o n i s i n l a r g e p a r t due t o
re q u i r e s t h a t "reclamation e f f o r t s . . ..of a1 1 l a n d t h a t t h e need t o r e - e s t a b l i s h v e g e t a t i o n capable o f p r e -
is d i s t u r b e d by s u r f a c e m i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s s h a l l occur as v e n t i n g erosion. As has been noted, t h e reclamation
Contemporaneously as p r a c t i c a b l e w i t h m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n . " p r a c t i c e s which a r e r e q u i r e d by t h e performance standards
Se c t i o n 816.101 goes on t o s p e c i f y j u s t how "contem- a r e v e r y s p e c i f i c . The f o l l o w i n g sheets take these
Poraneous" t h i s must be by s e t t i n g time l i m i t s f o r p r a c t i c e s i n d i v i d u a l l y and g i v e some g u i d e l i n e s f o r each.
ba c k f i l l i n g and grading. The Reclamation Plan C780.181
re q u i r e s t h a t each a p p l i c a t i o n must c o n t a i n "a d e t a i l e d
t i m e t a b l e f o r t h e completion o f each major step i n t h e
Reclamation Plan ."
It should be noted t h a t the contemporaneous r e c l a m a t i o n
requirement does n o t o n l y r e f e r t o b a c k f i l l i n g and r e -
9 rading, b u t a l s o t o r e v e g e t a t i o n [816.113]. "When
necessary t o e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r o l erosion, any d i s t u r b e d
ar e a s h a l l be seeded and p l a n t e d as contemporaneously
a s ~ r a c t i c a b l e ..with
. a temDorarv cover o f small o r a i n .
9 r a i s e s and legumes u n t i l a' permanent cover i s eszabl ished."
Se c t i o n 780.18-includes, as hart o f t h e Reclamation
Pl a n , t h e f o l l o w i n g requirements:
1. a d e t a i l e d t i m e t a b l e f o r t h e completion o f each
major step i n t h e reclamation plan;
2. a c o s t e s t i m a t e f o r t h e proposed reclamation;
3. a p l a n o f b a c k f i l l i n g and r e g r a d i n g showing t h e
a n t i c i p a t e d f i n a l surface c o n f i g u r a t i o n ;
4. a p l a n f o r t o p s o i l handling;
5. a r e v e g e t a t i o n p l a n which must i n c l u d e :
a ) schedule o f r e v e g e t a t i o n
b) species and seeding r a t e s
c ) methods o f p l a n t i n g and seeding Figure 1 I n e f f e c t i v e r e c l a m a t i o n . This s i t e shown
d ) mulching above was regraded, seeded and planted, b u t t h e r e was
e ) i r r i g a t i o n and p e s t and disease c o n t r o l where no t o p s o i l replaced, and severe e r o s i o n has occured
appropriate on t h e long slopes.
f ) measures t o be used t o determine t h e success Source: Chapman, A.G., Aug 1967, " E f f e c t s o f S p o i l
o f revegetation Grading on Tree Growth," Mining Congress Journal.
g) a s o i l t e s t p l a n
There a r e a l s o o t h e r requirements i n t h i s Section.

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l ~ h eDurDose o f t e r r a c e s i s t o reduce e r o s i o n on regraded t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f water f o r p l a n t s , r e s u l t i n g i n
1and' by' i n t e r c e p t i n g r u n o f f on l o n g slopes and con;eying improved s u r v i v a l and growth.
it, a t non-erosive v e l o c i t i e s a l o n g i t s l e n g t h , t o a However, t e r r a c e s r e s u l t i n an increased grade between
d r a i n e d o r d i s p o s a l area. The l e n g t h of s l o p e i s an t e r r a c e s which can a l s o r e s u l t i n more severe e r o s i o n .
i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g t h e amount of e r o s i o n (see Secondly, t h e y may i n t e r f e r e w i t h post-mining l a n d uses
S o i l Loss Equation-Sheet 6 : l ) . T h i s i s due t o r u n o f f and, t h i r d l y , on steep f i l l slopes t h e increased i n f i l -
accumulating on l o n g slopes and, as i t does so i t gains t r a t i o n which r e s u l t s f r o m slowing down t h e r u n o f f can
momentum. I t s e r o s i v e c a p a c i t y increases and i t begins cause i n s t a b i l i t y and s l i d e s . Therefore, t e r r a c e s a r e
t o form g u l l i e s . S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e s t u d i e s on p e r m i t t e d on r e c l a i m e d s u r f a c e mine s i t e s o n l y w i t h t h e
s l o p i n g farmland have proved c o n c l u s i v e l y t h a t t e r r a c i n g approval o f RA. Terraces, t h e r e f o r e , should be con-
reduces t h e amount o f sediment v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y . s i d e r e d i n s i t u a t i o n s where s p o i l i n g and r e v e g e t a t i o n
Vogel notes t h a t one o f t h e i r F o r e s t S e r v i c e s t u d i e s a t w i l l n o t be s u f f i c i e n t t o p r e v e n t e r o s i o n .
Berea, KY showed t h a t t e r r a c i n g on g e n t l y s l o p i n g There i s ;ome c o n f u s i o n i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e term
s ~ o i l sc u t sediment y i e l d s and t h e storm peak r u n o f f "terrace. There i s n o t a d e f i n i t i o n i n c l u d e d i n
r a t e i n h a l f (1). - S e c t i o n 701.5 ( D e f i n i t i o n s ) . The c o n f u s i o n i s whether
By s l o w i n g down t h e r a t e o f r u n o f f , t e r r a c e s w i l l a l s o a t e r r a c e a c t s s i m p l y as a bench, graded t o a s l o p e
cuase more water t o i n f i l t r a t e t h e regraded s p o i l . There almost f l a t b u t i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n as t h e o v e r a l l
are 2 important implications: slope o r whether i t has a r e v e r s e grade and t h e r e f o r e
1. I n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o t h e s p o i l mass may reduce i t s a c t u a l l y i n t e r c e p t s r u n o f f ( F i g u r e 1 ) . The l a t t e r i s
shear s t r e n g t h and r e s u l t i n i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e mass u s u a l l y t h e case and t h i s i s t h e t e r m i n o l o g y used here.
and slumping. There i s a danger o f t h i s on excess But t h e r e a r e two d i s t i n c t types o f t h i s s o r t o f t e r -
s p o i l d i s p o s a l s i t e s and g r e a t c a r e should be taken race: 1. t h e l e v e l t e r r a c e which i s , as i m p l i e d , l e v e l
t o ensure t h a t r u n o f f does n o t pond on t h e t e r r a c e , and s i m p l y i n t e r c e p t s and impounds r u n o f f and 2. a
but flows steadily a t a uniform gradient t o stable r a d i e n t t e r r a c e which has a l o n g i t u d i n a l g r a d i e n t and
ground. (The Regulations r e q u i r e a 1% l o n g i t u d i n a l { i r e c t s water along i t s l e n g t h t o an o u t f a l l on s t a b l e
q r a d i e n t f o r t e r r a c e s on Head-of-Hol low f ills. ) ground. The l a t t e r i s t h e most u s u a l l y used.
I APPLICABILITY
2. Increased i n f i l t r a t i o n w i l l t e n d t o i n c r e a s e
Terraces a r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r use on s u r f a c e mine s i t e s r e q u i r e t h e approval o f t h e RA. Some m i n i n g companies
where r e v e g e t a t i o n a l o n e i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o p r e v e n t use t e r r a c e s d u r i n g r e c l a m a t i o n o f s l o p i n g l a n d t h e n
e r o s i o n . T h i s may be t h e case on regraded s p o i l which remove t h e t e r r a c e s when t h e areas between a r e r e -
has a h i g h e r o d i b i l i t y which may be caused by: vegetated and p r o t e c t e d from erosion.
1. excessive steepness; C a r e f u l l y c o n s t r u c t e d t e r r a c e s can s o l v e e r o s i o n prob-
2. long, u n i n t e r r u p t e d slopes; lems on steep s i t e s and on r o l l i n g t e r r a i n , and t h e
3. h i g h l y e r o d i b l e s p o i l and/or t o p s o i l . o p e r a t o r should n o t be discouraged from seeking approval
Terraces a r e c o m o n l y used on excess s p o i l d i s p o s a l s i t e s , f o r t h e i r use from t h e RA i f t h e r e i s doubt t h a t o t h e r
Head-of-Hollow and V a l l e y f ills, where t h e steepness o f methods w i l l n o t p r e v e n t e r o s i o n on t h e r e c l a i m e d s i t e .
1
t h e o u t s l o p e u s u a l l y makes t e r r a c i n g necessary. Terraces I
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
l ~ e c t i o n s816.72 and 816.73 (Disposal o f excess s p o i l : ments o f t h e performance c o n t r o l s a r e summarized on 1
l l e y f i l l s and ~ead-of- oilo ow' f i l l s ) c o n t a i n some spe-

and f i l l t e r r a c e s may o n l y

DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES

I n t h e case o f g r a d i e n t t e r r a c e s , which conduct w a t e r a- performance standards o f t h e Regulations r e q u i r e t h a t
l o n g t h e i r l e n g t h , t h e design o f t e r r a c e s t o p r e v e n t t h e RA approve t h e v e r t i c a l spacing between t e r r a c e s
s c o u r i n g should be based on t h e same c r i t e r i a used t o de- [816.102(b)(Z)]. The S o i l Conservation Service, t o
s i g n grass waterways (Sheets 6:5 and 7:4). Additional determine t h e v e r t i c a l i n t e r v a l ( V I ) between t e r r a c e s
i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e design o f grass waterways may be found i n farmland, uses t h e equation: V I = XS + Y; where X
i n t h e S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e ' s "Engineering F i e l d i s a f a c t o r which v a r i e s r e g i o n a l l y as i n d i c a t e d i n
Manual f o r Conservation P r a c t i c e s . " Operators may a l s o F i g u r e 2, S i s t h e s l o p e i n f e e t p e r 100 f e e t , and Y i s
f i n d i t useful t o r e f e r t o t h e S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e ' s an e r o d i b i l i t y f a c t o r which i s 1.0 f o r h i g h l y e r o d i b l e
(Kentucky) "Standard and S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r A G r a d i e n t s o i l s and 4.0 f o r e r o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t s o i l s c o n t a i n i n g a
Terrace" m o d i f i e d t o conform t o t h e requirements o f t h e l a r g e amount o f o r g a n i c residue. I t i s suggested t h a t
performance standards. Some g u i d e l i n e s from t h a t r e f - a v a l u e o f 1 i s used f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e v e r t i c a l i n t e r -
erence a r e i n c l u d e d here. I t i s emphasized t h a t g r a d i e n t v a l f o r most r e c l a i m e d mine s i t e s .
t e r r a c e s should be used o n l y where s u i t a b l e s t a b i l i z e d Example on a s i t e w i t h a s l o p e o f 10 f e e t p e r 100
o u t l e t s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o dispose o f drainage water. The f e e t (10%) i n Eastern Kentucky:
82
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
-V I = 0.6. . x 10 + 1 = 7. The v e r t i c a l i n t e r v a l I n r o l l i n g t e r r a i n , !!here t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f s o i l
between t e r r a c e s should be 7 f e e t which on a 10% moisture i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important f o r the establishment
s l o p e i s a h o r i z o n t a l spacing o f 70 f e e t . of v e g e t a t i o n , and i n areas t o be reclaimed f o r a q r i c u l -
Gc: n e r a l l y , t h e c a p a c i t y o f g r a d i e n t t e r r a c e s should be t u r a l uses, a "Rome Bedding Harrow" may be u s e f u l ( F i g u r e
S tr f f i c i e n t t o handle t h e peak r u n o f f from a 10 y e a r 6 ) . These g e n e r a l l y are s u i t a b l e f o r use o n l y on slopes
fr o f l e s s than 15%. I n pre-1977 experiments on regraded
- mine s p o i l , i t was found t h a t t h e use o f t e r r a c e s con-
I" s t r u c t e d w i t h t h e Rome Bedding Harrow r e s u l t e d i n peak
f l o w s o f 65% l e s s than on a c o n t r o l p l o t and a sediment
- y i e l d o f 52% l e s s . T o t a l r u n o f f averaged 42% l e s s ( t h e
p l o t s had been hydroseeded w i t h a m i x t u r e o f annual r y e
7.
srass, sweet c l o v e r , Kentucky fescue and b l a c k l o c u s t ) .
-
H
-
A
-
-

F.i g u r e 3 shows a c r o s s - s e c t i o n through a h y p o t h e t i c a l Figure 6

g 1padient t e r r a c e : t h e minimum depth i s d = 9 i n . The
dt2pth has a minimum average o f 0.1 f t / 1 0 0 f t and a max-
i rnum average o f 0.5 f t / 1 0 0 f t ( t h e a b s o l u t e minimum and
miiximum f o r s h o r t l e n g t h a r e 0 and 1 f t / 1 0 0 f t ) . How-
e der, mine o p e r a t o r s should beware o f c r e a t i n g areas
WI i e r e r u n o f f ponds as t h i s may cause i n s t a b i l i t y on
S'teep f i l l slopes. A l l t e r r a c e s must have adequate o u t -
1I2ts such as a grass waterway, an e x i s t i n g vegetated
a Irea o r a c o n d u i t o u t l e t .
-
b TERRACES ON SITES OF DISPOSAL OF EXCESS SPOIL
Terraces should be s t a b i l i z e d w i t h a s u i t a b l e grass
m i x t u r e . Various grass mixes f o r channels o f v a r y i n g
f l o w v e l o c i t i e s a r e shown on Sheet 6:5 ( ~ i v e r s i o n s ) .
T h i s sheet a l s o i n c l u d e s g u i d e l i n e s f o r s t a b i l i z i n g
o u t l e t p o i n t s and e r o d i n g channels.
One o f t h e most common uses o f t e r r a c e s i n r e c l a m a t i o n
w i l l be on steep slopes a s s o c i a t e d w i t h V a l l e y f i l l s
and Head-of-Hol low f ills t o dispose o f excess spoi 1
d u r i n g t h e m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n . S e c t i o n 816.71 ( h ) s t a t e s
"
t h a t " t e r r a c e s may be u t i l i z e d t o c o n t r o l e r o s i o n and
I 5-5% 7 enhalce s t a b i l i t y if approved by t h e Regulatory Author-
&on2 8'10 6 9-d S ~ O V ' f ~ o ~ da2a l ity.
U5DA,5C4 [KY) 6306 F'awc 5afimmaya(sob€!m I f t e r r a c e s a r e p e r m i t t e d , t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e be-
- tween t e r r a c e s ( f o r V a l l e y f i l l s ) should n o t exceed
A!j f o r d i v e r s i o n s , g r a d i e n t t e r r a c e s may be c o n s t r u c - 50 f t [816.72(e)]. This Section also specifies t h a t
t t?d w i t h p a r a b o l i c , V-shaped o r t r a p e z o i d a l s e c t i o n s . drainage should n o t be d i r e c t e d over t h e o u t s l o p e o f
F i g u r e 3 shows a V-shaped s e c t i o n , Figures 4 & 5 a the f i l l . Further d e t a i l s o f the configuration o f
t lrapezoidal and p a r a b o l i c s e c t i o n r e s p e c t i v e l y . V- V a l l e y f i l l s can be found on Sheet 6:8. I n the require-
SIiaped a r e t h e s i m p l e s t t o c o n s t r u c t w i t h standard ment f o r Head-of-Hollow f i l l s , i t i s s t a t e d t h a t t e r -
ecquipment and minimum number o f passes. The p a r a b o l i c races on f i l l should be graded w i t h a 3-5 p e r c e n t grade
C1ross s e c t i o n r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n equipment. towards t h e f i l l and a 1 p e r c e n t slope towards t h e r o c k
core ( i n e f f e c t , a "gradient terrace").

I
I t should be n o t e d t h a t S e c t i o n 816.73 r e q u i r e s t h e
drainage c o n t r o l system f o r Head-of-Hollow f i l l s t o be
capable o f passing s a f e l y t h e r u n o f f from a 100-year,
24-hour p r e c i p i t a t i o n event. I t i s n o t c l e a r whether
t h e t e r r a c e s form p a r t o f t h e "drainage c o n t r o l system"
F and o p e r a t o r s a r e advised t o c l a r i f y t h i s p o i n t w i t h
igure 4 Figure 5 t h e RA i f t h e y a r e c o n s t r u c t i n g Head-of-Hollow f i l l s .

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GROUP RECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION HANDBOOK
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u
1
MEASURES TERRACES SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
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 REFERENCE
( 1 ) Vogel , W.G. and C u r t i s , W.R., 1978, "Reclamation Research on Coal Surface-Mined Lands i n the Humid East," Proc.
Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y Disturbed Lands Symp., S c h a l l e r F.W., Sutton, P., (Eds.) ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, W I
(2) USDA Soi 1 Conservation Service (KY) , 1973, "Standards and S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r Gradient Terrace," 600-8, Lexington
KY.
(3) Curtis, W.R., 1971, "Terraces Reduce Runoff and Erosion on Surface-Mine Benches," Journal o f S o i l and Water
Conservation, 26/5.
( 4 ) Curtis, W.R. and Superfesky, M.J., Aug 1977, "Erosion o f Surface-Mine Spoils," Proceedings o f the S o i l Conserva-
t i o n Society o f America, Richmond, VA.

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7 1 RECLAMATION AND REYEGETATION
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OPERATORS
PROBLEM & PURPOSE
The procedure d u r i n g r e c l a m a t i o n can be d i v i ded i n t o : s p o i l s may be s e v e r e l y reduced by t h e excessive compac-
1. B a c k f i l l i n a and rouqh q r a d i n g t o t h e general t i o n caused d u r i n g regrading, e s p e c i a l l y on s p o i l s w i t h
landforms shown on t h e r e c i a m a t i o n p l a n (see Sheet a l a r q e Dercentaqe o f c l a y . Not o n l y i s t h e i n f i l t r a -
6:lO). t i o n o f w a t e r reduced, b u t compaction reduces t h e aera-
2. F i n a l touch-up g r a d i n g t o ensure t h a t f i n a l t i o n o f t h e s p o i l i n t h e t r e e r o o t zone. Experimental
grades a r e c o r r e c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e s p e c t o f d r a i n - p l o t s were e s t a b l i s h e d as f a r back as 1946 and 1947 i n
age channel s. Ohio, I l l i n o i s , M i s s o u r i and Kansas which have shown
3. Surface t r e a t m e n t o f regraded s p o i l t o reduce b e t t e r s u r v i v a l and growth o f t r e e s p l a n t e d on ungraded
compaction. I f s o i l i s p y r i t i c l i m e should be s p o i l than on graded s p o i l . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s i n p a r t
a p p l i e d now. ?t;ributed t o t h e severe compaction caused by g r a d i n g
4. Replacement o f t o p s o i l and seeding (Sheet 7:5). IJ).
This Sheet d e a l s w i t h Steps 2 and 3 ) . P r i o r t o t o p s o i l i n g , v a r i o u s measures can be taken t o
he landforms c r e a t e d by rough g r a d i n g w i l l have a major reduce compaction i n c l u d i n g r i p p i n g and s c a r i f i c a t i o n .
mpact on t h e amount o f e r o s i o n . Steepness and l e n g t h S e c t i o n 816.24 ( T o p s o i l : R e d i s t r i b u t i o n ) does r e q u i r e
f s l o p e a r e t h e two most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s . Sheet regraded l a n d t o be s c a r i f i e d o r "otherwise t r e a t e d as
:2 d e s c r i b f d t h e u:e o f t e r r a c e s t o reduce t h e l e n g t h r e q u i r e d b y t h e RA," before rep1 acement o f t o p s o i l ,
f slope. Gouging i n v o l v e s t h e c r e a t i o n o f small de- s p e c i f i c a l l y t o promote r o o t p e n e t r a t i o n . I t i s im-
tressions i n t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e s p o i l b e f o r e t o p s o i l i s p o r t a n t t h a t s c a r i f i c a t i o n o r r i p p i n g be done a l o n g
aeplaced. These h e l p t o slow t h e r a t e o f r u n o f f and i n - t h e contour which should be p o s s i b l e even on steep
rease i n f i 1t r a t i o n . T h e i r use r e q u i r e s approval from slopes u s i n g a t r a c k e d dozer [816.102(e)].
.he RA. Dozer basins have a s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n b u t a r e Timing o f f i n a l g r a d i n g o p e r a t i o n s i s important. F i n a l
a r g e r and a l s o r e q u i r e t h e approval o f t h e RA. g r a d i n g d u r i n g wet c o n d i t i o n s w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e amount
'he methods used d u r i n g g r a d i n g can reduce e r o s i o n s i g - o f compaction and should be avoided, and t h i s a l s o
i f i c a n t l y . The Regulations r e q u i r e t h a t a l l f i n a l a p p l i e s t o t h e replacement o f t o p s o i l . The o p e r a t o r
r a d i n g "be done a l o n g t h e contour t o minimize subsequent w i l l g e n e r a l l y f i n d i t pays t o t r y t o minimize t h e
~ r o s i o n " [816.102(e)]. Rough g r a d i n g which i s c a r r i e d p e r i o d between f i n a l g r a d i n g and seeding so as t o a v o i d
u t w i t h scrapers w i 11 tend t o r e s u l t i n compaction and t h e need f o r any "touch-up" g r a d i n g o f g u l l i e s , etc., due
r i l l reduce i n f i l t r a t i o n o f w a t e r i n t o t h e s p o i l . T h i s t o e r o s i o n d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d . "Gouging"
l i l l a l s o i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e o f r u n o f f and e r o s i o n . may be u s e f u l t o reduce g u l l y e r o s i o n i n cases where
r a n d t and Lang i n 1958 measured 0.9" (2.3 cm) p e r hour t h e r e i s an unavoidable d e l a y between f i n a l g r a d i n g
n f i 1t r a t i o n on regraded s p o i 1 compared w i t h 11.8" and seeding.
30 cm) p e r hour on ungraded s p o i l ( 1 ) . I t was found, I n s p i t e o f t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y t o reduce compaction o f r e -
owever, t h a t when s p o i 1 was r e v e g e t a t e d t h e i n f i 1t r a - graded s p o i l s , i n some cases ( u s u a l l y where l a r g e volumes
i o n r a t e increased. C u r t i s suggests t h a t "every e f f o r t o f f i l l i s p l a c e d on s l o p i n g t e r r a i n ) , i n c r e a s i n g t h e i n -
h o u l d be made t o m a i n t a i n h i g h i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s on f i l t r a t i o n w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e f i l l mass
S u r f a c e mined l a n d " ( 1 1. and t h e r e f o r e i n these cases i s undesirable.
The s u r v i v a l r a t e and growth o f v e g e t a t i o n on regraded I
APPLICABILITY
1. S i t e s . C a r e f u l 1 a t t e n t i o n t o f i n a l g r a d i n g tech- compaction o f t h e overburden. I n c o n t r a s t , over-
n i q u e and t o t h e requirement o f t h e Regulations burden c a s t w i t h a d r a g l i n e and rough graded w i t h
t h a t a l l such o p e r a t i o n s should be c a r r i e d o u t t h e bucket o r w i t h dozers w i l l n o t be compacted
along t h e c o n t o u r i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n and may even s e t t l e c o n s i d e r a b l y a f t e r working.
s l o p i n g and r o l l i n g t e r r a i n , where steep o r l o n g T h e r e f o r e t h e method o f o p e r a t i o n w i l l a f f e c t t h e
slopes i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e o f erosion. (There a r e amount o f r i p p i n g o r s c a r i f i c a t i o n needed.
s p e c i a l perfoi-i ,ar,cc- standards which a p p l y t o m i n i n g 3. S i z e o f o p e r a t i o n . Some o f t h e machinery used f o r
on slopes o f 20" o r more.) The gouger described f i n a l g r a d i n g i s v e r y s p e c i a l i z e d and few small op-
below i s n o t s u i t a b l e f o r use on slopes steeper e r a t i o n s would have access t o t h e equipment. How-
t h a n l v : 1 0 h. ever, a l t e r n a t i v e means o f a c h i e v i n g t h e d e s i r e d ob-
2. Operations. Operations u s i n g scrapers f o r back- j e c t i v e can be found u s i n g standard equipment.
f i11 ing and rough g r a d i n g wi 11 r e s u l t i n heavy
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
l ~ h e~ e r f o r m a n c estandards a f f e c t i n g rough b a c k f i l l i n g i s t h a t r e c l a m a t i o n e f f o r t s i n c l u d i n g b a c k f i l l i n g and
and b r a d i n g were covered on Sheet 6:10.-TWO requirements g r a d i n g " s h a l l occur asncontemporaneously as p r a c t i c a b l e
o f t h e performance standards a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t w i t h mining operations.
i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e o v e r a l l r e c l a i m e d landform. S e c t i o n The r e c l a m a t i o n p l a n must c o n t a i n "a p l a n f o r b a c k f i l l -
816.101 ( b ) ( 1 ) r e q u i r e s t h a t a l l d i s t u r b e d areas are " r e - i n g , s o i l s t a b i l i z a t i o n , compacting, and grading, w i t h
t u r n e d t o t h e i r approximate o r i g i n a l contour.. . .and contour maps o r cross s e c t i o n s which show t h e a n t i c i -
graded t o e l i m i n a t e a l l highwal l s , s p o i l p i l e s and de- pated f i n a l s u r f a c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n , " [780.18(b)(3)],
p r e s s i o n s . " S e c t i o n 816.102(a) r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e grade and g r a d j n g p r a c t i c e s must be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p e r -
o f f i n a l graded slopes should n o t exceed e i t h e r t h e formance standards i n Sections 816.101-1 06.
approximate pre-mining slopes o r l e s s e r slopes i f r e - S e c t i o n 816.24 (Topsoil : R e d i s t r i b u t i o n ) r e q u i r e s t h a t
q u i r e d by t h e RA. T h i s S e c t i o n a l s o i m p l i e s t h a t t h e r e " a f t e r f i n a l g r a d i n g and b e f o r e replacement o f t o p s o i l
i s c o n s i d e r a b l e l a t i t u d e i n i n t e r p r e t i n g "approximate .. .regraded l a n d s h a l l be s c a r i f i e d o r o t h e r w i s e
o r i g i n a l contour" i n t h a t "post-mining f i n a l graded treated. "
slopes need n o t be u n i f o r m b u t s h a l l approximate t h e S e c t i o n 816.102(e) r e q u i r e s t h a t " a l l f i n a l grading,
o r i g i n a l general n a t u r e o f t h e pre-mining topography" p r e p a r a t i o n o f overburden b e f o r e replacement o f t o p -
(see Sheet 6:lO). ,. ..
s o i l . s h a l l be done along t h e contour t o minimize
F i n a l g r a d i n g i s considered i n t h e Regulations as p a r t subsequent e r o s i o n and i n s t a b i l i t y . " An e x c e p t i o n i s
o f t h e r e c l a m a t i o n process. The requirements f o r t h e made when such o p e r a t i o n s would be hazardous t o t h e .
r e c l a m a t i o n p l a n i n c l u d e a d e t a i l e d t i m e t a b l e f o r each operator, b u t t h e y must i n a l l cases be conducted i n
~ n a j o rs t e p i n t h e r e c l a m a t i o n process [780.18(b)(1)]. a manner which minimizes erosion.
Tfie requirement o f 816.100 i n t h e performance standards S e c t i o n 8 1 6 . 1 0 2 ( ~ ) ( 1 ) s t a t e s t h a t "small depressions"
86
 REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS (CONTINUED)
may be constructed, i f t h e y a r e approved by t h e r e g -
u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t y t o minimize erosion, conserve s o i l
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
moisture, o r promote v e g e t a t i o n . "
I
l ~ h emeasures suaaested on t h i s Sheet should be a o o l i e d s i t e s a r i ~ ~ may e r be r e q u i r e d . I n some cases
lefore topsoilin;. S e c t i o n 816.24 r e q u i r e s t h a t ' g f t e r s u f f i c i e n t ' s c a r i f 3 c a t i o n 'may be g i v e n b y dragging
' i n a l grading, a l l regraded l a n d s h a l l be s c a r i f i e d o r t h e bucked t e e t h o f a f r o n t - e n d l o a d e r over t h e
ttherwise t r e a t e d b e f o r e t o p s o i 1i n g . I n some cases, surface o f the spoil.
lowever, i t may a l s o be d e s i r a b l e t o s c a r i f y a f t e r top- 3. Gouger. The "gouger" was developed a t t h e
#oiling. Montana A g r i c u l t u r e Experimental S t a t i o n a t Bozeman,
'he measures o u t l i n e d on t h i s Sheet have t h e f o l l o w i n g Montana. Three heavy-duty d i s k plough blades were
turpose: mounted on a 12 f t wide c h i s e l plough frame, spaced
a. To reduce compaction; 48 i n on c e n t e r . The blades were s e t u p r i g h t w i t h
b. To improve t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s o i l m o i s u t r e t h e concave s i d e o f t h e d i s k f a c i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n
b o t h by i n c r e a s i n g i n f i l t r a t i o n and by i n c r e a s i n g o f t r a v e l ( F i g u r e 2 ) . The o p e r a t o r a l t e r n a t e l y
r o o t p e n e t r a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f t r e e species; lowers and r a i s e s t h e d i s k s , u s i n g t h e t r a c t o r ' s
c. I n c r e a s i n g t h e l e v e l o f groundwater recharge; h y d r a u l i c system. T h i s g i v e s elongated s u r f a c e
and depressions, 30-36 i n long, 14-16 i n wide and 4-6
d. Reducing r u n o f f and t h e r e f o r e erosion. i n deep. G e n e r a l l y t h e r e i s a 12 i n space between
i e n e r a l l y t h e maximum g r a d i e n t f o r t h e normal o p e r a t i o n depressions b u t t h i s can be v a r i e d by t h e o p e r a t o r .
~ffarm equipment i s 30%. Tracked v e h i c l e s and b u l l - A t r a c t o r o f a t l e a s t 50 hp i s r e q u i r e d and oper-
lozers can o f course o p e r a t e a t c o n s i d e r a b l y steeper a t i n g speeds 2-3 mph a r e usual, making i t p o s s i b l e
,lopes. B u l l d o z e r s a l s o have t h e advantage o f up-and- f o r an experienced o p e r a t o r t o grade 2+3 acres1
lown o p e r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g i n c l e a n depressions i n t h e hour. There w i l l be 2,400-2,800 depressions p e r
,poi1 which are u s e f u l i n t r a p p i n g sediment and seed. acre.
See "5. T r a c k i n g " below.) The gouger, however, i s i n e f f e c t i v e on slopes of
'he f o l l o w i n g equipment may be r e q u i r e d d u r i n g t h e f i n a l more than about 1v:lOh.
l r a d i n g process. Because t h e manual o p e r a t i o n o f t h e h y d r a u l i c s i s
1. Ripper. A r i p p e r n o r m a l l y c o n s i s t s o f one, two t i r i n g t o t h e operator, a m o t o r - d r i ven gouger u s i n g
o r t h r e e r i p p e r shanks mounted on a r i p p e r b a r on a two ranks o f a l t e r n a t e l y spaced d i s k s was developed
c r a w l e r t r a c t o r ( F i g u r e 1 ). The r i p p e r ( s i n g l e o r t o produce a dense staggered p a t t e r n o f gouged de-
mu1 t i p l e shank) i s used i n cases where compaction pressions. However, t h i s machine was n o t v e r y s a t -
i s t o o s e r i o u s t o be broken up u s i n g s c a r i f i c a t i o n , i s f a c t o r y i n p r a c t i c e and d i d n o t p r o v i d e any r e a l
d i s k i n g and c h i s e l plowing, and where i t i s neces- advantage i n water r e t e n t i o n . The o r i g i n a l p r o t o -
s a r y t o break up t h e compaction o f depths g r e a t e r t y p e t h e r e f o r e was developed u s i n g a h i g h q u a l i t y ,
than 12". Using a s i n g l e shank r i p p e r , compacted heavy-duty hydraul i c c y l i n d e r ( p r e v i o u s l y s u s c e p t i -
overburden can be broken up t o depths o f 3-4 f t . b l e t o f a i l u r e ) and a h y d r a u l i c f l u i d s e a l e r . The
T h i s o p e r a t i o n should' be c a r r i e d o u t a l o n g t h e con- p a t t e r n and c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f gouged depressions i s
t o u r , u s u a l l y on 10 f t c e n t e r s ( F i g u r e 1 ). The shown i n F i g u r e 3.
r i p p e r forms a deep groove i n t h e s p o i l 3-4" wide
and fragments t h e s p o i l 2-3 f t e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e I
r i p p e r shank. The Montana A g r i c u l t u r a l Expermental
S t a t i o n a l s o developed t h e " t r i p l e r i p p e r " t o i n -
crease r i p p e r channel d e n s i t y . Two a d d i t i o n a l
shank h o l d e r s were welded o n t o t h e r i p p e r b a r
spaced 4 f t a p a r t . P e n e t r a t i o n was l e s s than f o r
t h e s i n g l e r i p p e r (2-3 f t ) ( 5 ) .

2. S c a r i f i c a t i o n - D i s k s , e t c . I n o r d e r t o meet t h e
requirements o f S e c t i o n 816.24, s p o i l s should be
s c a r i f i e d o r otherwise treated. This c a l l s f o r the
use o f s p e c i a l p i e c e s o f equipment. I n a l i g h t l y
compacted s p o i l a heavy d i s k plow may p r o v i d e t h e
necessary s c a r i f i c a t i o n b u t on h e a v i l y compacted

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4. Dozer Basins. ~ o z e rbasins were f i r s t con- r e d u c i n g e r o s i o n and seed l o s s on steep t o p s o i l e d

s t r u c t e d u s i n g a standard dozer blade t o f o r m deep sites.
elongated depressions on t h e contour. These were 6. Grosser Bars. The " g r o s s e r b a r " o r s l o p e d i s k
15-20 f t long, 6-8 f t wide, and 3-4 f t deep, spaced can be used t o roughen t h e s u r f a c e o f steep s p o i l
a t 20-25 f t c e n t e r t o c e n t e r . Studies showed i n b e f o r e replacement o f t o p s o i l . The equipment i s
a r i d r e g i o n s these depressions improved t h e estab- b e s t used on t e r r a c e d slopes w i t h t h e t r a c t o r
l i s h m e n t o f p e r e n n i a l grasses and shrubs.
T h i s o p e r a t i o n , however, was slow and tended t o
r e s u l t i n excessive compaction i n t h e base o f t h e
b a s i n . A "V" shaped blade, t h e r e f o r e , was designed
t o t a k e t h e p l a c e o f a r i p p e r shank (mounted on a
D-9 c a t e r p i l l e r ) . F i g u r e 4 shows a dozer b a s i n
b l a d e i n o p e r a t i o n . N o t i c e how t h e "V" shaped
blade scoops o u t m a t e r i a l and a l s o shapes t h e dam.
The c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f these basins i s as f o l l o w s :
w i d t h 7-8 ft, depth 2-3 ft, spacing 15-20 f t on
c e n t e r . There a r e 220 t o 280 basins p e r a c r e
which g i v e a w a t e r s t o r a g e volume o f 14 t o 2 acre-
inches. An experienced o p e r a t o r can t r e a t 2-2.5
acres p e r hour i n moderately s l o p i n g t e r r a i n .
5. Tracking. "Tracking" i n v o l v e s passes up and
down t h e s l o p e w i t h a b u l l d o z e r which leaves c l e a t
marks from i t s t r a c k s on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e s p o i l .
T h i s i s n o t a s u b s t i t u t e f o r s c a r i f i c a t i o n and
does n o t meet t h e requirements o f S e c t i o n 816.102(e
r e q u i r i n g t h a t f i n a l grading o p e r a t i o n s be done a-
l o n g t h e contour. I t may be u s e f u l , however, f o r

-
REFERENCE
1) Grandt, A.F. and Lang, A.L., 1958, "Reclaiming I l l i n o i s Coal S t r i p Land w i t h Grasses and Legumes," U n i v e r s i t y
o f I 1 1 i n o i s, A g r i c u l t u r a l Experimental S t a t i o n , B u l l e t i n 628.
2) C u r t i s , W.R., June 9, 1978, "Planning Surface M i n i n g A c t i v i t i e s f o r Water C o n t r o l (Author copy)," Proc. 5 t h
N o r t h American F o r e s t Soi ls Conference, Berea, KY.
3) Chapman, A.G., Aug 1967, " E f f e c t s o f Spoil, Grading on Tree Growth," Mining Congress J o u r n a l .
4) Gardner, H.R. and Wool h i s e r , D.A., 1978, H y d r o l o g i c and C l i m a t i c Factors," Proc. o f t h e Reclamation o f
D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands Symposium, S h a l l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds. ), ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, W I .
5) Jensen, I.B. and Hodder, R.L., Oct 1976, "Custom Designed Surface M a n i p u l a t i o n and Seeding Equipment f o r E r o s i o n
C o n t r o l and Vegetation Establishment," S i x t h Symp. on Coal Mine Drainage Res., Nat. Coal Assoc., L o u i s v i l l e , KY.

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OPERATORS
PROBLEM & PURPOSE
T h i s sheet describes t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f grass waterways a r e i n f a c t grass waterways. For f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n
and o t h e r measures t o convey o v e r l a n d f l o w and occasional on t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t e r r a c e s see Sheet 7:2.
groundwater seepage a t non-erosive v e l o c i t i e s t o a s a f e Runoff spreaders a r e devices t o change f l o w which i s
d i s p o s a l p o i n t . Sheets 6:4 and 6:5 d e a l t w i t h problerus concentrated i n a grass waterway i n t o sheet f l o w o v e r a
o f d i v e r t i n g o v e r l a n d f l o w and ephemeral, i n t e r m i t t e n t l a r g e area o f ground, w e l l - s t a b i l i z e d by e x i s t i n g vege-
and permanent streams so as t o enable t h e m i n i n g opera- tation.
t i o n t o t a k e p l a c e i n an o r d e r l y way, t o d i v e r t water Chutes and s l o p e d r a i n s a r e means o f conveying r u n o f f
away from t h e workings and t o p r e v e n t t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n down a steep slope w i t h o u t damage. They a r e s t r u c t u r a l
o f c l e a n r u n o f f and streamflow from upstream o f t h e per- measures which, as w i l l o t h e r non-vegetative s t a b i l i z a -
m i t area. The requirements o f t h e Regulations d i f f e r t i o n devices, r e q u i r e t h e approval o f t h e RA f o r p e r -
f o r d i v e r s i o n s which a r e permanent and those which a r e manent i n s t a l l a t i o n .
temporary. T h i s Sheet describes measures which must be Underdrains may be necessary f o r areas w i t h v e r y poor
taken f o r permanent d i v e r s i o n s o f o v e r l a n d f l o w and f o r n a t u r a l drainage e s p e c i a l l y where t h e post-mining use
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f qrass waterways d u r i n g reclamation. i s cropland. Underdrains may a l s o be necessary t o p r e -
l ~ h i ssheet i s a l i o r e l e v a n t t o g r a d i e n t t e r r a c e s which
APPLICABILITY
v e n t permanent wetness i n t h e base o f grass waterways. I
These measures a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l s i t e s b u t e s p e c i a l l y where t h e n a t u r a l drainage p a t t e r n i s n o t so deeply c u t
those where t h e r e i s l a n d upstream o f t h e p e r m i t area i n t o t h e landform, may t e n d t o make stream d i v e r s i o n s
which d r a i n s across t h e s i t e . Gradient t e r r a c e s a r e permanent i n s t a l l a t i o n s .
a p p l i c a b l e o n l y i n r o l l i n g and steep t e r r a i n . T h i s Sheet Underdrains a r e used o n l y i n s p e c i a l cases where, f o r
i s a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l types and s i z e s o f operations. instance, t h e proposed post-mining use i s c r o p l a n d o r
Generally, o p e r a t o r s o f contour mines w i l l p r o b a b l y make t o d r y up wet c o n d i t i o n s causing e r o s i o n problems i n
use o f temporary d i v e r s i o n s and r e s t o r e permanent water- grass waterways.
ways d u r i n g t h e r e c l a m a t i o n . Operators o f area mines,
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
IGrass waterways should p r e f e r a b l y be c o n s t r u c t e d i n t i o n s . o f each proposed stream d i v e r s i o n i n t h e p e r m i t
n a t u r a l drainage swales. They c a r r y r u n o f f d u r i n g heavy area. )
r a i n f a l l b u t a r e o t h e r w i s e d r y . T h e i r use i s covered i n There i s no s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e made t o t h e use o f r u n o f f
S e c t i o n 816.43 o f t h e performance c o n t r o l s ( D i v e r s i o n s spreaders i n t h e Regulations, b u t as a means o f h a n d l i n g
and conveyance o f o v e r l a n d f l o w and s h a l l o w groundwater r u n o f f t h e y a r e i n t h e s p i r i t o f t h e Regulations. T h i s
f l o w , and ephemeral streams). I f t h e waterway i s t o be i s n o t t h e case f o r t h e permanent use o f chutes o f
a permanent d i v e r s i o n i t must be designed t o c a r r y peak flumes. As has been noted, t h e use o f a s p h a l t c o n c r e t e
r u n o f f from a p r e c i p i t a t i o n event w i t h a 10-year r e - and o t h e r s i m i l a r l i n i n g s (presumed t o mean smooth, hard
currence i n t e r v a l . ( I f t h e d i v e r s i o n i s temporary, t h e l i n i n g s which cause a c c e l e r a t i o n o f f l o w and r e q u i r e
r e c u r r e n c e i n t e r v a l need o n l y be 2 y e a r s . ) T h i s r e f e r s long-term maintenance) i s n o t p e r m i t t e d w i t h o u t approval
t o waterways which a r e designed t o c a r r y o v e r l a n d f l o w , from t h e RA f o r permanent d i v e r s i o n s . I n cases where i t
ephemeral streams and occasional s h a l l o w groundwater has been necessary t o convey r u n o f f down steep slopes
f l o w . The r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n s o f t h e Regulations f o r per- t e m p o r a r i l y u s i n g chutes o r s l o p e d r a i n s , and where i t
Imanent and i n t e r m i t t e n t streams can be found on Sheet i s n o t f e a s i b l e t o convey r u n o f f i n channels w i t h s a f e
6:5. g r a d i e n t s , r i p r a p p e d chutes w i l l be necessary, g i v i n g
I t i s a l s o r e q u i r e d i n S e c t i o n 816.43 t h a t d i v e r s i o n s t h e r e q u i r e d roughness t o d i s s i p a t e t h e energy o f t h e
should have a minimum f r e e b o a r d o f 0.3' [816.43(f)] and f l o w . S e c t i o n 8 l 6 . l O 2 ( b ) ( 4 ) s t a t e s t h a t c u l v e r t s and
t h a t energy d i s s i p a t o r s should be i n s t a l l e d a t discharge r o c k d r a i n s should o n l y be used on t e r r a c e s w i t h t h e
p o i n t s "where d i v e r s i o n s i n t e r s e c t w i t h n a t u r a l streams approval o f t h e RA. I n p r a c t i c e i t i s sometimes neces-
and e x i t v e l o c i t y o f t h e d i v e r s i o n d i t c h f l o w i s g r e a t e r sary t o conduct r u n o f f accumulated on one t e r r a c e down
t h a n t h a t o f t h e r e c e i v i n g stream." It i s also required t o t h e n e x t t e r r a c e i n some form o f p r o t e c t e d waterway.
t h a t channel p r o t e c t i o n i s p r o v i d e d i n c r i t i c a l areas. But i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t any form o f l i n e d waterway w i l l
A v e r y i m p o r t a n t requirement o f t h e Regulations i s t h a t r e q u i r e t h e approval o f t h e RA. I n t h e case o f roads,
permanent d i v e r s i o n and waterways a r e t o be s t a b i l i z e d b o t h Class I and Class I 1 [ 8 1 6 . 1 5 3 ( c ) ( 2 ) ( v i ) and
by v e g e t a t i o n . R i p r a p i s p e r m i s s i b l e i n c r i t i c a l areas 8 l 6 . l 6 3 ( c ) (2) ( v i ) ] i t i s s t a t e d t h a t w a t e r from c u l v e r t s
b u t " a s p h a l t , c o n c r e t e and o t h e r s i m i l a r l i n i n g s s h a l l should be discharged below t h e t o e o f t h e fill. Gen-
be used o n l y when approved by t h e r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t y " e r a l l y , t h e r e f o r e , chutes, flumes and p i p e s l o p e d r a i n s
[816.43(b)]. a r e u s e f u l i n s u r f a c e mine o p e r a t i o n s o n l y f o r temporary
S e c t i o n 816.56 r e q u i r e s t h a t , b e f o r e abandoning t h e s i t u a t i o n s f o r conducting concentrated f l o w down steep
p e r m i t area, a l l d i v e r s i o n s s h a l l be renovated t o meet slopes.
t h e c r i t e r i a s ~ e c i f i e di n t h e d e t a i l e d design p l a n f o r The use o f underdrains i s n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y r e f e r r e d t o
permanent s t r u c t u r e s and improvements. ( s e c t i o n 780.29 i n t h e ,~ e- r f o- r m a n c.e.standards
. n o r i n t h e s ~ e c i a lDer-
k e y i r e s t h a t each a p p l i c a t i o n c o n t a i n d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p - formance standards f o r prime farmland [ ~ a ' r t8231:
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
II. GRASS WATERWAYS f o r v a r i o u s grasses based upon t h e i r f l o w r e t a r d a n c e
The cross s e c t i o n o f grass waterways may be V-shaped, characteristics.
t r a p e z o i d a l , o r p a r a b o l i c . V-shaped and t r a p e z o i d a l Grass p r o t e c t s t h e waterway from e r o s i o n . I t s e r o s i o n
c r o s s s e c t i o n s a r e e a s i e r t o c o n s t r u c t w i t h standard r e s i s t a n c e i s a maximum i f a dense t u r f i s m a i n t a i n e d
equipment. Diagrams o f these s e c t i o n s may be found on which r e s u l t s o n l y i f i t i s mown r e g u l a r l y . Hence
Sheet 6:4, F i g u r e 1. The f l o w v e l o c i t y i n grass water- g e n t l e s i d e slopes should a l l o w h i g h speed mowing w i t h
ways should g e n e r a l l y n o t exceed 5-6 f t l s e c . mechanical equipment and should n o t i n t e r f e r e $ w i t h o t h e r
The S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e ' s "Engineering F i e l d Man- mechanical o p e r a t i o n s . Slopes o f l v : 3 h o r p r e f e r a b l y
u a l o f Conservation P r a c t i c e s " g i v e s good g u i d e l i n e s on l v : 4 h should be maximum.
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e design o f grass water- Grass w i l l d e t e r i o r a t e i f t h e r e i s a permanent m o i s t u r e
ways. D i f f e r e n t grasses have d i f f e r e n t e r o s i o n r e s i s t - i n t h e waterway, i n which case r i p r a p o r crushed stone
ance and f l o w retardance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Table 1 on c e n t e r d r a i n , a p l a s t i c under-drain, o r a crushed stone
Sheet 6:4 g i v e s t h e maximum p e r m i s s i b l e v e l o c i t y o f f l o w and f i l t e r c l o t h French d r a i n should be i n s t a l l e d (see
31SCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
underdrains" below). Table 1 - Design V a r i a b l e s f o r a Level Spreader
a r i o u s measures can be taken t o s t a b i l i z e grass chan-
e l s i f e r o s i o n i s t a k i n g place. The measures o u t l i n e d Q (ft3/sec) Minimum Length ( L - ft)
n Sheet 6:4 a r e temporary and can be used t o s t a b i l i z e Less than 10 15
ermanent waterways w h i l e v e g e t a t i o n becomes e s t a b l i s h e d .
h e i r permanent use would n o t be approved by t h e RA b u t
a r i o u s f i b e r mats and n e t t i n g ( j u t e , paper o r p l a s t i c )
an be used t o r e i n f o r c e t h e t u r f . These w i l l be expen-
i v e and t h e r e f o r e t h e i r use i s recommended o n l y where
low v e l o c i t y exceeds t h e maximum o r i n c r i t i c a l areas
on bends, e t c . ) . Below-surface f i b e r g l a s s e r o s i o n
hecks a l s o a r e d e s c r i b e d on Sheet 6:5 and can be used Source: ( 4 )
o s t a b i l i z e grass waterways. A s p h a l t o r c o n c r e t e l i n - 111. CHUTES AND FLUMES
ngs f o r waterways r e q u i r e t h e approval o f t h e RA, b u t Chutes and flumes a r e used where t h e v e l o c i t y o f f l o w
mooth channel l i n i n g s should be avoided whenever exceeds t h e maximum f o r grass waterways. The S o i l Con-
o s s i b l e as t h e y t e n d t o i n c r e a s e t h e v e l o c i t y o f f l o w . s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e ' s "Engineering F i e l d Manual f o r Con-
nergy d i s s i p a t o r s a r e r e q u i r e d by t h e RA where water- s e r v a t i o n P r a c t i c e s " e x p l a i n s t h e procedure f o r t h e de-
lays e n t e r a n a t u r a l stream i f t h e v l e o c i t y i n t h e water- s i g n and s i z i n g o f chutes and flumes. The maximum
ay exceeds t h a t i n t h e stream. A p l a n and p r o f i l e o f a drainage areas f o r these i n s t a l l a t i o n s i s n o r m a l l y 36
umped r i p r a p energy d i s s i p a t o r i s shown i n F i g u r e 1. acres. The v e l o c i t y o f f l o w w i l l i n c r e a s e as r u n o f f
passes down a chute o r flume, and t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e
o u t l e t w i t h an energy d i s s i p a t i n g d e v i c e o r r i p r a p i s
necessary. These devices should be used as temporary
measure< o n l y . Approval from t h e RA i s r e q u i r e d . -
I V . PIPE SLOPED DRAINS
Pipe sloped d r a i n s a r e a l s o i n t e n d e d t o convey r u n o f f
down steep slopes w i t h o u t causing erosion. They normall)
have a preformed i n l e t b u t t h e o u t l e t r e q u i r e s t h e same
t y p e o f energy d i s s i p t a t i n g p r o t e c t i o n as chutes o r
flumes. They a r e u s u a l l y made o f f l e x i b l e t u b i n g and a r t
PLAN w i d e l y used f o r temporary i n s t a l l a t i o n s . Ridged p i p e i s
I. RUNOFF SPREADERS more common f o r permanent i n s t a l l a t i o n s b u t approval f o r
he f u n c t i o n o f a r u n o f f spreader i s t o d i s p e r s e r u n o f f s u r f a c e mine s i t e s from t h e RA would be u n l i k e l y . The
t non-erosive v e l o c i t i e s o v e r u n d i s t u r b e d areas s t a b i - S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e ' s "Engineering F i e l d Manual "
i z e d by e x i s t i n g vegetation. Concentrated r u n o f f i s g i v e s d e t a i l s f o r s i z i n g these d r a i n s b u t they a r e n o t
hanged i n t o sheet flow, much o f which w i l l i n f i l t r a t e used f o r drainage areas exceeding 5 acres ( 2 ) . Pipe
n u n d i s t u r b e d areas. A grass channel may e i t h e r t e r m i - s l o ~ ed r a i n s should be used as a temporarv measure o n l y .
a t e by j o i n i n g a n a t u r a l waterway o r may d i s c h a r g e v i a ~ ~ p r o v from al RA i s r e q u i r e d .
r u n o f f spreader o n t o an u n d i s t u r b e d area. The spread- V. UNDERDRAINS
r should be c o n s t r u c t e d on an u n d i s t u r b e d area which i s I n some areas i t may be placed t o i n t e r c e p t r u n o f f on
l i t h e r p o o r l y d r a i n e d n o r h i g h l y e r o d i b l e . I t i s neces- a slope w i t h o u t any p h y s i c a l i n t e r r u p t i o n as, f o r i n -
a r y t o e s t i m a t e t h e i n - f l o w v a l u e Q i n c u b i c f t p e r sec stance, caused by a d i v e r s i o n channel. Underdrains a r e
3 determine t h e l e n g t h , L, o f t h e spreader. Periodic expensive b u t can be extremely e f f e c t i v e if p r o p e r l y
nspection and maintenance i s v i t a l d u r i n g t h e r e s t o r a - i n s t a l l e d . When crushed stone i s a v a i l a b l e on s i t e o r
i o n p e r i o d . Table 1 shows t h e r e q u i r e d l e n g t h , L, f o r a t low c o s t , t h e d e t a i l i n F i g u r e 3 i s a p p r o p r i a t e .
alues o f Q. F i g u r e 2 shows a h y p o t h e t i c a l design f o r Measures t o p r e v e n t c l o g g i n g o f t h e pore space i n these
l e v e l spreader. French d r a i n s should be taken. Shown here, a p l a s t i c
f i l t e r c l o t h i s used. These c l o t h s a r e a v a i l a b l e from
& b'rninmwn --31 several manufacturers. These c l o t h s may a l s o be used
t o wrap p e r f o r a t e d p i p e t o reduce c l o g g i n g i n under-
d r a i n s ( F i g u r e 4 ) . Underdraining o f l a n d relcaimed f o r
a g r i c u l t u r e o r i n t e n s i v e open space uses may be neces-
sary.

SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
REFERENCE
(1) S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e U.S. Dept. o f A g r i c u l t u r e , 1975, "Engineering F i e l d Manual f o r Conservation P r a c t i c e s . "
( 2 ) Glover, F. e t al., 1978, "Grading and Shaping f o r E r o s i o n C o n t r o l and Rapid V e g e t a t i v e Establishment i n Humid
Retions," Proc. Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands Symp., S c h a l l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds.), ASA,
CSSA, SSSA, Madison, W I .
3 US EPA, Oct 1976, "Erosion and Sediment C o n t r o l : Surface M i n i n g i n t h e Eastern U.S. - Design," EPA 625/3-76406.
114 USDA, SCS, J u l y 1975, "Standards and S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r S o i l E r o s i o n and Sediment C o n t r o l ," C o l l e g e Park, MD.

RECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION

HANDBOOK
FOR
I MEASURES
I1 GRASS WATERWAYS
I
SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
This page intentionally left blank.
7 1 "RECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION HANDBOOK

a MEASURES

PROBLEM & PURPOSE

REPLACEMENT OF TOPSOIL AND CULTIVATION

The replacement o f t o p s o i l has been found i n many cases

t o improve t h e s u r v i v a l and growth of v e g e t a t i o n and i t s
J
FOR
SMAU MINE
OPERATORS
I n some areas, n o t a b l y much o f t h e Appalachian coal
f i e l d , the t o p s o i l i s extremely thin. I f the t o p s o i l
151
e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n c o n t r o l l i n g erosion. The d i f f i c u l t i e s and t h e unconsolidated m a t e r i a l beneath do n o t make up
experienced i n t h e p a s t i n e s t a b l i s h i n g v e g e t a t i o n on a t o t a l t h i c k n e s s o f 6", t h e o p e r a t o r should f i n d o u t
unreclaimed mine s p o i l s , where e r o s i o n prevented f o m a - whether t h e overburden c o n t a i n s s u i t a b l e t o p s o i l sub-
t i o n o f s o i l and o f t e n c o n t i n u a l l y exposed t o x i c s t i t u t e s . The RA w i l l pay f o r overburden a n a l y s i s under
m a t e r i a l a t t h e surface, a r e found t o be reduced by t h e t h e Small Operator Assistance Program (SOAP).
a p p l i c a t i o n o f t o p s o i l which n o t o n l y reduces e r o s i o n species, which a r e u n a v a i l a b l e commercially and w i l l
b u t a l s o t h e o x i d a t i o n of acid-forming m a t e r i a l s i n t h e r e s u l t i n more d i v e r s i t y o f p l a n t m a t e r i a l on r e c l a i m e d
s p o i l where these a r e present. T o p s o i l mav a l s o be a land.
1v e l uabl e source o f seeds, b o t h herbaceous and woody 1
APPLICABILITY
The requirement o f t h e Regulations t h a t t o p s o i l be be t h e case i n much o f Appalachia.
s t r i p p e d and r e p l a c e d on r e c l a i m e d areas a p p l i e d t o a l l T h i s requirement a p p l i e s w i t h o u t d i s t i n c t i o n t o a l l
s i t e s , and, i n cases where t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t o p s o i l i s n o t types and s i z e s o f surface coal m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n . The
s u f f i c i e n t , t h e Regulations r e q u i r e s u b s o i l t o be removed methodical, o r d e r l y method o f working Area mines makes
w i t h t h e t o p s o i l . The Regulations a l s o c o n t a i n p r o - programming o f removal and immediate r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
v i s i o n s f o r t h e use o f t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e s from t h e t o p s o i l much e a s i e r . Operators should make sure t o r e -
overburden m a t e r i a l on s i t e s where t o p s o i l i s t h i n o r of quest i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s u i t a b l e t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e s as
poor q u a l i t y . Often, i n steep mountainous t e r r a i n , top- p a r t o f t h e overburden a n a l y s i s i n cases where t o p s o i l
s o i l i s t h i n and p o o r l y developed, and t h i s i s l i k e l y t o i s thin.
RELEVANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
bi e c t i o n 780.18(b)(4) r e q u i r e s a p l a n f o r t h e removal, S e c t i o n 816.24 ( T o p s o i l : R e d i s t r i b u t i o n ) r e q u i r e s t h a t
itorage, and r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t o p s o i l , s u b s o i l , and "Rearaded l a n d shai 1 be s c a r i f i e d o r o t h e r w i s e t r e a t e d
~ t h e rm a t e r i a l s as p a r t o f t h e r e c l a m a t i o n p l a n . "Top- as r e q u i r e d by t h e r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t y t o e l i m i n a t e
; o i l " i s d e f i n e d under S e c t i o n 701.5 ( d e f i n i t i o n s ) as s l i p p a g e surfaces and t o promote r o o t p e n e t r a t i o n . " The
;he "A" s o i l h o r i z o n l a y e r o f t h e t h r e e m a j o r s o i l term " o t h e r w i s e t r e a t e d " i s used so as t o enable t h e RA
~ o r i z o n s . The performance standards do n o t s p e c i f y t o s p e c i f y o t h e r techniques where s c a r i f i c a t i o n i s un-
) r e c i s e l y t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t o p s o i l which must be r e - necessary o r c o u l d r e s u l t i n contamination o f t h e top-
) l a c e d a f t e r grading. s o i l . Sheet 7:3 described techniques f o r r e d u c i n g
i e c t i o n 816.22(e) p e r m i t s t h e use of s u i t a b l e t o p s o i l compaction o f regraded s p o i l . I n some cases, t h e RA
i u b s t i t u t e s " i f t h e r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t y determines may approve s c a r i f i c a t i o n a f t e r t o p s o i l i n g has been
:hat t h e r e s u l t i n g s o i l medium i s equal t o o r more c a r r i e d o u t . The S e c t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t t o p s o i l i s spread
i u i t a b l e f o r s u s t a i n i n g v e g e t a t i o n than i s t h e a v a i l - t o a uniform, s t a b l e t h i c k n e s s which i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
~ b l et o p s o i l . " The d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s based i n p a r t t h e approved post-mining l a n d uses, contours and s u r f a c e
ipon t h e overburden a n a l y s i s ( r e q u i r e d as p a r t o f t h e water drainage systems. B u t i t does n o t s p e c i f y t o what
~ p p l i c a t i o nprocedure). The RA w i l l pay f o r a c e r t i - t h i c k n e s s t h e t o p s o i l must be placed. I t r e q u i r e s t h a t
' i e d l a b o r a t o r y t o c a r r y o u t t h i s a n a l y s i s as p a r t o f t h e r e i s n o t excessive compaction o f t h e t o p s o i l and t h a t
:he Small Operators Assistance Program. i t should be p r o t e c t e d from wind and w a t e r e r o s i o n b e f o r e
lherever p o s s i b l e , i t i s r e q u i r e d t h a t t o p s o i l should and a f t e r i t i s seeded and p l a n t e d . P a r t 823 ( S p e c i a l
le r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e same o p e r a t i o n as s t r i p p i n g Performance Standards f o r Operations on Prime Farmland)
'rom unmined s e c t i o n s of t h e s i t e [816.21]. Topsoil c o n t a i n s much more s t r i n g e n t r e g u l a t i o n s f o r t o p s o i l
ihould o n l y be s t o r e d where t h i s i s n o t p o s s i b l e . Sec- h a n d l i n g and replacement. ( A minimum o f 48 inches o f
; i o n 816.23 r e q u i r e s t h a t t o p s o i l should n o t be moved r e c o n s t r u c t e d s o i l i s r e q u i r e d on prime farmland.) S e c t i o ~
'rom storage u n t i l i t i s a c t u a l l y r e q u i r e d f o r r e d i s t r i - 816.102(e) r e q u i r e s t h a t a l l f i n a l g r a d i n g o p e r a t i o n s
) u t i o n on a regraded area. T o p s o i l r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s and t h e replacement o f t o p s o i l s h a l l be done a l o n g t h e
:overed by t h e performance standards s p e c i f i c a l l y i n c o n t o u r t o minimize subsequent e r o s i o n and i n s t a b i l i t y .
i e c t i o n 816.24, and t h e a d d i t i o n o f n u t r i e n t s and o t h e r Only where t h i s o p e r a t i o n may be hazardous t o t h e
mendments t o t o p s o i l i s covered i n S e c t i o n 816.25 (see o p e r a t o r may d i s t r i b u t i o n be done i n t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n s
iheet 7:6).
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
o p s o i l p r o v i d e s an improved r o o t i n g medium, improved s p o i l i s n o t s e v e r e l y compacted. The Regulations
v a i l a b i l i t y of m o i s t u r e and n u t r i e n t s f o r p l a n t s , and do r e q u i r e regraded s p o i l " t o be s c a r i f i e d o r o t h e r -
eads t o more r a p i d and vigorous v e g e t a t i o n cover and w i s e t r e a t e d . . . t o promote r o o t p e n e t r a t i o n . " If
e t t e r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . Some s p o i l s a r e n o t t o x i c and p o s s i b l e , a v o i d i n g f i n a l g r a d i n g d u r i n g wet weather
ave a good t e x t u r e and w a t e r - h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y , and, w i l l reduce t h e amount t o compaction. A purpose
r o v i d i n g n u t r i e n t s a r e added, a r e a good growing o f t h e s c a r i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e d by t h e Regulations i s
edium f o r p l a n t s . T o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e s a r e p e r m i t t e d t o e l i m i n a t e s l i p p a g e surfaces. T h i s may be im-
i t h t h e approval o f t h e RA ifa s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l i s p o r t a n t on s l o p i n g s i t e s .
d e n t i f i e d i n t h e overburden (see Sheet 6:6). Impor- 3. The chemical r e a c t i o n o f t h e overburden imme-
a n t f a c t o r s t o be considered i n t h e process o f r e d i s t r i - d i a t e l y beneath t h e t o p s o i l w i l l a l s o a f f e c t t h e
u t i n y topsoil include the following: growth o f v e g e t a t i o n . The requirements of t h e Reg-
1. To a v o i d double h a n d l i n g and t o achieve r a p i d u l a t i o n s f o r s e l e c t i v e hand1 i n g and placement of
reclamation, t o p s o i l r e d i s t r i b u t i o n should be a c i d - f o r m i n g overburden should e l i m i n a t e problems
planned and c a r r i e d o u t as p a r t o f t h e t o p s o i l r e - o f v e r y low pH. However, immediately p r i o r t o r e -
moval process. p l a c i n g t o p s o i l , s p o t checks w i t h a pH meter o f
2. The p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e regraded s p o i l t h e regraded s p o i l a r e w o r t h w h i l e t o i d e n t i f y pos-
p r i o r t o replacement o f t o p s o i l i s i m p o r t a n t . s i b l e t r o u b l e spots where l i m e o r o t h e r s o i l
Roots o f t r e e s and shrubs w i l l p e n e t r a t e t h e s p o i l amendments prior t o t o p s o i l i n g c o u l d a v o i d f u t u r e
beneath t h e l a y e r o f t o p s o i l before t h e o p e r a t o r f a i l u r e o f vegetation.
i s r e l e a s e d from h i s bond. Therefore, t h e o p e r a t o r 4. Care should be taken w h i l e spreading t o p s o i l t o :
should make s u r e t h a t t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e regraded ( a ) achieve a u n i f o r m thickness. T h i s w i l l be
94
 u n i f o r m ( b u t r o u g h ) s u r f a c e . The use o f s c r a p - compactor g i v e s b e t t e r r e s u l t s t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s k -
e r s a l s o makes i t e a s i e r t o p l a c e t o p s o i l i n g and h a r r o w i n g a f t e r s p r e a d i n g 6 " o f t o p s o i l . The
even1 y ; company has been r e c o g n i z e d f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n reclama-
( b ) a v o i d damage t o t h e t o p s o i l and excess t i o n by t h e S o i l Conservation Service ( 3 ) .
compaction b y c e a s i n g s t r i p p i n g and s p r e a d i n g On s t e e p s l o p e s , i t may n o t be f e a s i b l e t o use a d i s k
o p e r a t i o n s d u r i n g w e t w e a t h e r . Compacted t o p - h a r r o w f o r seedbed p r e p a r a t i o n i f o p e r a t i o n s a r e ( a s
s o i l w i l l o b s t r u c t r o o t p e n e t r a t i o n , have p o o r r e q u i r e d on t h e R e g u l a t i o n s ) c a r r i e d o u t a l o n g t h e
a e r a t i o n , and r e s u l t i n p o o r s u r v i v a l and c o n t o u r . I n t h e s e cases a s l o p e d i s k o r a c h a i n - t y p e
growth o f vegetation; p i c k harrow s h o u l d be used ( F i g u r e 2 ) . Where o p e r a t o r s
( c ) avoid contaminating t h e t o p s o i l w i t h s p o i l do n o t have a s l o p e d i s k , i t may be d e s i r a b l e t o r u n a
m a t e r i a l by making s u r e t h a t t h e f i n a l graded d i z e r up and odown t h e s l o p e t o l e a v e c l e a t marks t o
surface i s uniform b e f o r e spreading s o i l . h e l p c o n t r o l e r o s i o n w h i l e seed g e r m i n a t e s ( F i g u r e 2 ) .
5. A f t e r t o p s o i l i n g , a d i s c harrow i s n o r m a l l y ~ s c d
t o p r e p a r e t h e s,rface f o r seeding. T h i s i s n o r -
111a1lydone a f t e r a p p l y i n g l i m e and o t n e r s o i l amend-
ments (see Sheet 7 : 6 ) . D i s l t i n q w i I I urea6 tip s ~ rdce
f
compaction caused d u r i n g t o p s o ; l i n g o p e r a t i o n s b u t
w i l l a l s o help t o s e t t l e the surface, leaving a
r o u g h t i l t h s u i t a b l e f o r seeding. A smoothing
h a r r o w s h o u l d n e v e r be used t o g i v e a f i n e seedbed
as t h i s w i l l be v e r y s u s c e p t i b l e t o e r o s i o n . I n
some cases a c o n v e n t i o n a l c h i s e l p l o w may r e d u c e F i g ~ t - e2
s u r f a c e compaction more e f f e c t i v e l y t h a n d i s k i n g .
A c h i s e l p l o w was f o u n d t o be h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e i n . - - . .... . . -
r e d u c i n g compaction i n e x p e r i m e n t s b y t h e Montana .'*
A g r i c u l t u r a l Experimental S t a t i o n . I t a l s o re-
s u l t e d i n e x c e l l e n t seedbed p r e p a r a t i o n . F i g u r e 1
shows t h e p l o w i n a c t i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f a
h y d r a u l i c a l l y - m o u n t e d frame w i t h f o u r shanks mount-
e d on each o f t h r e e c r o s s members. The p o i n t s pene-
t r a t e 8-10 i n . The seedbed was t o o r o u g h f o r a
c o n v e n t i o n a l seed d r i l l b u t t h a t was e x c e l l e n t f o r

. . . ,
/-

UNVWETATEP 5LOPE5 *OULD 13E TEMPOPARILY

5CARIFlED TO MINIMIZE RUNOFF VEWLITIE4
T o p s o i l i s a v a l u a b l e s o u r c e o f seeds, p a r t i c u l a r l y o f
n a t i v e s p e c i e s w h i c h may be u n a v a i l a b l e c o m m e r c i a l l y
and w h i c h w i l l r e s u l t i n much more d i v e r s i t y o f p l a n t s
on r e c l a i m e d l a n d . The o p e r a t o r can a1 so be a s s u r e d
n s i t e s where t h e s p o i l i s s u b j e c t t o s e t t l e m e n t and t h a t t h e seeds f o u n d i n t h e t o p s o i l on t h e s i t e a r e
he lack o f compaction i s a problem, t h e Jones and adapted t o t h e l o c a l i t y . Seeds o f many s p e c i e s r e m a i n
v i a b l e i n t h e s o i l f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s and t h e r e f o r e s h o u l d
survive t o p s o i l storage f o r s h o r t l i f e s i t e s .

I ) Jensen, I . B . and Hodder, R.L., O c t 1976, "Custom Designed S u r f a c e M a n i p u l a t i o n and Seeding Equipment f o r E r o -
s i o n C o n t r o l & V e g e t a t i o n E s t a b l i s h m e n t , " 6 t h Symp. on Coal Mine D r a i n a g e Research, NCA/BCR, L o u i s v i l l e , K Y .
!) Beauchamp, H. e t a1 . , A p r 1975, " T o p s o i l as a Seed Source f o r Reseeding S t r i p Mine S p o i l s , " Res. J o u r n a l 90,
A g r i c u l t u r a l E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n , U n i v . o f Wyoming, Laramie, MY.
3 ) Davis, H., Dec 1976, "Jones and Braque Recoqnized f o r E x c e l l e n c e o f i t s Reclamation," Coal Aqe, P P . 94-97.

) I RECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION

I HANDBOOK
FOR

I MEASURES REPLACEMENT OF TOPSOIL AND CULTIVATION

SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
 1-1#
.
I RECLAMTION

SOIL AMENDMENTS
AND REYEGETATION

- LIME AND FERTILIZER

J HANDBOOK
SMAUMNE
FOR -
OPERATORS
PROBLEM & PURPOSE
. Lime - S u b s t a n t i a l dressings o f l i m e may be r e q u i r e d i n t h i s reaction.
on a c i d s o i l s t o r a i s e pH values, a l t h o u g h i t i s 2. F e r t i l i z e r s - There a r e l i k e l y t o be d e f i c i e n c i e s o f
probably r a r e t h a t a c i d i t y i s the l i m i t i n g f a c t o r t o s o i l n u t r i e n t s necessary f o r p l a n t growth on most
p l a n t growth on'mine s p o i l s (even those which were r e c l a i m e d mine s i t e s , even a f t e r replacement o f t o p -
haphazardously dumped p r i o r t o these R e g u l a t i o n s ) . s o i l . D e f i c i e n c i e s may be severe, e s p e c i a l l y i n
More f r e q u e n t l y , t o x i c l e v e l s o f manganese and a l u - cases where a t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e o f s e l e c t e d over-
minum which a r e a v a i l a b l e t o p l a n t s a t low pH values burden m a t e r i a l i s b e i n g used. D e f i c i e n c i e s can be
a r e l i k e l y t o be t h e cause o f poor growth and sur- c o r r e c t e d q u i t e e a s i l y by t h e a d d i t i o n o f f e r t i l i z e r .
v i v a l o f v e g e t a t i o n on unreclaimed mine s p o i l s w i t h The balance o f n u t r i e n t s i n t h e f e r t i l i z e r s used
v e r y low pH. should be matched t o t h e s o i l t e s t s as r e q u i r e d i n
Whatever t h e a c t u a l cause o f poor v e g e t a t i o n growth, t h e Regulations and t o t h e n u t r i e n t demand o f vege-
a d d i t i o n o f l i m e t o r a i s e pH values t o between 5.5- t a t i o n which i s t o be e s t a b l i s h e d . For instance, a
7.5 r e s u l t s i n much-improved v e g e t a t i o n growth. The h i g h phosphate f e r t i l i z e r t h a t i s r e l a t i v e l y low i n
o p e r a t o r w i l l be advised t o t r y t o achieve a s o i l pH n i t r o g e n tends t o f a v o r legumes. The v a r i a b i l i t y o f
w i t h i n t h i s range i f t h e standards f o r t h e success mine s p o i l s , even when b a c k f i l l i n g has been c a r r i e d
o f r e v e g e t a t i o n a r e t o be met w i t h minimum delay. o u t w i t h g r e a t care, makes t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n of
The growth o f most grasses and p a r t i c u l a r l y legumes f e r t i l i z e r requirements v a l u e l e s s w i t h o u t c a r e f u l
i s i n h i b i t e d on s p o i l s w i t h a low pH, and i s much sampling and a n a l y s i s . T o p s o i l ing, as r e q u i r e d by
improved by a d d i t i o n s o f l i m e . Liming may n o t o n l y t h e Regulations, makes t h e f e r t i l i z e r requirements
n e u t r a l i z e a c i d s p o i l s b u t i t may a l s o reduce t h e o f reclaimed s u r f a c e mines more p r e d i c t a b l e . But
r a t e o f f o r m a t i o n o f s u l f a t e s from p y r i t i c s u l f u r as p l a n t r o o t s p e n e t r a t e beyond t h e s o i l h o r i z o n ,
by reducing t h e a c t i v i t y o f t h e b a c t e r i a i n v o l v e d t h e response may be e r r a t i c .
APPLICABILITY
Liming should g e n e r a l l y be c a r r i e d o u t on a l l reclaimed t o s i t e . Many s i t e s w i l l n o t o n l y r e q u i r e an i n i t i a l
s u r f a c e mine s i t e s . I t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t where a p p l i c a t i o n o f f e r t i l i z e r b u t w i l l a l s o r e q u i r e main-
t h e overburden has a low pH value and p a r t i c u l a r l y so tenance a p p l i c a t i o n s . T h i s i s most l i k e l y ' t o be t r u e
on h i g h l y d i v e r s e s p o i l s where t h e r e i s an increased f o r n i t r o g e n which i s e a s i l y and r a p i d l y leached from
chance o f a c i d - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s m i s t a k e n l y being t h e s o i l and u t i l i z e d by t h e p l a n t s .
Iplaced t o o near t h e surface. The r a t e o f a p p l i c a t i o n A p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s and t h e balance o f n u t r i e n t s i n t h e
Iw i l l depend on s o i l t e s t s as r e q u i r e d i n P a r t 780 o f f e r t i l i z e r used w i l l v a r y according t o t h e r e s u l t s o f
t h e Regulations. When s p o i l has a v e r y low pH value, s o i l t e s t s . I t i s l i k e l y t h a t recommended f e r t i l i z e r
i t may be advantageous t o a p p l y 1 ime b e f o r e r e p l a c i n g and l i m e a p p l i c a t i o n s can be o b t a i n e d from t h e over-
t o p s o i l and s c a r i f y i n g t h e regraded s p o i l and again burden a n a l y s i s , t h e c o s t o f which i s covered i n t h e
a f t e r replacement o f t o p s o i l . p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e Small Operator Assistance Program. I n
IF e r t i l i z e r s a r e a l s o l i k e l y t o be r e q u i r e d on a l l r e - cases where a s u i t a b l e t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e i s i d e n t i f i e d
Iclaimed mine s i t e s . The p r o p o r t i o n o f n u t r i e n t s i n i n t h e overburden a n a l y s i s , n u t r i e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s a r e
the necessary f e r t i l i z e r w i l l v a r y w i d e l y from s i t e 1ik e l y t o be severe. I
RELEVANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
As p a r t o f t h e r e c l a m a t i o n plan, s u r f a c e mine o p e r a t o r s q u a l i f i e d l a b o r a t o r y u s i n g standard methods approved by
a r e r e q u i r e d t o submit a s o i l t e s t i n g p l a n f o r "evalu- t h e Regulatory A u t h o r i t y . The chemical a n a l y s i s o f
a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t o p s o i l h a n d l i n g and r e c l a m a t i o n overburden s t r a t a r e q u i r e d as p a r t o f t h e Geology de-
procedures r e l a t e d t o r e v e g e t a t i o n " [78O.l8(b) ( 5 ) l . The s c r i p t i o n [779.14] w i l l g i v e t h e o p e r a t o r an i n d i c a t i o n
performance standards r e q u i r i n g n u t r i e n t and s o i l amend- o f t h e s t r a t a which he should a t t e m p t t o p l a c e near t h e
ments t o t o p s o i l [816.25] a l s o r e f e r t o s o i l t e s t s . s u r f a c e t o reduce low pH problems. T h i s a n a l y s i s i s
" N u t r i e n t s and s o i l amendments i n t h e amounts determined e l i g i b l e f o r payment by t h e RA under t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f
by s o i l t e s t s s h a l l be a p p l i e d t o t h e r e d i s t r i b u t e d s u r - t h e Small Operator Assistance Program.
f a c e s o i l l a y e r . . . a l l s o i l t e s t s s h a l l be performed by a
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
11. LIMING 1. A p p l i c a t i o n o f 1 ime and f e r t i l i z e r s should be
Most o f t h e l i m e used w i l l be a t r i c u l t u r a l l i m e based on s p o i l t e s t r e s u l t s .
(ground l i m e s t o n e ) . I t w i l l u s u s a l l y be spread by t h e 2. A p p l i e d l i m e and f e r t i l i z e r s should be e v e n l y
s u p p l i e r w i t h spinners on t h e back o f t h e supply t r u c k . spread o v e r t h e area b e i n g t r e a t e d .
The o p e r a t o r should make sure t h a t t h e s u p p l i e r p r o - 3. A p p l i e d l i m e should be i n c o r p o r a t e d by d i s k i n g
vides evidence o f t h e CaCO, equivalence, t h e measure o f and i t appears t h a t two o r more d i s k treatments
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f limestone which should be a t l e a s t 90%. a r e needed where l i m e r a t e s a r e g r e a t e r than 20
Using cheaper limestone w i t h a lower r a t i n g may n o t tons per acre.
j u s t i f y t h e h i g h c o s t o f haulage. A l l p a r t i c l e s o f 4. A p p l i e d l i m e should n o t be expected t o move
ground l i m e s t o n e should pass a 60 mesh screen f o r r a p i d downwards below t h e zone o f i n c o r p o r a t i o n .
e f f e c t i v e n e s s which i s necessary f o r good response from 5. pH o f s p o i l s increases o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d o f
v e g e t a t i o n . Operators should i n s u r e t h a t spreading i s time following incorporation.
c a r r i e d o u t evenly, and l i m e should be t i l l e d i n t o t h e 6. Lime r a t e s should be s u f f i c i e n t t o r e a c t w i t h
s o i l a f t e r a p p l i c a t i o n t o a depth o f 3 inches u s i n g a a c i d brought t o t h e s u r f a c e d u r i n g d r y p e r i o d s .
d i s c harrow. 7. F e r t i l i z e r amendments may be a p p l i e d t o t h e
Mays & Bengtson n o t e t h a t marl, b l a s t furnace slag, ce- surface a f t e r disking t o incorporate lime.
ment p l a n t f l u e d u s t and v a r i o u s o t h e r m a t e r i a l s may a l s o 8. Lime p a r t i c l e s may be i n a c t i v a t e d by c o a t i n g w i t h
be used as s o i l a d d i t i v e s t o r a i s e t h e pH v a l u e b u t , due i r o n oxide, e s p e c i a l l y on a c i d sandy s o i l s , t h e r e -
t o l i m i t e d supply, o n l y occasional l o c a l i z e d use can be by becoming useless f o r f u r t h e r r e a c t i o n w i t h
made o f these m a t e r i a l s ( 1 ) . Operators who a r e c l o s e acid.
t o a s t e e l o r cement works, however, would do w e l l t o Most p l a n t s grow b e s t i n s o i l w i t h a pH range o f
i n v e s t i g a t e i f these m a t e r i a l s a r e a v a i l a b l e . EPA g i v e s 5.5 t o 7.1 ( 1 ) . Mays and Bengtson n o t e t h a t i n t h e
the following guidelines f o r application o f lime (7). past, much research was aimed a t f i n d i n g p l a n t species
 DlSCUSSlOfi & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
lwhich would t o l e r a t e a low oH l e v e l and which would N i t r o g e n i s u s u a l l y a p p l i e d as ammonium n i t r a t e
g i v e t h e r e q u i r e d v e g e t a t i v e cover p r i m a r i l y f o r e r o s i o n Urea i s a l s o used b u t may i n h i b i t g e r m i n a t i o n o f seeds.
c o n t r o l on unreclaimed s p o i l s . However, s i n c e t h e Act, Phosphorous i s u s u a l l y a p p l i e d as t r i p l e super-
t h e growing c o n d i t i o n s on r e c l a i m e d s u r f a c e mine s i t e s phosphate and potash (as has been noted) i s n o t o f t e n
w i l l be so much improved t h a t most o p e r a t o r s w i l l f i n d needed. I d e a l l y , t h e r a t i o o f N:P:K i n a f e r t i l i z e r
i t advantageous t o s e l e c t species w i t h a reasonable mix should be determined by a n a l y s i s and then blended
t o l e r a n c e t o s u r f a c e mine s p o i l c o n d i t i o n s , b u t a l s o t o o r d e r . Otherwise, diammonium phosphate (18:46:0)
w i t h an economic value. o r ammonium polyphosphate (12:54:0) may p r o v i d e t h e
The requirements o f t h e Regulations t o b u r y a c i d - c o r r e c t balance o f n u t r i e n t s . U s u a l l y f e r t i l i z e r s a r e
forming m a t e r i a l s w i l l undoubtedly r e s u l t i n a v e r y spread i n g r a n u l a r form b u t s o l u b l e f e r t i l i z e r s a r e
marked improvement i n t h e q u a l i t y of r e v e g e t a t i o n o f a p p l i e d a l s o a l o n g w i t h seed by hydroseeders; however,
s u r f a c e mine s i t e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e case where p y r i t i c unless f e r t i l i z e r requirements a r e small, a p p l i c a t i o n
m a t e r i a l s p r e v i o u s l y tended t o end up on t o p o f t h e i n a separate o p e r a t i o n from hydroseeding b e f o r e
s p o i l where i t was exposed t o c o n t i n u a l weathering. seedbed c u l t i v a t i o n i s more s a t i s f a c t o r y .
B u t o t h e r requirements o f t h e Regulations, p a r t i c u l a r l y Trees a r e g e n e r a l l y more t o l e r a n t o f n u t r i e n t
t h a t r e q u i r i n g replacement o f t o p s o i l , w i l l n o t o n l y im- d e f i c i e n c i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when e s t a b l i s h e d , than
prove p l a n t growth b u t may a l s o increase t h e t o l e r a n c e herbaceous p l a n t s . I r o n i c a l l y , young t r e e seed1 i n g s
o f v e g e t a t i o n o f a c i d c o n d i t i o n s . Mays and Bengtson and d i r e c t seeded t r e e s a r e o f t e n b e t t e r a b l e t o s u r -
c i t e t h e c a r e l e s s placement o f s u l phur-bearing o v e r - v i v e on n u t r i e n t d e f i c i e n t s p o i l s because t h e competi-
burden as t h e most common cause of surface s o i l a c i d i t y t i o n from vigorous grasses, e t c . on f e r t i l e s o i l s i s mor
on unreclaimed s i t e s . But i n these cases, a d d i t i o n s o f i n t e n s e . Elsewhere i n t h i s Handbook, i t i s noted t h a t
l i m e t o c o r r e c t t h e s i t u a t i o n i s o n l y a temporary e f f o r t s t o e s t a b l i s h t r e e s and herbaceous cover t o g e t h e r
measure as f u r t h e r o x i d a t i o n of t h e r e s i d u a l p y r i t e by d i r e c t seeding have n o t been very successful (see
w i l l again lower pH values. The mine o p e r a t o r may f i n d Sheets 7:13 and 7:14) I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o j u s t i f y main-
i t u s e f u l t o a c q u i r e a small pH meter f o r c a r r y i n g o u t tenance f e r t i l i z e r programs on t h e b a s i s o f f u t u r e timbet
s p o t checks on r e p l a c e d s p o i l on t h e s i t e t o i n s u r e y i e l d s on s i t e s r e s t o r e d f o r f o r e s t r y . And so, i f t h e
t h a t t h e pH i s w i t h i n t h e d e s i r e d range. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , post-mining l a n d use i s planned t o be commercial f o r e s t r j
t h e simple c o l o r i m e t r i c meters a r e n o t very r e l i a b l e , c o n s i d e r a b l e c a r e should be taken i n t h e c h o i c e o f b o t h
b u t w i t h experience i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e r e s u l t s , t h e y t r e e species and herbaceous species. I n some cases,
can be q u i t e u s e f u l . choice o f a leguminous t r e e w i t h some t i m b e r value
11. FERTILIZERS (e.g. European A l d e r f o r p u l p ) may be a p p r o p r i a t e . I n
Severe d e f i c i e n c i e s i n some p l a n t n u t r i e n t s , p a r - o t h e r cases, i t has been found t h a t t h e legume Sericea
t i c u l a r l y n i t r o g e n and phosphorous, a r e common on mine lespedeza p r o v i d e d s u f f i c i e n t n i t r o g e n f o r newly t r a n s -
s p o i l s and a r e more l i k e l y t o be a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r t o p l a n t e d l o b l o l l y p i n e s on a s i t e where 90 l b s . / a c r e
p l a n t growth than h i g h a c i d i t y on many s i t e s . Because (1 00 kglma) o f n i t r o g e n o u s f e r t i l i z e r would have o t h e r -
n i t r o g e n i s more r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e t o p l a n t s i n s o i l s wise been necessary. ( 1 ) S o i l sampling t o determine
w i t h a h i g h o r g a n i c c o n t e n t and because l i t t l e n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r needs i s a v e r y i m p r e c i s e science. Although
i s p r e s e n t i n overburden, mine s p o i l s a r e e s p e c i a l l y t h e c o s t o f f e r t i l i z e r i s low compared w i t h o t h e r
susceptible t o nitrogen deficiencies The Regulations requirements o f reclamation, t h e f e r t i l i z e r p r i c e s a r e
r e q u i r e t h e replacement o f t o p s o i l which w i l l , t o some r i s i n g r a p i d l y . Recommendations should be o b t a i n e d
e x t e n t , improve t h e o r g a n i c c o n t e n t o f t h e s o i l and based on samples and a n a l y s i s , b u t observant and r e -
w i l l c o n t a i n some n u t r i e n t s and, p r o b a b l y most impor- sponsive c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n a r e needed, e s p e c i a l l y on
t a n t l y , s o i l microorganisms, b u t f e r t i l i z e r w i l l a l s o be s i t e s w i t h h i g h l y v a r i a b l e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s and
necessary. The Regulations r e q u i r e s o i l amendments overburden types
C816.251 as i n d i c a t e d by t h e s o i l requirements. Mays and Bengtson n o t e t h a t f e r t i l i z e r c o s t s f o r r e c l a -
Phosphorous (P) i s commonly d e f i c i e n t on r e c l a i m e d mation s i t e s a r e u s u a l l y $16 - $32/acre ($40-$80/ha)
s i t e s and i s i m p o r t a n t d u r i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f and a r e small compared t o t h e c o s t s of b a c k f i l l i n g and
p l a n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r legumes. P i s n o t e a s i l y l o s t r e g r a d i n g (1978 c o s t s ) .
from t h e s o i l and one a p p l i c a t i o n i s n o r m a l l y s u f f i c i e n t
w i t h o u t subsequent maintenance a p p l i c a t i o n s . A p p l i c a -
t i o n r a t e s a r e n o r m a l l y 35 l b s -71 l b s . / a c r e (40 t o 80
kgslha).
N i t r o g e n (N) i s a l s o commonly d e f i c i e n t on reclaimed
s i t e s ; however, u n l i k e P, i t i s h i g h l y mobile i n t h e
s o i l and i s e a s i l y leached Maintenance a p p l i c a t i o n s
o f N are almost c e r t a i n t o be r e q u i r e d t o keep p l a n t s
growing v i g o r o u s l y unless t h e r e are p l e n t y o f legumes
p r e s e n t i n t h e v e g e t a t i o n capable of f i x i n g atmospheric
nitrogen F o r t u n a t e l y , N d e f i c i e n c y i s easy t o i d e n t i f y
i n p l a n t s which a r e u s u a l l y p a l e and y e l l o w i s h and can
be c o r r e c t e d r a p i d l y w i t h an a p p l i c a t i o n o f f e r t i l i z e r .
I n i t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s o f N are n o r m a l l y 45 l b s . -
90 l b s . / a c r e (50-100 kg/ha) ( 1 ) .
Potassium (K) i s s u f f i c i e n t on most r e c l a m a t i o n
s i t e s f o r p l a n t growth. I t i s u s u a l l y contained i n t h e
s o i l and produced d u r i n g weathering. Generally, i t i s
o n l y i n cases where p l a n t m a t e r i a l s a r e harvested t h a t
K i s l o s t from t h e system i n q u a n t i t i e s t h a t r e q u i r e
rep1 acemen t.
Mays and Bengtson n o t e t h a t d e f i c i e n c i e s o f micro- F i g u r e 1 Source: S o i l Service, Inc., Denton, MU.
n u t r i e n t s i s r a r e l y a problem ( 1 )

7
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1 [SOIL AMENDMENT'S - LIME AND FERTILIZER HANDBOOK
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I MEASURES RECLAMATIOIi AND REVEGETATION SMALL MINE

OPERATORS
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- - -

Mays, D.A. and Bengtson, G.W., 1978, "Lime and F e r t i l i z e r Use i n Land Reclamation i n Humid Regions," Proc.
Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands Symp., Schal l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds.), ASA, CSSA, Madison, W I .
Ashby, W.C. e t a l . , Apr 1979, "Geochemical F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g P l a n t Growth i n Reclamation," Weeds, Trees and
Turf.
USDA S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e (Maryland),
. - J u l y 1975, "Standard and Specs f o r C r i t i c a l Area P l a n t i n g ( S t r i p
Mined Areas i n Western Maryland)."
Smith, R.M. e t a l . , 1974, "Mine S p o i l P o t e n t i a l s f o r S o i l and Water Q u a l i t y , " C o l l e g e o f A g r i c u l t u r e & Foresty,
West V i r g i n i a U n i v e r s i t y , EPA 67012-74-070-
Palasso, A.J. and Duel1 , R.W., Sep-Oct 1974, "Responses o f Grasses and Legumes t o S o i l pH," Agronomy Journal 66.
S k e l l y and Loy, October 1973, "EPA Processes, Procedures and Methods t o C o n t r o l P o l l u t i o n from M i n i n g A c t i v i t i e s ,
EPA 43019-73-011.
Powell, J.L. e t a l . , Oct 1977, "The S t a t e o f t h e A r t o f Reclaiming Land Surface-Mined f o r Coal i n t h e Western
Kentucky Coal F i e l d , " Proc. F i f t h Symposium on Surface M i n i n g & Reclamation, NCA/BCR, L o u i s v i l l e , KY.
Vogel, W.G., 1975, "Requirements and Use o f F e r t i l i z e r s , Lime and Mulch f o r V e g e t a t i n g Acid-Mine S p o i l s , "
Vol. 2 Proc. Symp. on Surface M i n i n g and Reclamation, 3rd, L o u i s v i l l e , KY.

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SOIL AMENDMENTS SEWAGEEFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
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- - OPERATORS - -

PROBLEM & PURPOSE

The growth of v e g e t a t i o n on r e c l a i m e d mine s i t e s can be some o r g a n i c a c i d s which have been found t o i n h i b i t
improved by i n c r e a s i n g t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r i n t h e s o i l t h e a c t i v i t y o f two o f t h e b a c t e r i a i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r o -
(which increases t h e water h o l d i n g and t h e c a t i o n ex- d u c t i o n o f s u l f u r i c a c i d from i r o n p y r i t e . These a r e
change c a p a c i t y o f t h e s o i l ) . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e T h i o b a c c i l l u s f e r r o o x i d a n s and T. t h i o o x i d a n s . Sewage
when u s i n g s e l e c t e d overburden m a t e r i a l s as t o p s o i l sub- e f f l u e n t which i s s l i g h t l y a l k a l i n e (pH 6.8 t o 7.2) can
s t i t u t e s which w i l l be completely devoid o f o r g a n i c be a p p l i e d w i t h , o r s e p a r a t e l y from, sewage sludge. (6)
m a t t e r and most s o i l micro-organisms. A d d i t i o n s o f The use o f sewage sludge appears t o have tremendous
sewage sludge can i n c r e a s e t h e amount o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r p o t e n t i a l i n t h e r e c l a m a t i o n o f orphan mine land. T h i s
i n t h e s o i l , p r o v i d e some o f t h e necessary micro- i s a l s o t h e case f o r s u r f a c e mine o p e r a t i o n s which a r e
organisms, and a source o f n u t r i e n t s f o r p l a n t growth conducted i n con j u n c t i o n w i t h r e c l a m a t i o n o f orphan l a n d
( a t o n o f sludge s o l i d s m i g h t c o n t a i n 30-40 l b s o f where i t may be necessary t o supplement t h e a v a i l a b l e
ammonium n i t r o g e n , 50 l b s o f o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n , 40-100 t o p s o i l w i t h a t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e . Sewage sludge can
I
l b s of ~. h o s. o h o r u s ) . Sewage sludge w i l l a l s o c o n t a i n be u s e f u l i n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e s .
I
APPLICABILITY
l ~ r o v i d i nt h~e v a r i o u s pre-mining s t u d i e s show t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f sludge from i n d u s t r i a l areas a r e n o t I
l d i s o o s a l o f sewaqe sludqe on reclaimed s i t e s i s f e a s i b l e recomnended because o f t h e o o s s i b i l i t v o f heavv metal I
and' t h e a p p r o v a l - o f the-RA can be obtained, t h e d i s p o s a l b u i l d u p i n t h e s o i l . The cbmposi t i o n V o f sludges i s
o f sewage sludge on r e c l a i m e d mine s i t e s i s a p p l i c a b l e h i g h l y v a r i a b l e and so c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s and m o n i t o r i n g
t o most areas; however, i t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t o p e r a t o r s i s necessary.
meet Federal and S t a t e e f f l u e n t r e g u l a t i o n s . Because S i t e s planned f o r long-term a p p l i c a t i o n o f sewage
o f h i g h haulage costs, a d i s p o s a l s i t e w i l l have t o be sludge must be w e l l drained, b u t a p p l i c a t i o n must
Ireasonably c l o s e t o t h e treatment works. Repeated n o t r e s u l t i n p o l l u t i o n o f groundwater. I

o f sewage sludge. ow ever, i t should be n o t e d t h a t standards which cover n u t r i e n t s and s o i l amendments r e -

S e c t i o n 816.42 r e q u i r e s t h a t a l l discharges o f water q u i r e t h a t n u t r i e n t s and s o i l amendments a r e a p p l i e d
from areas d i s t u r b e d by s u r f a c e m i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s s h a l l i n t h e amounts determined by t h e s o i l t e s t s . I n s o f a r
be i n compliance w i t h a l l Federal and S t a t e laws and as sewage sludge w i l l c o n t a i n some of t h e r e q u i r e d
regu:ations. And a t a minimum, t h e water q u a l i t y n u t r i e n t s , i t may be t h a t t h e RA w i l l p e r m i t a p p l i -
e f f l u e n t l i m i t a t i o n s s e t o u t i n t h i s Section must be c a t i o n o f say N and P as sewage sludge and o t h e r nu-
met. Therefore, i f any runoff of sewage e f f l u e n t occurs t r i e n t s i d e n t i f i e d as being necessary i n t h e form o f
o r r u n o f f o f storm water which i s p o l l u t e d by sewage artificial fertilizer.
sludge, i t must meet t h e q u a l i t y standards o f S e c t i o n
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
11. SLUDGE CONTENT e f f l u e n t i s a l s o l i m i t e d by t h e c o s t o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
The c o n t e n t o f sewage sludge i s h i g h l y v a r i a b l e , and and t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y t o cease a p p l i c a t i o n d u r i n g wet
i t w i l l be necessary t o base a p p l i c a t i o n s upon a n a l y s i s weather c o n d i t i o n s . I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f cases, t h e r e -
o f t h e sludge and of t h e s o i l t o be t r e a t e d . The p r o - f o r e , long-term d i s p o s a l o f sewage e f f l u e n t on r e -
p o r t i o n o f N:P:K and t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f v a r i o u s heavy claimed mine s i t e s w i l l o n l y be f e a s i b l e where t h e
metals a r e t h e most i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s which must be s i t e i s c l o s e t o t h e t r e a t m e n t works where storage
determined. A p o t e n t i a l l y t o x i c l e v e l o f heavy metal i s f a c i l i t i e s can be provided, where a p p l i c a t i o n s w i l l
sometimes found i n i n d u s t r i a l sludge, though t h i s problem n o t r e s u l t i n p o l l u t i o n o f s u r f a c e o r groundwater
i s n o t l i k e l y t o be s e r i o u s unless repeated a p p l i c a t i o n s and where post-mining l a n d uses w i l l p r e v e n t t h e
o f sewage sludge a r e made. A t y p i c a l N:P:K a n a l y s i s b u i l d u p o f excessive n u t r i e n t s i n t h e s o i l .
f o r m u n i c i p a l sludges quoted by Halderson and Zenz i s 111. HAULAGE
5:2.5:0.4 (1). A c o r n c r o p u t i l i z e s 168:28-34:39 (by Only on s i t e s c l o s e t o a t r e a t m e n t works w i l l t h e
w e i g h t ) . Therefore, if sludge i s used t o supply t h e c o s t o f sewage sludge be s u f f i c i e n t l y low t o j u s t i f y
n i t r o g e n demand, t h e phosphorous requirement w i l l be u t i l i z a t i o n . U s u a l l y i t w i l l be t r a n s p o r t e d by t a n k e r
exceeded considerabley, b u t potassium w i l l s t i l l be de- and o n l y where d i s p o s a l s i t e s a r e v e r y l a r g e w i l l r a i l
f i c i e n t and t h e potassium ( K ) would have t o be made up haulage be f e a s i b l e . Sewage sludge can be shipped
w i t h a r t i f i c i a l f e r t i l i z e r . I t should be noted, however, l i q u i d ( l e s s than 12% s o l i d s ) o r d r y (more than 30%
t h a t much o f t h e n u t r i e n t i s i n o r g a n i c form and t h e s o l i d s ) . The use o f d r y sludge i s g e n e r a l l y more
r a t e a t which i t becomes a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p l a n t i s d i f - feasible f o r smaller operation.
f i c u l t t o estimate. so i t i s n o t o o s s i b l e t o be o r e c i s e I V . STORAGE & SPREADING
about supplemental - f e r t i 1i z e r requirements. L i q u i d sludge has up t o 12% s o l i d s . The weather
.
111 FEASIBILITY and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s f o r spreading sludge a r e n o t always
Because o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f spreading 1 i q u i d sludge r i g h t , and unless an o p e r a t o r can g e t d e l i v e r i e s o n l y
and t h e need t o cease spreading o f sludge d u r i n g wet when weather and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s a r e c o r r e c t (which i s
weather, i t may be necessary f o r t h e o p e r a t o r t o have u n l i k e l y , as t r e a t m e n t p l a n t managers a r e faced w i t h
s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s on s i t e which may n o t be f e a s i b l e on continuous o u t p u t ) s t o r a g e f a c i 1i t i e s w i l l be needed
s m a l l e r s i t e s . D r i e d sludge ( s o l i d s c o n t e n t 30% o r on s i t e . These a r e u s u a l l y e a r t h s t r u c t u r e s b u t a r e
g r e a t e r ) i s more f e a s i b l e f o r t h e s m a l l e r o p e r a t o r t o n e v e r t h e l e s s expensive. I n a d d i t i o n , s o l i d s w i l l t e n d
use as i t can be r e a d i l y s t o c k p i l e d , p r o v i d i n g any r u n - t o s e t t l e when sludge i s s t o r e d which makes h a n d l i n g
o f f from t h e p i l e i s n o t a l l o w e d t o discharge i n t o a more d i f f i c u l t . Handling o f t h e l i q u i d sludge i s d i f f i -
waterway. U s u a l l y i t can be handled u s i n g a f r o n t - e n d c u l t and r e q u i r e s e i t h e r s p e c i a l machinery o r i r r i g a t i o n
l o a d e r and an a g r i c u l t u r a l manure spreader. The ease o f equipment. Or i t r e q u i r e s a v e r y p r e c i s e ground shap-
h a n d l i n g d r i e d sludge w i l l depend p a r t l y on t h e t y p e o f i n g t o g i v e an even d i s t r i b u t i o n by o v e r l a n d f l o w .
t r e a t m e n t and dewatering. D i f f i c u l t i e s i n hand1 i n g Probably t h e s m a l l e r o p e r a t o r would c o n s i d e r u s i n g 1 i q u i c
sludge may make u t i l i z a t i o n uneconomical. sludge o n l y when 1 ) t h e treatment p l a n t w i l l d e l i v e r wher
The f e a s i b i l i t y o f long-term u t i l i z a t i o n o f sewage s p e c i f i e d and i n t a n k e r s equipped w i t h a spreading systen
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
:probably a tank-type i n j e c t o r ) , o r
!) when the s i t e i s olanned f o r lona-
;ern, sludge d i s p o s a l ' a s an approved4
)ost-mining land-use, when i t may be
:conomically f e a s i b l e t o i n s t a l l the
lecessary storage and d i s t r i b u t i o n
iystems.
'here a r e t h r e e major ways of spread-
ng l i q u i d sludge:
1. Overland flow. In t h i s
technique, l i q u i d sludge i s re-
leased from a gated pipe a t the
top of the slope and i s allowed
t o flow above ground over care-
f u l l y graded and c u l t i v a t e d
land. Generally, slopes of l e s s
than 15% can be t r e a t e d i n t h i s
way i f the objective i s only t o
e s t a b l i s h vegetation. Agricul-
t u r a l machinery i s used b u t pre-
c i s e c u l t i v a t i o n patterns a r e
required along the contour t o
insure good d i s t r i b u t i o n of
sludge.
2. I n j e c t o r s o r Incorporators.
Various i n j e c t o r s (usina eauio-
a
ment r a t h e r s i m i l a r t o
plow) and incorporation discs
chisel

(using an adaptation of a g r i c u l -
t u r a l d i s c s ) a r e used t o in-
corporate sludge d i r e c t l y i n t o
the s o i l . This reduces runoff.
I n j e c t o r s can be used where grass
cover has already been estab-
lished. The equipment i s expen-
s i v e and would be used on small
s i t e s only i f attached t o the
delivery tanker. Figures 1 , 2
and 3 show examples of i n j e c t i o n
equipment. In Figure 1 , the IME
tanker and sludge a p p l i c a t o r , in
Figure 2 , the "Big Wheels" a p p l i -
c a t o r , and in Figure 3, Biscroe
Maphis a p p l i c a t o r . The Big
Wheels I n j e c t o r i s capable of
i n j e c t i n g 600 gals-800 gals/min
a t depths of 6 in-8 in of speeds
u p t o 6 mph. This i n j e c t o r has
a 3-knife c o l t e r desiqn and a new
diesel u n i t has a 5-knife desian. -.
3. I r r i g a t i o n Systems. various
i r r i g a t i o n systems have been used
t o apply sewaqe sludqe. Nozzles
must be- a s u f f i c i e n t - s i z e t o prevent clogging. I t
may be f e a s i b l e f o r small ooerators t o s e t U D oer-
manent i r r i g a t i o n and storage systems on s i t e s ' w h e r e
the approved post-mining use of the land i s f o r
long-term disposal of sludge. For short-term d i s -
posal, sludge will be pumped d i r e c t from the tanker.
t i l i z a t i o n of s o l i d sludge (more than 30% s o l i d s ) i s
uch more practical f o r the small operation. Spreading
s simpler and can usually be c a r r i e d out with conven-
ional a g r i c u l t u r a l equipment and storage presents no
roblems. However, dried sludge may not be r e a d i l y
v a i l a b l e . I f i t i s , the RA may approve application
f sludge p r i o r t o the spreading of topsoil on re-
raded s i t e s though i t i s more usual to apply sludge
f t e r topsoiling.
. PROBLEMS
1. Runoff - The operator must be careful t o min-
imize the amount of runoff contaminated with sludge
which leaves the s i t e . All runoff leaving surface

SOIL AMENDMENTS - SEWAGE EFFLUtNT AND SLUDGE SMALL MINE

OPERATORS
101
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
mine s i t e s i s s u b j e c t t o Federal and S t a t e e f f l u e n t 4. Groundwater - N i t r o g e n i s t h e most m o b i l e
requirements and s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e requirements n u t r i m tthe s o i l and may p e r c o l a t e t o some
o f S e c t i o n 816.42. T h i s may be d i f f i c u l t f o r op- depth. T h i s i s u n l i k e l y to-pose problems on
e r a t o r s i n steep and mountainous t e r r a i n . Sludge most s u r f a c e mine s i t e s .
which i s a p p l i e d w i t h an i n j e c t o r i s l e s s l i k e l y 5. Seed Germination - was found t o be i n h i b i t e d
t o cause r u n o f f problems. by heavy a p p l i c a t i o n s of sewage sludge on some t e s t
2. Heavy Metals - Sewage sludge from i n d u s t r i a l i z e d sites.
areas may c o n t a i n h i g h l e v e l s o f heavy metals and 6. Composition - t h e composition of sludge i s
t h e r e has been concern t h a t t h i s can cause t o x i c i t y h i g h l y v a r i a b l e and t h e n u t r i e n t s i n sludge a r e n o t
i n p l a n t s and a l s o may be taken up by animals. i n t h e balance as u t i l i z e d by p l a n t s ; t h e r e f o r e ,
T h i s problem may have been over-emphasized i n t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s must be remedied by a r t i f i c i a l f e r t i l -
past, b u t t h e h i g h r i s k w a r r a n t s caution, and many .
iz e r s
S t a t e s have g u i d e l i n e s f o r l a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f V I . LEGAL
sludge. Sewage sludge w i t h h i g h heavy metal con- The US EPA has p u b l i s h e d g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e use of
c e n t r a t i o n s should n o t be a p p l i e d t o s p o i l a t pH sewage sludge f o r l a n d a p p l i c a t i o n . Most s t a t e s have
lower than 6.5 as a c i d s p o i l c o n d i t i o n s i n c r e a s e e i t h e r l e g i s l a t i o n o r guide1 i n e s f o r l a n d a p p l i c a t i o n
heavy metal a v a i l a b i l i t y t o p l a n t s . o f sludge, and b o t h EPA o f f i c e s and t h e S t a t e d i v i s i o n s
3. Odor - i s u n l i k e l y t o be a problem when sludge o f n a t u r a l resources o r environmental p r o t e c t i o n should
has been w e l l s t a b i l i z e d ; however, even i n t h e be c o n t a c t e d p r i o r t o u s i n g sludge treatment. I n addi-
absence o f odor, complaints may be r e c e i v e d if t i o n , t h e RA must be approached t o determine t h e i r r u l -
sludge i s used near r e s i d e n t i a l p r o p e r t y . i n g on t h i s o p e r a t i o n .

I
REFERENCE -
( 1 ) Halderson, J.L. and Zenz, D.R., 1978, "The Use o f M u n i c i p a l Sewage Sludge i n Reclamation o f S o i l s , " Proc.
Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands, Schal l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds. ) , ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, W I .
(2) E a r l , T.A., June 1976, " S t r i p M i n i n g R e s t o r a t i o n Through S o l i d Waste Disposal," S o c i e t y o f M i n i n g Engineers,
AIME, 260.
( 3 ) Sopper, W.E. e t a l . , 1976, "Reclamation o f A n t h r a c i t e Coal Refuse Using T r e a t e d M u n i c i p a l Wastewater and Sludge,"
Penn S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , I n s t i t u t e f o r Research on Land and Water Resources.
( 4 ) Lejcher, T.R., Mar 1973, " U t i l i z i n g Treated M u n i c i p a l Wastes f o r S t r i p Mine Reclamation," M i n i n g Engineering.
( 5 ) Sopper, W.E. and Kardos, L.T., Oct 1972, "Municipal Wastewater Aids Revegetation o f S t r i p Mined S p o i l Banks,"
Journal o f F o r e s t r y .
( 6 ) DNR, Wisconsin, 1975, "Guide1 i n e s f o r A p p l i c a t i o n o f Wastewater Sludge t o A g r i c u l t u r a l Land i n Wisconsin,"
Department o f N a t u r a l Resources, Technical B u l l e t i n 88, Madison, W I .
( 7 ) Hines, T.D. e t a l . , 1974, " A g r i c u l t u r a l B e n e f i t s & Environmental Changes R e s u l t i n g from t h e Use o f Digested
Sludge on F i e l d Crops," Metropol i t a n S a n i t a r y D i s t r i c t o f Greater Chicago, EPA PB-236-402.

7 1 RECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION HANDBOOK

FOR
SOIL AMENDMENTS - SEWAGE EFFLUENT AND SLUDGE
SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
102
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7' [RECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION I HANDBOOK

u
I

MEASURES

PROBLEM & PURPOSE

SOIL AMENDMENTS - FLY ASH

F l y ash, a waste p r o d u c t from c o a l - b u r n i n g power p l a n t s ,

has been used t o improve t h e t e x t u r e and t h e water-
FOR
SMALLMINE
OPERATORS El
orphan l a n d and i n p r o v i d i n g t r e a t m e n t f o r t o p s o i l sub-
s t i t u t e s . I n these s i t u a t i o n s , due t o t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n
h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y o f s p o i l o r c o a l refuse, t o r a i s e t h e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f b o t h f l y ash and s p o i l , each
pH o f a c i d s p o i l , and t o reduce t h e s u r f a c e temperature a p p l i c a t i o n must be i n d i v i d u a l l y planned and w i l l r e q u i r e
o f coal r e f u s e by l i g h t e n i n g i t s c o l o r . It may be es- s p e c i f i c approval from t h e RA. T h i s makes t h e p r a c t i c e
p e c i a l l y u s e f u l i n s i t u a t i o n s where t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no u n a t t r a c t i v e t o most o p e r a t o r s .
t o p s o i l a v a i l a b l e f o r reclamation, i.e., i n r e c l a i m i n g
APPLICABILITY
T h i s p r a c t i c e i s a p p l i c a b l e f o r use i n r e c l a i m i n g most i n g orphan l a n d where t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no t o p s o i l
s u r f a c e m i n i n g s i t e s b u t o n l y as a " o n e - o f f " o p e r a t i o n . available f o r reclamation.
I t appears t o have s p e c i a l p o t e n t i a l f o r use i n r e c l a i m -
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
S e c t i o n 816.25 ( T o p s o i l : N u t r i e n t s and s o i l amendments) F l y ash may a l s o be used t o g e t h e r w i t h f e r t i l i z e r ,
makes no r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p o s s i b l e use of f l y ash. " S o i l p r o v i d i n g t h a t i t s chemical c o n s t i t u e n t s are known.
amenqhnents i n t h e amounts determined by s o i l t e s t s s h a l l T h i s r e q u i r e s approval of t h e RA.
be a p p l i e d t o t h e r e d i s t r i b u t e d s u r f a c e s o i l l a y e r . "
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
(Due t o t h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f b o t h s p o i l and f l y ash, u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h low pH values.
' PROCEDURE
l o r e c i s e a u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e use o f f l v ash i n r e c l a i m i n a
k u r f a c e i i n e s p o i l s cannot be given.- Each case r e -
- Before c a r r y i n g o u t any f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s on t h e
q u i r e s s o i l t e s t s and a n a l y s i s b e f o r e a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s use o f f l y ash d u r i n g r e c l a m a t i o n process, t h e
can be f i x e d and b e f o r e p l a n t species and f e r t i l i - RA should be approached t o determine t h e i r p o l i c y .
z e r s can be recommended. Hence, t h e p r a c t i c e w i l l n o t I t i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t where small mine o p e r a t o r s
be a t t r a c t i v e t o t h e s m a l l e r o p e r a t o r unless i t has a r e p l a n n i n g t h e r e c l a m a t i o n o f orphan l a n d i n con-
been s u c c e s s f u l l y used on s i t e s immediately a d j a c e n t j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e i r s u r f a c e m i n i n g operations, t h e
which have s i m i l a r overburden c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . RA w i l l b e r e c e p t i v e t o suggestions f o r t h e use o f
F l y ash d i s p o s a l i s a roblem a t c o a l - f i r e d power v a r i o u s s o i l a d d i t i v e s such as f l y ash and sewage
s t a t i o n s and v e r y l i t t y e a t p r e s e n t i s u t i l i z e d ( o n l y sludge t o improve t h e q u a l i t y and a v a i l a b i l i t y of
about 10% o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n ) . I t was e s t i m a t e d ( 3 ) suitable topsoil substitutes.
t h a t i n t h e e a r l y 1980's c o a l - f i r e d g e n e r a t i n g s t a t i o n s F i n d o u t i f any f i e l d t e s t s have been c a r r i e d o u t i n
w i l l be producing 40 m i l l i o n tons o f f l y ash annually, t h e area on s i t e s which have s i m i l a r overburden
t h e b u l k o f which i s t r a n s p o r t e d t o waste d i s p o s a l characteristics.
areas. The m a t e r i a l i s a v a i l a b l e f r e e o r f o r a min- A s o i l a n a l y s i s must be c a r r i e d o u t t o determine a t
imal charge a t t h e power s t a t i o n , b u t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n l e a s t t h e w a t e r - h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y , pH, f e r t i l i z e r r e -
c o s t s r u l e o u t f l y ash use unless t h e power s t a t i o n quirements, and t h e t e x t u r e o f b o t h s p o i l and s o i l
i s c l o s e t o t h e s i t e . I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t , as a (most o f these a r e r e q u i r e d by t h e R e g u l a t i o n s ) .
s u b s t i t u t e f o r limestone, approximately 10 times as Ash must be analyzed t o determine i t s p o s s i b l e e f -
much f l y ash may be r e q u i r e d ; hence, t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f e c t on t h e s p o i l i n c l u d i n g i t s pH, t e x t u r e , chem-
c o s t s a r e v e r y high. Of course i f t h e mine i s supply- i c a l c o n t e n t and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f any l i k e l y t o x i n s .
i n g t h e coal t o t h e power p l a n t , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s Haulage from t h e power s t a t i o n must be arranged,
can be minimized t h e o r e t i c a l l y as coal t r u c k s can p r e f e r a b l y as a back-haul arrangement i n coal t r u c k s .
r e t u r n loaded w i t h f l y ash t o t h e mine s i t e . Capp Spreading w i l l u s u s a l l y be c a r r i e d o u t w i t h a dozer
notes t h a t t h e f l y ash p r o d u c t i o n o f Ohio, Pennsylvania, o r f r o n t - e n d l o a d e r o r a grader i f a v a i l a b l e . The
West V i r g i n i a , and Kentucky amounts t o o v e r 7 m i l l i o n t h i c k n e s s w i l l v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y according t o t h e
tonslyear (1 ). r e s u l t s o f s p o i l and ash t e s t s .
F l y ash i s generated from b u r n i n g coal. I t i s m o s t l y Good m i x i n g o f t h e f l y ash w i t h t h e s p o i l o r r e f u s e
f i n e m a t e r i a l (1 - 5 0 ~i n diameter). I n c o n t a i n s compounds i s e s s e n t i a l and i s n o r m a l l y c a r r i e d o u t w i t h farm
o f s i l i c o n , aluminum, i r o n and calcium, b u t a l s o a wide machinery, p l o w i n g o r d i s k i n g u s u a l l y s e v e r a l times
range o f o t h e r compounds and many t r a c e elements, i n - o r r o t o - t i l l ing.
c l u d i n g those e s s e n t i a l f o r p l a n t growth ( e x c e p t n i t r o g e n ) The amount o f f e r t i l i z e r and t h e t y p e o f f e r t i l i z e r
( 1 ) . The b e n e f i t s o f u s i n g f l y ash i n c l u d e : w i l l v a r y from s i t e t o s i t e and w i l l depend upon
1. Improving t h e w a t e r - h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e s p o i l 1a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s i s . Capp (1 978) ( 1 ) recomnends
and hence i n c r e a s i n g t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f water t o t h a t g e n e r a l l y , a minimum o f 1,000 1b s l a c r e o f 10:
plants; 10:lO a n a l y s i s f e r t i l i z e r be used.
2. R a i s i n g t h e pH o f a c i d s p o i l though n o t a l l f l y Seeding o f herbaceous species o r grass i s u s u a l l y
ash i s s u f f i c i e n t l y a l k a l i n e t o g i v e a s i g n i f i c a n t c a r r i e d o u t w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l machinery o r w i t h a
improvement. pH values o f ash used i n Bureau o f hydroseeder. T h i s should be done i n e a r l y s p r i n g
Mines experiments however were m o s t l y o v e r 11 ( 1 ) . o r f a l l f o r b e s t r e s u l t s . The seed mix shown i n
3. Reducing t h e s u r f a c e temperatures o f dark c o l o r e d Table 1 has been found by Capp t o be successful ( 1 ) .
s p o i l s and coal r e f u s e which may s e r i o u s l y i n h i b i t Note t h a t i t c o n t a i n s 1 legume (Lotus c o r n i c u l a t u s ) .
p l a n t growth. F l y ash w i l l l i g h t e n t h e c o l o r o f t h e T h i s mix was u s u a l l y a p p l i e d a t t h e r a t e o f 46 l b s /
s p o i l and cause more r e f l e c t i o n o f heat from t h e a c r e (52 kg/ha) and mulching i s recommended ( 1 ) .
surface. I n o t h e r f i e l d experiments i n r e v e g e t a t i n g unre-
The i n c o n s i s t e n c y o f r e s u l t s i n v o l v i n g t h e use o f f l y ash claimed s u r f a c e mine s p o i l s , 8 grasses and 7 legumes
i s t h e most s e r i o u s problem i n recommending i t s f u t u r e were t r i e d o u t on a s p o i l w i t h a pH o f 2.5-3.0. Fly
use, p a r t i c u l a r l y on h i g h l y v a r i a b l e s p o i l s . F l y ash ash was a p p l i e d a t t h e r a t e o f 600 t o n s l a c r e produc-
a l s o c o n t a i n s much h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t r a c e e l e - i n g a s p o i l w i t h a pH o f 3.5-4.5 and a 10:10:10
ment than a r e found i n s o i l , y e t w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f f e r t i l i z e r a t 800 l b s l a c r e was a p p l i e d . S u r v i v a l o f
some s i g n s o f boron and aluminum t o x i c i t y , n e i t h e r p l a n t s Kentucky 31 fescue, rye, redtop, o r c h a r d grass and
n o r animals were s e v e r e l y a f f e c t e d i n t e s t s ( 1 ) . Cases b i r d s f o o t t r e f o i 1 o c c u r r e d i n s c a t t e r e d patches. Two
o f h i g h uptake o f aluminum by p l a n t s causing t o x i c i t y i s hundred t o n s / a c r e more f l y ash a p p l i e d r e s u l t e d i n
-
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED) -- - - --

s p o i l w i t h pH values o f 6.7-7.0 ( t h e pH o f t h e f l y (TABLE 2)

ash i n t h i s case was 9.9). I t was n o t e d t h a t n o d i l e SURVIVAL OF TREE SPECIES ON MINE SPOIL TREATED WITH
formation on t h e r o o t s of t h e b i r d s f o o t t r e f o i l FLY ASH
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t s n i t r o g e n f i x i n g c a p a c i t y , had S u r v i v a l Rate
Species
s i g n i f i c a n t l y improved w i t h a d d i t i o n o f f l y ash. ( 3 growing seasons)
(TABLE 1 ) Crab Apple .. .
. . . (Malus s p . ) 100%
[ECOMMENDED SEED MIX FOR UNRECLAIMED SPOILS TREATED WITH
FLY ASH Red Oak . . . . . . .. (Quercus b o r e a l i s ) 67%
Species % by Weight European A l d e r . . . (Alnus g l u t i n o s a ) 58%
Scotch Pine .... . (Pinus s y l v e s t r i s ) 58%
:entucky 31 Fescue.. . (Festuca arundinaceae) 35
Norway Spruce ... (Picea abies) 50%
ledtop Grass . . ... . ( A g r o s t i s a1 ba) 14
Black Walnut . .. . (Juglans n i g r a ) 50%
lrchard Grass .. .. (Dactyl i s glomerata) 18
Source: (1)
!ye Grass .. ... .. (Lo1 ium perenne) 28 TABLE 3
, i r d s f o o t T r e f o i l . . .. (Lotus c o r n i c u l a t u s ) 5 COST OF UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH IN RECLAIMING SURFACE
MINE SPOILS ( a )
ource: ( 1 )
0. Trees p l a n t e d on s i t e s t h a t were t r e a t e d w i t h f l y ash Item Cost/Acre Cost/ ha.
had a h i g h f a i l u r e r a t e i n experiments c a r r i e d o u t by F l y ash ( b ) $187.65 $463.68
t h e Bureau o f Mines and t h e U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e (1).
The cause o f t h e h i g h f a i l - u r e r a t e i s n o t c o n c l u s i v e Spreading and r i p p i n g ( c ) 178.07 440.00
b u t p r o b a b l y was n o t due t o t h e h i g h a c i d i t y o f t h e F e r t i l i z e r (d) 75.00 185.33
s p o i l . I t i s more l i k e l y t o have been due t o a
chemical i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e ash and t h e s p o i l Seed ( e ) 26.53 65.56
p o s s i b l y a f f e c t i n g t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of t r a c e elements. F e r t i l i z e r and Seeding 16.50 40.77
However, a f t e r a p e r i o d of 5 years, s u r v i v a l was good
and i t i s l i k e l y t h a t weathering and l e a c h i n g o f t h e
t r e a t e d s p o i l was l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e improved
s u r v i v a l . Species w i t h s u r v i v a l r a t e s h i g h e r than TOTAL $498.75 $1,232.41
50% a f t e r t h r e e growing seasons a r e shown i n Table 2. Source: (1)
I. COSTS ( a ) Land a c q u i s i t i o n , Grading and S u p e r v i s i o n n o t i n c l ud-
he c o s t s o f u s i n g f l y ash i n r e c l a i m i n g a d i f f i c u l t ed.
2-acre (25-ha s i t e ) by t h e Dept. o f N a t u r a l Resources ( b ) 133 t o n s / a c r e (336 tons/ha) a t d e l i v e r e d c o s t 10
n West V i r g i n i a a r e shown i n Table 3 ( 1 ) . Capp notes m i l e s (16 km) from power s t a t i o n a t $1.08/ton ( f l y
h a t f l y ash f o r t h i s p r o j e c t was o b t a i n e d f r e e o f ash p r o v i d e d a t no c o s t ) ; $0.27/ton l o a d i n g fee.
harge. Because of t h e c o s t o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , t h e ( c ) 8.1 machine hours/acre (20 hrs/ha) a t $22/hour.
o s t of u t i l i z i n g f l y ash w i l l v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y from ( d ) 1,000 l b s / a c r e (1,120 kg/ha) o f 10:10:10 f e r t i l i z e r .
i t e t o s i t e . Operators must t h e r e f o r e a d j u s t t h e c o s t s ( e ) 46 l b s / a c r e (52 kg/ha) seed mix.
hen u s i n g Table 3.

I ) Capp, J.P., 1978, "Power P l a n t F l y Ash U t i l i z a t i o n f o r Land Reclamation i n t h e Eastern U n i t e d States," Proc.
Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands Symp., Schal l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds. ) , ASA, CSSA, Madison, W I .
!) Adams, L.M. e t a l . , Apr 1971, "Reclamation of A c i d i c Coal Mine S p o i l w i t h F l y Ash," Report on an I n v e s t i g a t i o n
7504, U.S. Dept. o f t h e I n t e r i o r , Bureau o f Mines.
1
$) Capp, J.P. and Adams, L.M., 1971 "Reclamation of Coal Mine Wastes and S t r i p S p o i l w i t h F l y Ash," Morgantown
Energy Research Center, Bureau o f Mines, Morgantown, WV.

1-
MEASURES
RECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION

SOIL AMENDMENTS - FLY ASH

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OPERATORS
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105
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11 RECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION I HANDBOOK
FOR

PROBLEM & PURPOSE

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o p r o t e c t seeded areas d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d from r a i n impact and reduce s o i l c r u s t f o r m a t i o n ( 2 ) .
o f seed g e r m i n a t i o n and growth. When t h e s o i l surface i s Mulches i n t e r c e p t and d i s p e r s e much o f t h e r a d i a n t energy
h i g h l y s u s c e p t i b l e t o e r o s i o n and d r y i n g o u t , mulches r e - of sunshine and t h e k i n e t i c energy o f r a i n f a l l . They
duce erosion. They reduce e v a p o r a t i o n and i n c r e a s e s o i l a l s o reduce e v a p o r a t i o n from t h e s o i l s u r f a c e so i n -
m o i s t u r e a v a i l a b i l i t y t o young p l a n t s ; a l s o , t h e y modify c r e a s i n g t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f water p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r small
temperature extremes a t t h e s o i l surface. Mulches p r o - seedlings. Mulches reduce t h e v e l o c i t y o f r u n o f f and
v i d e a small amout o f p l a n t n u t r i e n t s upon decomposition. hence i t s e r o s i v e c a p a c i t y .
Cover crops (Sheet 7 : l l ) o r mulch w i l l p r o t e c t t h e s o i l
APPLICABILITY
The use o f mulches i s a p p l i c a b l e (and i s r e q u i r e d by t h e more r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e and cheaper.
R e g u l a t i o n s ) t o a l l s u r f a c e mine s i t e s . There a r e many On h i g h l y e r o d i b l e s i t e s (steep o r l o n g s l o p e s ) , mulches
mulch m a t e r i a l s which can be used depending on t h e a v a i l - a r e e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n a c h i e v i n g e f f e c t i v e vegeta-
a b i l i t y i n t h e area and t h e p r i c e . I n a g r i c u l t u r a l areas t i o n cover w i t h o u t erosion. The use o f mulches i s p a r -
i n t h e c e n t r a l coal province, s t r a w and hay w i l l p r o b a b l y t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n t h e r e c l a m a t i o n o f orphaned l a n d
be t h e most r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . But i n Appalachia, where when t h e growing c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e s p o i l may be extremely
many t i m b e r o p e r a t i o n s e x i s t , wood bark and c h i p s may be
- u n f a v o r a b l e t o p l a n t growth.
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
The Regulations s p e c i f i c a l l y r e q u i r e mulching d u r i n g c h e m i c a l l y anchored t o t h e s o i l s u r f a c e [816.114(b)].
t h e r e v e g e t a t i o n process on a l l s i t e s as p a r t o f Cover crops can a l s o be used, alone o r i n c o n j u n c t i o n
S e c t i o n 816.114. (Revegetation: Mulching and o t h e r w i t h another mulch, i f approved by t h e RA (see Sheet
S o i l S t a b i l i z i n g P r a c t i c e s ) " S u i t a b l e mulch and o t h e r 7 : l l ) and chemical s o i l s t a b i l i z e r s can a l s o be used i n
s o i l s t a b i l i z i n g p r a c t i c e s s h a l l be used on a l l r e - c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h v e g e t a t i v e covers approved f o r t h e
graded and t o p s o i l e d areas t o c o n t r o l e r o s i o n , promote post-mining l a n d use [816.114(d)].
g e r m i n a t i o n o f seeds, o r i!crease t h e m o i s t u r e - r e t e n - S e c t i o n 816.114 does n o t s p e c i f y a minimum amount o f
t i o n capacity o f the s o i l . I t should be n o t e d t h a t mulch t h a t must be used. T h i s i s because i t was f e l t
t h e RA may suspend t h e requirements f o r mulch i f i t t h a t t h i s should be l e f t t o t h e d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e RA
can be demonstrated t h a t mulching i s n o t r e q u i r e d . The t o s p e c i f y on a s i t e - t o - s i t e b a s i s because of t h e
RA may a l s o r e q u i r e t h e mulch t o be m e c h a n i c a l l y o r w i d e l y d i f f e r i n g needs f o r mulch on d i f f e r e n t s i t e s .
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
(Mulches a r e u s u a l l y o r g a n i c waste m a t e r i a l s (straw, t h a t w i t h no mulch. The ~ h o t o q r a ~ h( sF i q u r e 1 ) show
>ark, e t c . ) b u t may a l s o o c c a s i o n a l l y be i n o r g a n i c mulch r a t e s as t h e y appeared f o l l o w i n g 5' (12.7 cm) of
n a t e r i a l s . Spread o v e r t h e s u r f a c e o f bare s o i l s , t h e y i n t e n s e s i m u l a t e d r a i n f a l l ( 6 ) . The e f f e c t o f t h e straw
promote r a p i d and e f f e c t i v e growth o f v e g e t a t i o n by mulch r a t e on e r o s i o n and r u n o f f v e l o c i t y i s i n d i c a t e d
reducing e r o s i o n and by r e d u c i n g t h e l o s s o f m o i s t u r e i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e . The s o i l i s unplowed Fox loam
from t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e s o i l (where young p l a n t s a r e w i t h a s l o p e o f 15% and l e n g t h o f s l o p e 35.1 f t (10.7 m)
r o o t e d ) . They a l s o m o d i f y extremes i n t h e s u r f a c e tem- TABLE 1
p e r a t u r e o f t h e s o i l which i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t d u r i n g t h e EROSION RATES & RUNOFF VELOCITIES FOR VARIOUS RATES
germination o f seed. Mulches should be a p p l i e d w i t h OF STRAW MULCH
a d d i t i o n a l f e r t i l i z e r s as the b a c t e r i a which break down
the mulch m a t e r i a l w i l l u t i l i z e much o f t h e n u t r i e n t i n Mulch r a t e Erosion Velocity
t h e s o i l and p l a n t s may s u f f e r as a r e s u l t . P a r t i a l l y tons/ac m. tons/ha tons/ac m. tons/ha f t / s e c cm/sec
r o t t e d mulch w i l l n o t cause t h i s problem. A g r i c u l t u r a l 24.9 62.3 0.46 13.9
0 0
and f o r e s t ~ r o d u c tresidues a r e t h e most commonly used 0.2 0.56 8.0 20.1 0.23 7.1
mulches. 0.45 1.12 7.8 19.4 0.23 6.9
I. AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES
Straw and hay a r e p r o b a b l y t h e most w i d e l y used mulches 0.9 2.24 4.6 11.5 0.18 5.6
i n t h e U n i t e d States. Other a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s i d u e s i n - 1 .i! 4.48 1 .O 2.5 0 0
c l u d e peanut h u l l s , mushroom compost, and c o r n cobs. 3.6 8.98 0.6 1.5 0 0
The use w i l l depend p r i n c i p a l l y on a v a i l a b i l i t y i n each Source: ( G )
area. A g r i c u l t u r a l r e s i d u e mulches a r e 1 i k e l y t o be *Averaqe f o r p l o t s e c t i o n from 12.5' (3.81111 t o
c o n s i d e r a b l y more expensive than f o r e s t p r o d u c t r e s i d u e s
i n h i l l t e r r a i n . Hay and straw w i l l p r o b a b l y be de-
l i v e r e d i n bales, e i t h e r standard b a l e s o r b i g bales.
The l a t t e r can be handled w i t h a f r o n t - e n d l o a d e r b u t
spreading may be more expensive w i t h o u t s p e c i a l i z e d
equipment. Straw and hay a r e chopped b e f o r e a p p l i c a -
t i o n i f a hydroseeder i s used. They should be a p p l i e d
a f t e r t h e area has been seeded and f e r t i l i z e d and should
be ' c r i m p e d ' i n t o t h e ground w i t h a d i s k (mechanical
anchoring may be r e q u i r e d by t h e RA). Sometimes a s p h a l t
o r a chemical s t a b i l i z e r i s sprayed o v e r t h e mulch t o
h o l d i t i n p l a c e d u r i n g windy c o n d i t i o n s . The e f f e c -
t i v e n e s s o f s t r a w mulch was demonstrated i n experiments
on steep slopes u s i n g s i x d i f f e r e n t a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s .
Rates o f o n l y 0.2 tons/ac (0.56 m tons/ha) and 0.45 tons/
ac (1.12 m tons/ha) reduced s o i l l o s s t o l e s s than 1 / 3 o f
t h a t from unmulched areas d u r i n g a s e r i e s o f i n t e n s e
s i m u l a t e d r a i n f a l l s . 0.90 tons/ac (2.24 m tons/ha) de-
creased s o i l l o s s t o 17% o f t h e l o s s w i t h no mulch and 2. 24 MT/hr 4.48 M T h 8.96 M T / L
1 . 8 tons/ac (4.48 m tons/ha) and 3.6 tons/ac (8.96 m F i g u r e 1. Mulch r a t e s as t h e y appeared f o l l o w i n g 5"
tons/ha) reduced i t t o l e s s than 5%. Runoff v e l o c i t y (12.7 cm) o f i n t e n s e simulated r a i n f a l l . Photographs
was ;lowed by 0.22 tons/ac (0.56 m tons/ha) t o h a l f of taken near to^ o f ~ l o t s . (Source: 5 ) .
lo6
 ihredded-chipped v e g e t a t i o n i s h i g h l y s u i t a b l e f o r o p e r -
I t i o n s i n s t e e p f o r e s t e d t e r r a i n where c l e a r a n c e o f
r e g e t a t i o n i s made n e c e s s a r y b y t h e R e g u l a t i o n s w h i c h
. e q u i r e t o p s o i l t o be removed. Even when t h e s i t e i s
ogged f o r saw t i m b e r o r p u l p , t h e r e w i l l b e c o n s i d e r -
~ b l eamounts o f s l a s h and d e b r i s w h i c h can be c h i p p e d
~ n de i t h e r a p p l i e d i m m e d i a t e l y t o contemporaneous r e -
: l a m a t i o n a r e a s o r s t o c k p i l e d f o r f u t u r e use. P l a s s
~ o t e st h a t t h e c o n c e r n shown i n t h e p a s t o v e r t o x i n s
n hardwood b a r k s has been over-emphasized and t h a t i t
s an e x c e l l e n t mulch. Woodchips and sawdust may cause
iemporary n i t r o g e n d e f i c i e n c i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e y
I r e f r e s h . P a r t i a l l y r o t t e d woodchips and sawdust a r e
referred as t h e y t e n d t o be w a t e r l o g g e d and l e s s sus-
: e p t i b l e t o be b e i n g blown away. I f s u s c e p t i b l e t o wind,
: h i p s o r b a r k mulches may be s p r a y e d w i t h a s p h a l t o r a
:hemica1 s t a b i l i z e r . Bark m u l c h was f o u n d t o g i v e
l e t t e r p r o t e c t i o n t h a n s t r a w a g a i n s t s o i l e r o s i o n on ( 2 a ) and a s t r a w mulched p l o t ( 2 b ) a f t e r 4 months o f
i t e e p s l o p e s ( F i g u r e 2 ) . There was s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r "inter weather- Source: (5)
. e v e g e t a t i o n on b o t h p l o t s w i t h s t r a w o r b a r k m u l c h t h a n
,n t h e unmulched c o n t r o l p l o t s . i s s i m i l a r l y a p p l i e d . A p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s a r e f r o m 0.45
-0 s p r e a d b a r k o r c h i p s q u i c k l y , s p e c i a l i z e d equipment t o n s / a c (1,120 kg/ha) and 0.67 t o n s / a c (1,680 kg/ha).
s n e c e s s a r y w h i c h may reduce t h e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f B o t h m a t e r i a l s a r e a p p l i e d w i t h a c o l o r dye w h i c h h e l p s
:hese m a t e r i a l s . B u t f a c e d w i t h c o n t i n u o u s a v a i l a b i l i t y t h e o p e r a t o r j u d g e t h e evenness of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n .
;nd a s s u r e d s u p p l y of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s , i t may b e w o r t h - Neyerheuser recommends a minimum r a t e o f ~ e l l ~ l 0 S e
l h i l e t o purchase equipment o r t o a d a p t an o l d farm manure f i b e r m u l c h o f 1,200 l b s / a c r e on s l o p e s f l a t t e r t h a n
i p r e a d e r f o r t h e purpose. P l a s s s u g g e s t s t h a t a p p l i c a t i o n l v : 4 h o r 1,500 - 2,000 l b s / a c r e on s t e e p e r s l o p e s ( 7 ) .
-ate5 o f 29-50 cu y d s / a c (56-94 c u i n / h a ) g i v e s adequate Hydroseeder c o n t r a c t o r s w i l l have e x p e r i ~ n c ei.,itll t h e s e
n - o t e c t i o n on most s i t e s ( 1 ) . The r e s u l t s o f some e x p e r - r i i a t e r i a l s. Truck-mounted hydroseeders c o v e r 20 a d l o a d ,

REFERENCE
1 ) P l a s s , W.T., 1978, "Use o f Mulches and S o i l S t a b i l i z e r s f o r Land R e c l a m a t i o n i n t h e E a s t e r n U.S. ," Proc. o f
t h e R e c l a m a t i o n o f D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands Symp., S c h a l l e r , F.W. and S u t t o n , P., (Eds.), ASA, CSSA, SSSA.
2 ) Gardner, H.R. and Wool h i s e r , D.A., 1978, " H y d r o l o g i c and C l i m a t i c F a r c t o r s , " Proc. o f t h e R e c l a m a t i o n of
D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands Symp., S c h a l l e r , F.W. and S u t t o n , P., ( E d s . ) , ASA CSSA SSSA, Madison, W I .
3 ) D a v i s , H., J u l y 1977, " S p e c i a l i z e d T o o l s f o r F i n a l Touches," Coal Age, pp. 112-118.
4 ) S o i 1 C o n s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e - M a r y l a n d , J u l y 1975, "Standards and S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r C r i t i c a l Area o f P l a n t i n g
( S t r i p - M i n e d Areas i n Western M a r y l a n d ) ," USDA SCS, C o l l e g e P a r k , MD.
5 ) S a r l e s , R.L. and Emanuel, D.M., Sep-Oct 1977, "Hardwood Bark Mulch f o r R e v e g e t a t i o n and E r o s i o n C o n t r o l on
D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d S i t e s , " J o u r n a l o f S o i l & Water C o n s e r v a t i o n .
6) Meyer, L.D., e t a l . , 1970, "Mulch Rates R e q u i r e d f o r E r o s i o n C o n t r o l on Steep Slopes," S o i l Science S o c i e t y of
America Proceedings, Vol 34. .
7) Weyerhaeuser Company, Box B, Tacoma, WA ( S i l v a - F i b e r m u l c h ) .
8 ) Vogel, W.G., 1975, "Requirements and Use o f F e r t i l i z e r , Lime and Mulch f o r V e g e t a t i n g A c i d - M i n e S p o i l s , "
N a t i o n a l Coal A s s o c i a t i o n S u r f a c e M i n i n g and R e c l a m a t i o n Symposium 111, V o l . 2.

HANDBOOK
FOR
I MEASURES
II MULCHES
I SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
7 11 RECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION I. HANDBOOK
FOR
CHEMICAL STABILIZERS SMAUMINE
OPERATORS
PROBLEM & PURPOSE
The purpose o f s o i l s t a b i l i z e r s i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e use o f chemical b i n d e r s o r s t a b i l i z e r s i n
o f mulches, i.e., t o p r e v e n t e r o s i o n and sometimes hydroseed mixes i s normal p r a c t i c e by most c o n t r a c t o r s .
improve c o n d i t i o n s f o r seed g e r m i n a t i o n and growth. G e n e r a l l y o p e r a t o r s would n o t be advised t o use chemical
They cause s o i l p a r t i c l e s t o adhere t o one another s t a b i l i z e r s alone unless successful r e s u l t s have been
f o r m i n g a c r u s t which can be p e n e t r a t e d by w a t e r and o b t a i n e d i n s i m i l a r near-by s i t u a t i o n s o r unless a
g e r m i n a t i n g seedlings. The use o f s o i l s t a b i l i z e r s i s manufacturer i s prepared t o c a r r y o u t t r i a l t e s t s on t h e
a comparatively new technique and n o t w e l l proven, site.
APPLICABILITY
A p p l i c a b l e t o a l l s u r f a c e m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n s where agent. T h i s i s v a l u a b l e f o r windy s i t e s and f o r
t h e use o f mulch i s a p p r o p r i a t e b u t g e n e r a l l y should be anchoring l i g h t mulches on steep s i t e s where anchoring
used i n combination w i t h an o r g a n i c mulch, as a b i n d i n g w i t h a d i s k harrow i s n o t f e a s i b l e .
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
Chemical s o i l s t a b i l i z e r s a r e p e r m i s s i b l e f o r use [816.114(d)]. Although t h e Regulations p e r m i t t h e use
i n r e v e g e t a t i n g reclaimed s u r f a c e mined s i t e s under o f chemical s t a b i l i z e r s alone, research r e s u l t s do n o t
S e c t i o n 816.114 o f t h e performance standards. "Chemical appear t o i n d i c a t e c o n c l u s i v e l y t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s ,
s o i l s t a b i l i z e r s alone, o r i n combination w i t h appro- and use as a b i n d e r o r " t a c k " i n combination w i t h a
p r i a t e mulches, may be used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h vege- chopped straw, bark, woodchip o r o t h e r v e g e t a t i v e mulch
t a t i v e covers approved f o r post-mining l a n d use" may be more r e l i a b l e .

r a t i o n o f r a i n water i n t o t h e s o i l n o r should t h e y ~ ~ ~ l i c a t rate; i o n vary considerably f o r d i f f e r e n t

e s t r i c t t h e emergence o f seed1 i n g s a f t e r germination. products and f o r d i f f e r e n t s o i l c o n d i t i o n s . I n a l l cases
ormation o f t o o dense a c r u s t may be h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e t h e manufacturers recomnendations, supplemented w i t h data
n e r o s i o n c o n t r o l y e t p r e v e n t emergence o f seedlings. from any l o c a l f i e l d t r i a l s , should be used. I n most
oo t h i n a c r u s t may n o t be e f f e c t i v e i n c o n t r o l l i n g cases i t i s suggested t h a t small o p e r a t o r s should use
rosion. more t r a d i t i o n a l and more proven p r a c t i c e s unless r e c l a -
S o i l s t a b i l i z e r s e i t h e r penetrate the s o i l , forming mation i s b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t by c o n t r a c t o r s .
s u r f a c e c r u s t , o r t h e y form a t h i n f i l m o v e r t h e s o i l A h e l i c o p t e r system named t h e hydrospyder was de-
u r f a c e . They have v a r i a b l e d u r a b i l i t y , g e n e r a l l y de- veloped by Amcem Products, Inc., w i t h Pennline S e r v i c e
omposing a f t e r s e v e r a l months. They t e n d t o be r a t h e r Inc., S c o t t d a l e , PA. I t uses a chemical mulch ( H y v e t r o l
o s t l y and t h e i r performance under t h e h i g h l y v a r i a b l e by Amcem) w i t h f e r t i l i z e r and seed i n c l u d e d i n t h e mix.
ondi t i o n s o f s u r f a c e mine s i t e s ( e s p e c i a l l y on orphaned Coverage was good i n d i f f i c u l t t e r r a i n and t h e o p e r a t i o n
l i n e l a n d ) i s d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t . I n t h e absence o f was c a r r i e d o u t extremely q u i c k l y ( 2 ) . The h i g h c o s t
e l i a b l e l o c a l f i e l d t r i a l s o f t h e product, o p e r a t o r s p e r g a l l o n f o r h e l i c o p t e r a p p l i c a t i o n makes t h e use o f
h o u l d r e q u e s t manufacturers t o c a r r y o u t f i e l d t e s t s chemical s t a b i l i z e r s more economic than u s i n g o r g a n i c
n the product i n order t o evaluate the effectiveness mu1ches.
nd determine a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s , e t c . Research o f f i c e s Reinco I n d u s t r i e s o f P l a i n f i e l d , NJ, used a b i n d e r -
f l a r g e r m i n i n g companies may a l s o be a source of good t a c k c a l l e d t e r r a - t a c h which i s mixed w i t h wood f i b e r
o c a l d a t a on t h e use o f s o i l s t a b i l i z e r s . mulch and seed and sprayed t o g e t h e r w i t h hydroseeding
U n l i k e mulches, s o i l s t a b i l i z e r s , f e r t i l i z e r s and equipment.
eed can be a p p l i e d i n one o p e r a t i o n u s u a l l y u s i n g a EFFECTIVENESS OF SOIL STABILIZERS I N FIELD TRIALS
ydroseeder. Plass a l s o notes t h a t s t a b i l i z e r s h e l p t o
educe seed l o s s due t o s u r f a c e r u n o f f as t h e y a r e h e l d I n f i e l d t r i a l s , i t was found t h a t s t a b i l i z e r s were
n p l a c e u n t i l g e r m i n a t i o n occurs (1). Chemical s o i l n o t necessary f o r v e g e t a t i o n e s t a b l i s h m e n t and t h a t i n a
t a b i l i z e r s a r e sometimes used t o spray on mulches t o number o f cases g e r m i n a t i o n was i n h i b i t e d . Sediment l o s s
o l d them i n place. A s p h a l t emulsion i s a l s o c l a s s i f i e d however was reduced i n some cases b u t s o i l s t a b i l i z e r s
s a chemical s o i l s t a b i l i z e r . I t s use i s f a i r l y w e l l were n o t more e f f e c t i v e t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l mulches. These
roven b o t h as a t a c k f o r o r g a n i c mulches, and as a experiments were recorded by Plass and compared vegeta-
o i l s t a b i l i z e r . Wood f i b e r o r c e l u l o s e mulch may be t i o n e s t a b l i s h m e n t and e r o s i o n l o s s f o l l o w i n g t h i r t y
e r y e f f e c t i v e l y combined w i t h a chemical s o i l s t a b i l i z e r treatments w i t h v a r i o u s mulches and t w e l v e s o i l s t a b i -
n d a p p l i e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h a hydroseeder. T h i s i s l i z e r s (3).

..L. -..-..--
( 1 ) Plass, W.T., 1978, "Use of Mulches and S o i l S t a b i l i z e r s f o r Land Reclamation i n t h e Eastern U n i t e d States,"
Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands Symp., Schal l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds.), ASA, CSSA, SSSA.
( 2 ) Davis, H., J u l y 1977, " S p e c i a l i z e d Tools f o r F i n a l Touches," Coal Age, pp. 112-118.
( 3 ) Plass, W.T., 1972, "Chemical S o i l S t a b i l i z e r s f o r Surface Mine Reclamation," N o r t h e a s t e r n F o r e s t Experimental
S t a t i o n , Princeton, WV.
( 4 ) Weid, W.W., Feb 1978, "An A n a l y s i s of Procedures, S o i l Mediums and P l a n t Types o f N o r t h Idaho T a i l i n g s Embank-
ments and T a i l i n g ~Pond's ," HECLA M i n i n g Company, Wallace, ID.
lo8
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 FOR
SMALL MINE
l
-
!A
PROBLEM & PURPOSE
OPERATORS I 3
Cover crops a r e used t o g i v e temporary v e g e t a t i o n crops a r e being used t o g i v e r a p i d v e g e t a t i o n e s t a b l i s h -
p r o t e c t i o n t o areas which a r e prone t o e r o s i o n b u t a r e ment on permanently regraded s i t e s , t h e cover c r o p i s
n o t y e t ready f o r permanent r e v e g e t a t i o n , such as tem- b e s t k i l l e d w i t h a h e r b i c i d e a p p l i c a t i o n and t h e perma-
p o r a r y s p o i l p i l e s o r s t o c k p i l e s of t o p s o i l . Many farm n e n t v e g e t a t i o n seeded d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e dead crop,
crops make good temporary cover and l o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l which then a c t s as a mulch. Cover crops on s t o r a g e p i l e s
p r a c t i c e s and e x p e r t i s e can be used. Standard farm o f t o p s o i l may a l s o h e l p t o p r e v e n t n u t r i e n t s b e i n g
machinery can a l s o be used t o p l a n t cover crops and, i f leached o u t o f t h e s o i l d u r i n g t h e s t o r a g e p e r i o d .
a p p r o p r i a t e , h a r v e s t them. However, i n cases where cover
APPLICABILITY
The use of cover crops i s a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l s u r f a c e area a f t e r a p p l y i n q t h e t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e and
mine s i t e s , f o r p r o t e c t i n g t o p s o i l storage p i l e s and necessary s o i l amendments.' I n l a t e summer t h e cover
temporary s p o i l heaps. They a r e a l s o u s e f u l f o r p r o - c r o p i s then d i s k e d i n t o t h e s o i l s u b s t i t u t e and t h e
t e c t i n g areas which have been regraded and t o p s o i l e d b u t permanent v e g e t a t i o n seeded immediately. T h i s
t h e season i s n o t r i g h t f o r seeding permanent v e g e t a t i o n . technique increases t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r i n t h e s o i l
I n t h i s way cover crops enable t h e o p e r a t o r t o meet t h e s u b s t i t u t e m a t e r i a l a; J w i l l a l s o i n d i c a t e any
requirements o f t h e Regulations f o r contemporaneous t r o u b l e spots.
r e c l a m a t i o n even d u r i n g these periods. 4. On s i t e s w i t h h i g h l y v a r i a b l e p h y s i c a l condi-
These measures a r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t i o n s and on orphan l a n d where l i t t l e o r no t o p s o i l
ji t u a t i o n s : i s a v a i l a b l e , cover crops a r e extremely u s e f u l as
1. Where t h e m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n r e s u l t s i n l a r g e i n d i c a t o r crops. They w i l l show up areas where
q u a n t i t i e s o f s p o i l being stored temporarily out- s o i l c o n d i t i o n s a r e n o t f a v o r a b l e f o r p l a n t growth
s i d e t h e p i t . An o p e n - p i t where t h e c o a l i s deep e n a b l i n g s e l e c t i v e measures t o be taken. On
i s an example. orphan l a n d cover crops d i s k e d i n t o t h e s o i l b e f o r e
2. On steep o r h i g h l y e r o d i b l e s i t e s where i t i s seeding permanent v e g e t a t i o n should improve growing
feared t h a t t h e speed o f growth o f a permanent c r o p c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e permanent cover.
may n o t g i v e t h e necessary e r o s i o n p r o t e c t i o n . I n 5. I n some cases, where a s i t e has been regraded
these cases t h e annual cover c r o p may be under- b u t immediate t o p s o i l r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n o t p o s s i -
p l a n t e d w i t h t h e permanent seed mix. b l e , i t may be d e s i r a b l e t o seed a cover c r o p o n t o
3. On s i t e s where t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e s a r e being t h e regraded s p o i l i f i t i s capable o f s u p p o r t i n g
used, a two-step r e c l a m a t i o n may g i v e more r e l i a b l e p l a n t growth.
I
r e s u l t s . A cover crop i s seeded o n t o t h e rearaded
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
11. P r o t e c t i o n o f t o p s o i 1 d u r i n g storage. S e c t i o n 816.23 d i s t u r b e d area s h a l l be seeded o r planted, as con-
requires t h a t topsoil which-is stockpiled temporarily temporaneously as p r a c t i c a b l e . .. w i t h a temporary
i s p r o t e c t e d by an " e f f e c t i v e cover o f nonnoxious cover o f small g r a i n s , grasses o f legumes u n t i l a
quick-growing annual and p e r e n n i a l p l a n t s , seeded o r permanent cover i s e s t a b l i s h e d . "
p l a n t e d d u r i n g t h e f i r s t normal p e r i o d a f t e r removal," 3. The use o f cover crops as a mulch s u b s t i t u t e i s
o r o t h e r methods approved by t h e RA [ 8 1 6 . 2 3 ( b ) ( l ) ( i ) ] . r e f e r r e d t o i n S e c t i o n 816.114 (Revegetation:
C l e a r l y , i f t h e s t o c k p i l e i s t o remain i n p l a c e f o r Mulching and o t h e r s o i l s t a b i l i z i n g p r a c t i c e s ) .
more than one season, p e r e n n i a l v e g e t a t i o n must be "Annual grasses and g r a i n s may be used alone as an
used i n t h e seed mix. Apparently t h e RA may r e q u i r e i n - s i t u mulch o r i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h another mulch,
a cover c r o p t o be seeded a f t e r o n l y a p o r t i o n o f t h e when t h e r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t y determines t h a t t h e y
s t o c k p i l e d m a t e r i a l i s i n p l a c e ''if i t i s r e q u i r e d w i l l p r o v i d e adequate s o i l e r o s i o n c o n t r o l and w i l l
f o r s t a b i l i t y and t o keep i m p o r t a n t n u t r i e n t s from l a t e r be r e p l a c e d by p e r e n n i a l species approved f o r
b r e a k i n g down and l e a c h i n g o u t . " t h e post-mining l a n d use" [816.114(c)]. Note t h a t
2. S e c t i o n 816.113 IReveaetati0n:Timina) s t a t e s t h a t t h e use o f a cover c r o p i n t h i s case must have t h e
I DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
"when necessary t o e f i e c t i v e l ~c o n t r o l erosion, any approval of t h e RA.

Generally, quick-growing annual grasses o r c e r e a l s l i m e d ( 6 ) . I n some cases, where permanent cover i s r e -

a r e used f o r cover crops i n c l u d i n g Rye (Secale c e r e a l e ) , q u i r e d , i n s t e a d o f sowing p e r e n n i a l species w i t h t h e
Wheat ( T r i t i c u m aestivum) , Japanese M i l l e t (Echinochola cover crop, t h e cover c r o p should be seeded f i r s t , then
c r u s g a l li var. frumentacea) and F o x t a i l M i l l e t ( S e t a r i a k i l l e d w i t h h e r b i c i d e and permanent v e g e t a t i o n seeded
i t a l i c a ) ( 1 ) . Often t h e y a r e seeded i n combination w i t h i n t o t h e decaying c r o p u s i n g a c h i s e l plow.
~ e r e n n i a ls ~ e c i e si n which case c a r e should be taken t o
i n s u r e t h a t ' t h e cover c r o p ' s v i g o u r o r shade does n o t Table 1 Reconended Cover Crops (Western Maryland)
s e r i o u s l y i n h i b i t t h e p e r e n n i a l species. Rye has been Above 1800 Below 1800
found t o be t o l e r a n t t o h i g h l e v e l s o f aluminum and Grass Seeding Rate f t eleve
ft elev.
manganese i n t h e s o i l , a common occurrence on s u r f a c e
mine spoi 1s. The Soi 1 Conservation S e r v i c e (Maryland) Italian 40 1bs/acre Mar 15-Sept 1 Mar 15-Aug 1,
recommend t h e f o l l o w i n g seeding r a t e s and p l a n t i n g Rye Grass Aug 1-Aug 15
seasons f o r cover c r o p (Table 1 ) .
The seed should be a p p l i e d u n i f o r m l y w i t h a cyclone Oats 3 bu/acre Mar 15-Sept 1 Mar 15-June 1
seeder, a seed d r i l l , c u l t i p a c k e r o r hydroseeder ( 6 ) .
The use o f w i n t e r wheat as a cover c r o p and i n d i c a t o r Rye 24 bu/acre Mar 15-0ct 1 Mar 15-June 1,
c r o p i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e case study described below. A u ~1-Oct 31
Adequate f e r t i 1i z e r and, where necessary, 1ime Weeping 3 lbs/acre May 1 - J u l y 15
should be a p p l i e d p r i o r t o seedings t o g i v e r a p i d growth, Love Grass
unless s o i l t e s t s i n d i c a t e t o t h e c o n t r a r y . Temporary
seedings should be accompanied by 400 l b s / a c r e o r Source: (6)
10 lbs/1,000 sq. ft. o f 10:20:20 f e r t i l i z e r o r equivalent.
S o i l s which a r e known t o be h i g h l y a c i d i c should be
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
S t u d i e s a t t h e Northeastern F o r e s t r v Exoerimental Germination o f c l o v e r and arasses was e x c e l l e n t and sub-
S t a t i o n showed t h a t , even d u r i n g t h e summer months, sequent y i e l d s were a l s o Results showed t h a t
herbaceous cover can be e s t a b l i s h e d u s i n g sumner annuals f o r a g e legumes on a c i d s p o i l can produce good ground
which enables seeding t o t a k e p l a c e immediately a f t e r cover and y i e l d u s i n g t h i s procedure. I t i s a l s o
r e g r a d i n g and t o p s o i l i n g ( 2 ) . I n B r i t a i n , Germany and promising f o r operations i n v o l v i n g the reclamation o f
some o t h e r coal -producing c o u n t r i e s , r a p i d l y growing orphaned l a n d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h s u r f a c e mine o p e r a t i o n s
legumes and grasses and o t h e r "green manure crops" a r e As an example of t h e use of cover crops t o e s t a b l i s h
grown t o be plowed i n t o t h e s o i l t o i n c r e a s e t h e o r g a n i c v e g e t a t i o n on mine s p o i l s p r i o r t o t h e 1977 A c t t h e f o l -
c o n t e n t and improve t e x t u r e , m o i s t u r e - h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y l o w i n g case i s described. I n r e c l a m a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s
and n u t r i e n t a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h e s o i l p r i o r t o t h e l a n d a f f e c t i n g 6,000 acres o f o l d s p o i l l a n d a t t h e #19 mine
b e i n g u t i l i z e d f o r more i n t e n s i v e t i l l a g e c r o p produc- i n Cherokee County, KS, t h e P i t t s b u r g and Midway M i n i n g
tion. Company seeded t h e s p o i l a f t e r r e g r a d i n g and adding l i m e
A two-step procedure f o r t h e r e c l a m a t i o n o f orphaned and f e r t i l i z e r , w i t h w i n t e r wheat a t 2 bu/acre e x p e c t i n g
l a n d was found t o be successful i n an experiment i n West a y i e l d o f 20 bu/acre. Wheat was grown n o t o n l y f o r t h e
V i r g i n i a t o r e c l a i m an a c i d s p o i l (pH 3.8-4.0). The 2,000-4,000 l b s / a c r e o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r which t h e c r o p
experiment i n v o l v e d seeding Rye w i t h f e r t i l i z e r i n r e t u r n s t o t h e s o i l . I t was a l s o an i n d i c a t o r c r o p t o
September and i n May t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r t h e Rye was show up any t r o u b l e spots which needed s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t
k i l l e d w i t h h e r b i c i d e and 1.5 tons/acre (3.8 m. tonnes/ha) on t h e s i t e . A f t e r t h i s t h e company f i n a l i z e d t h e d r a i n -
o f d o l o m i t e 1imestone and 45:94: 111 l b s l a c r e (56: 118: age, touched up any rough spots and f i n a l l y p l a n t e d t h e
s i t e w i t h permanent grass species (3).

REFERENCE
( 1 ) Plass, W.T., 1978, "Uses of Mulches and S o i l S t a b i l i z e r s f o r Land Reclamation i n t h e Eastern US," Reclamation o f
D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands Symp., S c h a l l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., Eds., ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, W I .
( 2 ) Vogel , W.G., Oct 1974, " A l l Season Seeding o f Herbaceous Vegetation and Cover on Appalachian S t r i p Mine S p o i l s . "
Proc. o f t h e Second Research and A p p l i e d Technology Symposium on Mine Land Reclamation, N a t i o n a l Coal Assoc.
( 3 ) C h i r o n i s , N.P. (Ed.), Nov 1975, " I n n o v a t i v e E a r t h Moving Tools Make P & M Coal Reclamation P r o j e c t More
Economical." Coal Aae.- .OD. < , 76-79.
( 4 ) Jones, J.N:, J r . e t a l . , 1975, "A Two-step System f o r Revegetation o f Surface Mine Spoils," Journal o f
Envi ronmental Qua1it y , Volume 4 ( 2 ) .
( 5 ) C u r t i s , W.R., Dec 1971, " V e g e t a t i n g S t r i p - M i n e S p o i l s f o r Runoff and Erosion C o n t r o l ," Proc. o f t h e Revegetation
and Economic Use o f Surface Mined Land and Mine Refuse Symposium, F o r e s t Expt. S t a t i o n , Berea, KY.
( 6 ) S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e (Maryland), J u l y 1975, "Standards and S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r C r i t i c a l Area P l a n t i n g ( S t r i p
Mine Areas i n Western Maryland," USDA, SCS, C o l l e g e Park, MD.

7' I~ECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION HANDBOOK

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I
1I[RCCAMATION AND REVEGETATION 1
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OPERATORS
PROBLEM & PURPOSE
'Much o f t h e adverse impact which s u r f a c e coal m i n i n q has t h a t supports t h e approved post-mining l a n d use." F o r 1
h a d upon w a t e r resources i n t h e p a s t and which orphan areas designated as prime farmland, t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n
l a n d continues t o have upon w a t e r resources i s due t o P a r t 823 apply. Note t h e use o f t h e word " e f f e c t i v e . "
f a i l u r e t o r e v e g e t a t e worked-out areas. T h i s i s taken t o mean t h a t t h e v e g e t a t i o n must b e e f f e c -
S e c t i o n 816.11 1 o f t h e performance standards r e q u i r e s t i v e i n s t a b i l i z i n g t h e regraded s i t e , p r e v e n t i n g e r o s i o n
t h a t each person who conducts s u r f a c e m i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s and r e s t o r i n g t h e h y d r o l o g i c balance. The use o f n a t i v e
" s h a l l e s t a b l i s h on a l l a f f e c t e d l a n d a d i v e r s e , e f f e c - p l a n t species i s a l s o n o t e d and t h e obvious i n t e n t i o n o f
t i v e , and permanent v e g e t a t i v e cover o f t h e same seasonal t h e performance standards i n r e e s t a b l i s h i n g a p l a n t
v a r i e t y n a t i v e t o t h e area o f d i s t u r b e d l a n d o r species comnunity c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e ecology o f t h e l o c a l i t y .
APPLICABILITY
The requirement t o r e v e g e t a t e s u r f a c e mine s i t e s t o land. However, t h e c o n d i t i o n s on s i t e s reclaimed t o
a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l o p e r a t i o n s . There a r e some v a r i a t i o n s t h e performance standards o f t h e new Regulations w i l l
i n t h e Regulations according t o t h e planned p o s t - m i n i n g be f a r s u p e r i o r t o t h e growing c o n d i t i o n s on unre-
l a n d use. claimed mine s p o i l . The s e l e c t i o n o f species which
1 t should be n o t e d t h a t most o f t h e research i n t h e p a s t have some t o l e r a n c e t o t h e severe c o n d i t i o n s o f unre-
has been on t h e r e v e g e t a t i o n o f unreclaimed m i n i n g claimed s p o i l s w i l l tend t o g i v e good r e s u l t s on r e -
s p o i l s , sometimes s p o i l which has had minimal r e g r a d i n g claimed s i t e s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o n d i t i o n s o f t h i n s o i l s ,
b u t almost never w i t h any t o p s o i l a p p l i c a t i o n . The r e - comnon t o Appalachia. I t should be remembered however
s u l t s o f t h i s research t h e r e f o r e have some a p p l i c a b i l i t y t h a t many of t h e species which a r e most successful on
t o t h e r e c l a m a t i o n o f orphan lands and t o s i t e s b e i n q mine s p o i l s a r e n o t n a t i v e s o f t h e U.S.
lworked i n c o n j u n c t i o n wi'th t h e r e c l a m a t i o n o f orphan-
RELEVANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
The performance standards of t h e Regulations a r e v e r y Areas which a r e r e p l a n t e d o n l y t o herbaceous species
s p e c i f i c i n r e s p e c t o f r e v e g e t a t i o n ; Revegetation must must s u s t a i n a ground cover of 70% f o r 5 f u l l consecutive
be c a r r i e d o u t p r o m p t l y and, g e n e r a l l y , species o f t h e years. Areas p l a n t e d w i t h a m i x t u r e o f herbaceous and
same "seasonal v a r i e t y " n a t i v e t o t h e area must be used. t r e e s and shrubs must s u s t a i n a ground cover of 70% f o r
The same "seasonal v a r i e t y " means t h a t i t must c o n s i s t 5 consecutive y e a r s and 400 woody p l a n t s p e r a c r e a f t e r
o f a m i x t u r e o f species comparable t o those n a t u r a l l y 5 years (except on steep slopes wehre 600 woody p l a n t s
o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g each season o f t h e year. The v e g e t a t i v e p e r a c r e a r e r e q u i r e d ) . On s i t e s l a r g e r than 40 acres,
cover must be capable o f s t a b i l i z i n g t h e s o i l from e r o - t h e methods f o r d e t e r m i n i n g success a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y
sion [ 8 l 6 . l l (b)(2)]. Only i f approved by RA may i n - more complex and v a r y w i t h t h e proposed post-mining
troduced species be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r n a t i v e species l a n d use. The use o f " r e f e r e n c e areas" i s r e q u i r e d
C816.1121 and then o n l y a f t e r a p p r o p r i a t e f i e l d t r i a l s a l t h o u g h t h e RA may approve t h e use of o t h e r procedures
have demonstrated t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n . (Technical guidance procedures pub1 ished by USDA on t h e
The requirements t h a t r e v e g e t a t i o n be c a r r i e d o u t prompt- r e v e g e t a t e d area must be equal t o t h e ground cover an!
l y means t h a t i s should be done d u r i n g t k e f i r s t "normal p r o d u c t i v i t y o f p l a n t s on an approved " r e f e r e n c e area
period f o r favorable planting condition. The S e c t i o n c l o s e t o t h e s i t e . When t h i s l e v e l i s achieved a " p e r i -
o f t h e performance standards d e a l i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h o d o f extended r e s p o n s i b i l i t y " begins which l a s t s on a l l
t i m i n g o f r e v e g e t a t i o n [816.113] notes t h a t i t may be s i t e s w i t h more than 26 inches o f r a i n f a l l ( t h o s e covered
necessary t o use a temporary cover c r o p t o achieve a by t h i s Handbook) f o r n o t l e s s than 5 years. A t t h e end
r a p i d cover o f v e g e t a t i o n (see Sheet 7: 11). o f t h i s " p e r i o d o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y " t h e o p e r a t o r w i l l be
As p a r t o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n procedure, a p l a n f o r r e - r e l e a s e d from h i s bond p r o v i d i n g t h e q u a l i t y of t h e veg-
v e g e t a t i o n must be submitted t o t h e RA [780.181. The e t a t i o n remain s a t i s f a c t o r y .
r e v e g e t a t i o n p l a n must i n c l u d e a schedule o f revegeta- S e c t i o n 816.116 does n o t e however t h a t , where p r e v i o u s l y
t i o n w i t h species and amounts p e r a c r e o f seeds and mined lands a r e r e a f f e c t e d by s u r f a c e m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n s ,
s e e d l i n g s t o be used and t h e methods t o be used i n t h e o p e r a t o r may use d i f f e r e n t standards f o r success.
p l a n t i n g and seeding. Any mulching, i r r i g a t i o n , p e s t "As a minimum, t h e ground cover o f l i v i n g p l a n t s s h a l l
o r disease c o n t r o l t h a t i s planned must be s p e c i f i e d ; n o t be l e s s than can be supported by t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e
and a l s o measures proposed t o be used t o determine t h e topsoil o r other suitable materials i n the reaffected
success o f r e v e g e t a t i o n should be noted as p a r t o f t h e area, s h a l l n o t be l e s s than t h e ground cover e x i s t i n g
i n f o r m a t i o n requirements t h a t accompany t h e a p p l i c a t i o n . before r e d i sturbance, and s h a l l be adequate t o c o n t r o l
The RA may a l s o r e q u i r e t h e o p e r a t o r t o submit a de- e r o s i o n " [816.116(b) ( 3 ) ( i ) ] . T h i s S e c t i o n a l s o makes
s c r i p t i o n o f e x i s t i n g p l a n t communities w i t h i n t h e pro- s p e c i f i c allowance f o r s i t e s f o r which t h e proposed post-
posed p e r m i t area and w i t h i n any proposed " r e f e r e n c e m i n i n g l a n d use i s i n d u s t r i a l o r r e s i d e n t i a l and f o r
area." These a r e used as a b a s i s f o r j u d g i n g t h e success s i t e s t o be used f o r c r o p land. S e c t i o n 816.117 d e a l s
of r e v e g e t a t i o n . The methods f o r j u d g i n g t h e success o f w i t h t h e r e v e g e t a t i o n o f l a n d f o r commercial f o r e s t r y .
r e v e g e t a t i o n a r e v e r y s p e c i f i c [816.116]. For permit The e s s e n t i a l requirement o f t h i s s e c t i o n i s t h a t t h e
areas o f l e s s than 40 acres however, t h e methods a r e area s h a l l have a minimum s t o c k i n g o f 450 t r e e s o r
somewhat s i m p l e r ( t h i s o n l y a p p l i e s t o s i t e s w i t h an shrubs p e r a c r e o f which a minimum o f 75% s h a l l be
average annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f more than 26 inches, commercial t i m b e r species.
i.e., a l l areas covered bv t h i s Handbook). r816.116(d)l. - . .-
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
I. RESEARCH RESULTS herbaceous cover u n t i l r e c e n t l y when t h e emphasis o f
Formal research i n t o r e v e g e t a t i o n o f mine s p o i l s has been research has tended t o s h i f t i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n . T h i s
going on i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r a t l e a s t 40 years b u t s h i f t was i n response t o S t a t e sediment and e r o s i o n
t h e emphasis o f e a r l y research was t o i d e n t i f y t r e e c o n t r o l requirements o f s u r f a c e mine s p o i l s . The p r e s e n t
species w i t h a h i g h r a t e o f s u r v i v a l and growth on s u r - Regulations a l s o r e q u i r e herbaceous cover t o c o n t r o l
f a c e mine s p o i l s w i t h l i t t l e o r no r e g r a d i n g o r t o p - erosion; t h e r e f o r e , we can expect a c o n t i n u e d emphasis
s o i l i n g and minimal a d d i t i o n s o f f e r t i l i z e r o r lime. on t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f herbaceous cover i n research i n
Vogel notes i n h i s summary of r e c l a m a t i o n research t h a t t h e near f u t u r e .
v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n was p a i d t o t h e establishment o f I n a d d i t i o n t o c o n t r o l l i n g e r o s i o n and sedimentation,
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
( e f f e c t i v e revegetation also w i l l help t o restore the ~ h o r u sa v a i l a b i l i t v on mine s o o i l s ( 7 ) .
he adverse i m p a c t " 0 f compaction and consol i d a t i o n on
I h y d r o l o g i c balance. Mining w i l l t e n d t o cause an i n -
crease i n t h e peak f l o w r a t e i n streams d r a i n i n q t h e
mine s i t e . Two-five t i m e s t h e volume o f pre-mining
t h e s u r v i v a l and growth o f t r e e species was demon-
s t r a t e d i n experiments i n Kansas, I l l i n o i s , and
peak f l o w s may be expected i n moderate1y steep t e r r a i n . M i s s o u r i . Besides having a much b e t t e r s u r v i v a l and
Vogel notes t h a t one F o r e s t S e r v i c e study showed t h a t growth, t h e r e was a g r e a t e r and more r a p i d accumula-
peak runoff r a t e s were c u t i n h a l f by t e r r a c i n g and t i o n o f p l a n t l i t t e r and improvement o f s o i l c o n d i t i o n s
r e v e g e t a t i o n (1 ). on ungraded p l o t s . A good herbaceous and shrub under-
Because approval i s r e q u i r e d from t h e RA i f i n t r o d u c e d s t o r y was observed on ungraded p l o t s b u t n o t on graded
species a r e t o be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r n a t i v e species, some p l o t s (8).
o f t h e research c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e p a s t on t h e r e l a t i v e 111. COVER CROPS
growth and s u r v i v a l o f i n t r o d u c e d species on mine The use o f cover crops may be necessary where prompt
s p o i l s w i l l n o t be r e l e v a n t . However, on s i t e s t h a t seeding o f p e r e n n i a l v e g e t a t i o n i s n o t p o s s i b l e (see
have been p r e v i o u s l y a f f e c t e d by m i n i n g and i n cases Sheet 7 : l l ) . However, t h e use o f cover crops i s n o t
where combined s u r f a c e m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n s and reclama- l i m i t e d t o s i t u a t i o n s where a q u i c k v e g e t a t i o n cover
t i o n o f orphan l a n d i s t a k i n g place, t h i s research w i l l i s r e q u i r e d . Cover crops, k i l l e d w i t h h e r b i c i d e be-
be o f value. f o r e seeding, and permanent v e g e t a t i o n o r cover crops
11. FACTORS AFFECTING SURVIVAL AND GROWTH OF VEGETATION plowed i n t o t h e s u r f a c e s o i l can s i g n i f i c a n t l y improve
ON SURFACE MINE SITES growing c o n d i t i o n s f o r permanent v e g e t a t i o n . These
The f a c t o r s which a f f e c t t h e s u r v i v a l and growth o f veg- management methods a r e p r a c t i c e d w i d e l y on r e c l a m a t i o n
e t a t i o n on reclaimed mine s i t e s w i l l change d r a m a t i c a l l y s i t e s i n B r i t a i n and Western Germany which a r e t o be
when r e g r a d i n g and t o p s o i l i n g occur. The major f a c t o r s used f o r a g r i c u l t u r e as a post-mining l a n d use. On
l i m i t i n g p l a n t growth and s u r v i v a l on unreclaimed mine s i t e s t o be reclaimed f o r a g r i c u l t u r e t h e c r e a t i o n o f
s p o i l s a r e t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s p o i l s , t h e pH and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s by such management p r a c t i c e s i s impor-
n u t r i e n t a v a i l a b i l i t y , and a l s o t h e water a v a i l a b i l i t y tant.
i n t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e s p o i l . A f t e r r e g r a d i n g and top- I V . COMPETITION BETWEEN HERBACEOUS AND TREE SPECIES
s o i l i n g , t h e main f a c t o r s l i m i t i n g growth w i l l p r o b a b l y Work i s b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e N o r t h e a s t F o r e s t Ex-
i n c l u d e s o i l compaction and drainage. C l e a r l y , t h e perimental S t a t i o n a t Berea, KY, t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e
f a c t o r s which a r e i m p o r t a n t on unreclaimed s p o i l s a r e e f f e c t of c o m p e t i t i o n of herbaceous species on t h e
n o t n e a r l y as s e r i o u s on regraded and t o p s o i l e d s i t e s . s u r v i v a l o f t r e e s . I t has been found t h a t t h e e f f e c t
The slope c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l p r o f o u n d l y a f f e c t t h e of c o m p e t i t i o n was t o reduce growth of t r e e s considera-
chances o f s u r v i v a l o f v e g e t a t i o n . T h i s i n c l u d e s b o t h b l y b u t n o t t h e s u r v i v a l r a t e . Experiments w i t h a l t e r -
t h e steepness of t h e s l o p e and t h e aspect of t h e slope. n a t e s t r i p s o f grasses and legumes 5.25' wide (1.6 m)
Steep, south-facing slopes w i l l be v e r y much warmer and and h y b r i d p o p l a r c u t t i n g s 3 ' wide (0.9 m) a r e a l s o i n
d r i e r than n o r t h - f a c i n g slopes. T h i s can be e a s i l y progress, and t h e s u r v i v a l and srowth o f t h e p o p l a r s
observed by t h e r e l a t i v e s u r v i v a l o f v o l u n t e e r p l a n t have been found t o be good (1 ) .-
growth on n o r t h - and s o u t h - f a c i n g slopes on orphan land. V. NATIVE SPECIES
Even on s i t e s where t h e o p e r a t o r meets a l l t h e r e - I t has been mentioned t h a t t h e performance standards
g r a d i n g and t o p s o i l i n g requirements o f t h e new Regula- r e q u i r e t h a t n a t i v e species be used unless i n t r o d u c e d
t i o n s , t h e r e a r e l i k e l y t o be d i f f i c u l t spots where species a r e s p e c i f i c a l l y approved by t h e RA. I n t h e
v e g e t a t i o n f a i l s . These a r e u n l i k e l y t o be t h e r e s u l t case o f herbaceous species, t h e o p e r a t o r may have some
o f one f a c t o r b u t o f a complex o f i n t e r a c t i n g f a c t o r s , d i f f i c u l t y i n o b t a i n i n g seed which g i v e s a reasonable
causing t h e f a i l u r e . On p a r t i c u l d r l y d i f f i c u l t s i t e s , d i v e r s i t y o f p l a n t m a t e r i a l s . The t o p s o i l s t r i p p e d and
i t may be a p p r o p r i a t e t o grow a quick-growing i n d i c a t o r r e d i s t r i b u t e d w i l l c o n t a i n seeds o f species p r e v i o u s l y
c r o p (which can a l s o be a cover c r o p ) t o show up any on t h e s i t e and w i l l r e s u l t i n c o n s i d e r a b l y more
problem spots. d i v e r s i t y than would be o b t a i n e d from t h e seed mix alone.
Although low pH c o n d i t i o n s r e c e i v e d a l o t of a t t e n t i o n Mulch hay f o r reseeded areas w i l l a l s o o f t e n c o n t a i n
i n p a s t r e v e g e t a t i o n research, a c i d i t y i s i n i t s e l f c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t i e s o f seeds o f v a r i o u s herbaceous
v e r y r a r e l y a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r t o p l a n t growth on orphan species. Mulch w i l l improve t h e d i v e r s i t y o f t h e vege-
land. Good growth has been found on s p o i l w i t h pH tation.
values as low as 3.4. I n d i r e c t effects o f the acidity, VI . SEED INOCULATION, SOIL MICROORGANISMS
such as t h e l i b e r a t i o n and m o b i l i z a t i o n of t o x i c e l e - Some experiments r e c e n t l y have t e s t e d t h e use o f inocu-
ments, i s p r o b a b l y more s e r i o u s . An example i s l a t i o n o f seed and i n j e c t i o n o f t h e s o i l w i t h b a c t e r i a
aluminum which i s r e l e a s e d from c l a y and, i n a c i d con- o f f u n g i t o speed t h e b u i l d u p o f m i c r o b i a l organisms i n
d i t i o n s , forms aluminum phosphate, making phosphorus t h e s o i l and t o i n c r e a s e f o r m a t i o n o f nodules o f t h e
u n a v a i l a b l e t o p l a n t s ( 9 ) . The d e f i c i e n c y o f phosphor- r o o t s of legumes. I t w i l l be some y e a r s b e f o r e t h i s
us i s f r e q u e n t l y a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r t o p l a n t growth on p r a c t i c e can be recommended f o r general use. The ab-
orphan land. Herbaceous species and b l a c k l o c u s t have sence o f s o i l microorganisms i n t o p s o i l s u b s t i t u t e s from
been found p a r t i c u l a r l y s u s c e p t i b l e . It was found t h a t overburden m a t e r i a l s may r e s u l t i n poor v e g e t a t i o n
t h e performance of legumes i s a good i n d i c a t o r o f phos- growth f o r several years.

HANDBOOK
/ G Z lI ' R E c u w m o N AND REvEmATIon FOR
PERMANENT REVEGETATION - GENERAL SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
113
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( 9 ) Ashby, W.C. e t a l . , Apr 1979, "Geochemical F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g P l a n t Growth i n Reclamation, Weeds, Trees and
Turf.
10) Berg, W.A. and May, R.F., Mar 1969, " A c i d i t y and P l a n t A v a i l a b l e Phosphorus i n S t r a t a O v e r l y i n g Coal Seams,"
M i n i n g Congress J o u r n a l .

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PROBLEM & PURPOSE
I n t h e p a s t much o f t h e emphasis o f r e v e g a t a t i n g amount and t y p e o f t r e e p l a n t i n g on r e c l a i m e d
mine s p o i l s was on t r e e s and shrubs. However, t h e y a r e s i t e s should r e f l e c t t h e landscape c h a r a c t e r -
n o t as i m p o r t a n t as herbaceous cover i n c o n t r o l l i n g i s t i c s o f t h e area.
e r o s i o n and s t a b i l i z i n g t h e h y d r o l o g i c balance i n mined When t h e approved post-mining l a n d use i s f o r
areas. The Regulations t h e r e f o r e g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e non-commercial f o r e s t uses (which i n c l u d e w i l d l i f e
t r e e and shrub p l a n t i n g which: management, r e c r e a t i o n , s h e l t e r b e l t s , e t c . ) o r com-
1. i s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e approved postmining m e r c i a l f o r e s t use, t h e requirements o f t h e Regulations
uses o f t h e s i t e and a r e q u i t e s p e c i f i c r e l a t i n g t o t h e s t o c k i n g r a t e and
2. i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e v a r i e t y and d i v e r s i t y cover o f t r e e and shrub species.
o f t h e surrounding p l a n t communities. The
APPLICABILITY
The e x t e n t , t y p e and species o f t r e e s p l a n t e d on On many o f t h e remote, small, steep s i t e s i n
reclaimed s i t e s w i l l v a r y w i t h proposed post-mining Appalachia t h e approved post-mining l a n d use i s l i k e l y
use o f t h e l a n d and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and d i s t r i b u t i o n t o i n c l u d e e i t h e r commercial o r non-commercial f o r e s t r y .
o f f o r e s t l a n d i n t h e l o c a l i t y . Tree p l a n t i n g i s F o r t u n a t e l y t h e r e has been c o n s i d e r a b l e work i n t h e
a p p l i c a b l e f o r almost a l l s u r f a c e mine s i t e s even i n p a s t on t h e s u r v i v a l and growth o f t r e e s and shrubs
cases where t h e approved post-mining l a n d use i n c l u d e s on mine s p o i l s .
I
no f o r e-. s t r v o r woodland. I
REVELANT SECTIONS O F THE REGULATIONS
The emphasis o f t h e Regulations i s on a c h i e v i n g an growth on orphan l a n d may n o t be a p p r o p r i a t e f o r use on
e f f e c t i v e herbaceous ground cover f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l on reclaimed s i t e s under t h e p r e s e n t performance standards
a l l s i t e s . The requirements o f t h e Regulations f o r t r e e w i t h o u t s p e c i a l approval.
and shrub p l a n t i n g , s t o c k i n g and success a r e q u i t e The requirements o f t h e Regulations w i t h r e s p e c t t o
s p e c i f i c on l a n d where t h e approved post-mining use i s s t o c k i n g r a t e and species o f t r e e s and shrubs v a r y f o r
commercial o r non-commercial f o r e s t [816.1171. s i t e s planned f o r commercial f o r e s t r y use [816.117(b) 1
As p a r t o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n procedure, t h e RA may and f o r s i t e s planned f o r f o r e s t r y uses o t h e r than com-
r e q u i r e a v e g e t a t i o n map [779.19] d e l i n e a t i n g and m e r c i a l f o r e s t r y such as w i l d l i f e management, r e c r e a t i o n ,
d e s c r i b i n g e x i s t i n g v e g e t a t i o n types w i t h i n t h e p e r m i t and s h e l t e r b e l t s [ 8 1 6 . l l 7 ( c ) ] .
area and any proposed "reference area." T h i s enables Small mine o p e r a t o r s should n o t e t h a t , i f approved
t h e RA t o judge t h e appropriateness o f t h e proposed by t h e RA, a s i m p l e r method f o r j u d g i n g t h e success of
p l a n t i n g on t h e r e c l a m a t i o n plan, and a l s o p r o v i d e s a r e v e g e t a t i o n than t h e " r e f e r e n c e area" i s p e r m i s s i b l e .
b a s i s f o r j u d g i n g t h e success o f r e v e g e t a t i o n . The T h i s a p p l i e s o n l y t o p e r m i t areas o f l e s s than 40 acres.
r e c l a m a t i o n p l a n [780.18] must i n c l u d e a l i s t o f species [816.116(d)]. "Areas p l a n t e d w i t h a m i x t u r e o f herba-
and seedlings t o be used. S e c t i o n 816.112 s p e c i f i e s ceous and woody species s h a l l s u s t a i n . . . 400 woody
t h a t i n t r o d u c e d species may be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r n a t i v e p l a n t s p e r a c r e a f t e r f i v e years. On steep slopes, t h e
soecies o n l v w i t h t h e aooroval o f t h e RA. Conseauentlv- minimum number o f woody. p. l a n t s s h a l l be 600 p e r a c r e . "
I t h e i n t r o d u c e d species h h i c h have good s u r v i v a l and
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
11. FACTORS AFFECTING SURVIVAL AND GROWTH AND THE CHOICE The a v a i l a b i l i t v o f water i s one o f t h e most im-
OF TREE SPECIES p o r t a n t f a c t o r s e f f e c t i n g t h e s u r v i v a l o f young t r e e
Much o f t h e e a r l y research i n t o s u r f a c e mine r e c l a - s e e d l i n g s i n c o m p e t i t i o n o f herbaceous cover, f o r l a c k
mation d e a l t w i t h t h e s u r v i v a l and growth o f t r e e species o f both water and n u t r i e n t s may s e r i o u s l y i n h i b i t growth
on reclaimed mine s p o i l s . A1 though some research was o f young seedlings. L a r g e r t r e e s may a l s o have d i f f i -
begun more than 40 years ago, few experiments on t r e e c u l t y o b t a i n i n g t h e necessary s o i l moisture. On Sheet
p l a n t i n g a r e much more than 10 years o l d . A t p r e s e n t t h e 7:12 mention was made o f methods o f a v o i d i n g herbaceous
Northeast F o r e s t Experimental S t a t i o n a t Berea, KY, i s c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t r e e s by seeding a l t e r n a t e s t r i p s of
e v a l u a t i n g t h e s u r v i v a l and success o f t r e e species on grass and t r e e s ( F i g u r e s 1 and 2). I t should be n o t e d
mine s p o i l s i n Indiana, Ohio, I l l i n o i s , M i s s o u r i , Kansas t h a t p i n e s a r e more g e n e r a l l y t o l e r a n t o f d r y c o n d i t i o n s
and Oklahoma ( 3 ) . E a r l y research produced 1 is t s o f than hardwoods because, though t h e y t a k e up about t h e
recommended species f o r v a r i o u s c o n d i t i o n s which were same amount o f water i n optimum growing c o n d i t i o n s , t h e
o f t e n r e l a t e d t o t h e pH. I t seems from t h e p u b l i s h e d r a t e o f uptake f a l l s more r a p i d l y i n p i n e s under d r y
r e s u l t s t h a t much o f t h e emphasis o f t h e e a r l y research conditions.
was on t h e t o l e r a n c e o f species t o low pH l e v e l s w h i l e
other spoil conditions p a r t i c u l a r l y physical conditions,
w a t e r - h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y , etc., r e c e i v e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n .
There has been s p e c u l a t i o n amongst researchers t h a t i n -
d i v i d u a l p l a n t s which s u r v i v e i n v e r y adverse c o n d i t i o n s
a r e g e n e t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from those which f a i l . How-
e v e r t h i s hypothesis i s n o t s u b s t a n t i a t e d . I t i s d i f f i -
c u l t t o g i v e a r e l i a b l e pH range a t which t r e e s o f v a r i -
ous species w i l l s u r v i v e . With herbaceous species, i t
i s p o s s i b l e t o be more p r e c i s e b u t depending on o t h e r
growth c o n d i t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y m o i s t u r e - h o l d i n g capac-
i t y and n u t r i e n t a v a i l a b i l i t y , some t r e e s w i l l t o l e r a t e
w i d e l y v a r y i n g pH values. I n f a c t i t i s u n l i k e l y t o be
t h e pH which a c t u a l l y determines t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e
p l a n t species b u t some s i d e e f f e c t which pH has, f o r
instance, on n u t r i e n t a v a i l a b i l i t y o r t o x i c i t y . There- F i g u r e 1. Experimental P l a n t i n g s o f A l t e r n a t e S t r i p s o f
f o r e , t h e pH ranges g i v e n i n Table 1 should be used
w i t h caution. H y b r i d P o p l a r and Herbaceous Cover. Trees a r f
4 Months Old. Source: (9,
 n o t been v e r v successful on reclaimed s u r f a c e mined
s i t e s and t h e r e f o r e i t i s recommended t h a t surface
o p e r a t o r s w i s h i n g t o e s t a b l i s h t r e e and shrub species
should p l a n t these as seedlings. T h i s can be done by
hand o r u s i n g p l a n t i n g machinery. Tree species recom-
mended f o r use on reclaimed mine s i t e s a r e l i s t e d i n
Table 1 . Shrub species a r e l i s t e d on Table 2.
11. PLANTING METHODS AND MACHINERY
On s i t e s planned f o r n o n - f o r e s t uses where t h e
amount o f t r e e p l a n t i n g i s s m a l l , s e e d l i n g s may be
p l a n t e d by hand. T h i s i s p r o b a b l y b e s t c a r r i e d o u t i n
t h e s p r i n g f o l l o w i n g seeding o f herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n ,
b u t i f t h e herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n i s vigorous, t h e t r e e
i g u r e 2. Experimental P l a n t i n s o f A l t e r n a t e S t r i p s o f s e e d l i n g s may n o t be a b l e t o compete f o r n u t r i e n t s and
H y b r i d P o p l a r and Herbaceous Cover. Trees a r e s o i l moisture, r e s u l t i n g i n poor growth. T h i s however
34 Years Old. Source: ( 9 ) may n o t s e r i o u s l y reduce t h e s u r v i v a l r a t e . I n cases
Trees d i f f e r w i d e l y i n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o t o l e r a t e where herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n i s smothering t r e e and shrub
xcess water and poor drainage. The most t o l e r a n t seedlings, a p p l i c a t i o n o f h e r b i c i d e around each s e e d l i n g
pecies a r e g e n e r a l l y hardwoods, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f may be d e s i r a b l e . The s e e d l i n g i t s e l f must be p r o t e c t e d
pruce (Picea), and i n c l u d e w i l l o w s ( S a l i x ) , Cotton by a spray guard w h i l e a p p l y i n g t h e h e r b i c i d e .
ood (Populus), Sycamore ( P l a t a n u s ) Sweetgum ( L i q u i d - Where t e r r a i n i s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e use o f p l a n t i n g
mber) ( 2 ) . I t should a l s o be n o t e d t h a t where a i r machinery, when t h e number o f s e e d l i n g s t o be p l a n t e d i s
o l l u t i o n i s a problem b r o a d l e a f species t e n d t o be l a r g e o r where p l a n t i n g i s being c a r r i e d o u t by con-
o r e t o l e r a n t than c o n i f e r o u s species. Bennett notes t r a c t o r s , p l a n t i n g machines w i l l p r o b a b l y be used. There
h a t r e d maple (Acer rubrum) and sugar maple (A. a r e v a r i o u s types o f t r e e p l a n t e r s a v a i l a b l e . The
accharum) were t o l e r a n t o f most a i r p o l l u t a n t s ( 2 ) . A W h i t f i e l d t r e e p l a n t e r (Kentucky Reclamation A s s o c i a t i o n )
a j o r d i f f i c u l t y t h a t i s l i k e l y t o be encountered i n has a s m a l l o s c i l l a t i n g device l i k e a snow-plow d i r e c t l y
s t a b l i s h i n g t r e e species i s c o m p e t i t i o n from herbaceous i n f r o n t o f t h e r i p p e r which c l e a r s a path, removing
e g e t a t i o n . There a r e v a r i o u s approaches t o t r y i n g t o s u r f a c e rocks which would h i n d e r t h e p r o p e r s e t t i n g o f
nsure t h a t herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n does n o t s e v e r e l y i n - t h e seedling. Behind a r e two packing wheels which a r e
i b i t t h e s u r v i v a l and growth o f t r e e s and shrub species. independently mounted so s o i l can be u n i f o r m l y compacted
he f i r s t i s t h a t a l r e a d y mentioned o f sowing a l t e r n a t e around t h e seedling. The Northeast F o r e s t Experimental
t r i p s o f herbaceous p l a n t s and p l a n t i n g t h e i n t e r - S t a t i o n has developed a f u r r o w seeder p u l l e d by a small
e d i a t e s t r i p s w i t h t r e e seedlings. The second i s t o c r a w l e r t r a c t o r , designed t o operate on rough land.
ow t h e whole s i t e t o a f a s t growing cover crop f o l l o w e d There i s a l s o a Canadian development c a l l e d a p l a n t i n g
y a h e r b i c i d e a p p l i c a t i o n t o k i l l t h e crop a f t e r i t i s gun which i n s e r t s t h e t r e e i n a p l a s t i c b u l l e t , con-
e l l e s t a b l i s h e d . When t h i s has been done, permanent t a i n i n g t h e s e e d l i n g i n a s o i l medium. The s i d e s o f t h e
erbaceous v e g e t a t i o n can be seeded i n t o t h e dead vege- b u l l e t are s l i t t o allow the roots o f the seedling t o
a t i o n i n strips, the intermediate s t r i p s planted with p e n e t r a t e t h e s o i l . The Canadian F o r e s t S e r v i c e c a l c u -
r e e seedlings. The s u r v i v a l o f these should be good l a t e s a p l a n t i n g r a t e o f 9L5 t r e e s p e r minute. G e n e r a l l y
n d b e n e f i t from t h e mulching e f f e c t o f t h e dead vegeta- t r e e p l a n t i n g w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t by c o n t r a c t o r s and
ion. Operators may a l s o have some d i f f i c u l t y i n t h e r e f o r e t h e choice and purchase o f machinery w i l l n o t
b t a i n i n g some o f t h e recommended species. be a concern o f t h e mine o p e r a t o r .
TABLE 1 - TREE SPECIES RECOMMENDED FOR USE ON RECLAIMED MINE SITES

Eastern (E) o r
mnon Name L a t i n Name Native Interior ( I ) Comments
Province

ed Maple Acer rubrum Yes E/ I More common where t h e s o i l - m o i s t u r e condi-

t i o n s a r e extreme - e i t h e r v e r y wet o r q u i t e
d r y . I t i s a poor s o i l - b u i l d e r . Wood some-
times used f o r f u r n i t u r e .
i l v e r Maple Acer saccharihum Yes Most common where t h e r e i s a good m o i s t u r e
supply throughout t h e growing season. A
bottom-land species.
Jgar Maple Acer saccharinum Yes T h r i v e s o n l y on f e r t i l e , m o i s t , and w e l l -
d r a i n e d s o i l s . Most commonly grows on s o i l s
w i t h a pH range o f 4.5-7.0. One o f t h e most
v a l u a b l e hardwood t r e e s : products a r e maple
syrup and lumber.
uropean A1 der Alnus g l u t i n o s a A v e r y r a p i d growing n i t r o g e n f i x i n g t r e e
w i t h wide a d a p t a t i o n t o l e r a n t o f very low pH
(as low as 3 . 5 ) . May have some economic v a l -
ue f o r p u l p wood and can s u r v i v e i n v e r y d r y
and i n v e r y wet c o n d i t i o n s adapted t o slopes
o f a l l aspects.
i v e r Birch Betula n i g r a Yes E/ I Bottom l a n d species.

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TABLE 1 (CONTINUED) - TREE SPECIES RECOMMENDED FOR USE ON RECLAIMED MINE SITES

Eastern (E) o r
Common Name L a t i n Name Native I n t e r i o r (I) Conunents
Province

European White B i r c h B e t u l a pendula No E/ ( N o r t h ) A species t o l e r a n t o f a wide range of s o i 1

I/(North) drainage c o n d i t i o n s . May a l s o spread by
s e l f seeding and grows i n pH values 4.5 and
6.5. I t has poor l e a f l i t t e r and poor s u r -
f a c e coverage.
Chinese Chestnut Castanea mol i s s i m a No E -
White Ash Fraxinus americana Yes E/ 1 Develops b e s t on moderate1y we1 1- d r a i n e d
s o i l s . I t i s c o m ~ a r a t i v e l vt o l e r a n t o f
temporary f l o o d i n g . ~ r o v i l d e shard, s t r o n g ,
durable timber.
Green Ash Fraxinus pennsyl vanica Yes E/ 1 A v e r y p r o m i s i n g species f o r use on a l l
slopes p r e f e r s loams and c l a y s .
Black Walnut Juglans n i g r a Yes E/ I Grows b e s t on deep, we1 1-drained, n e a r l y
n e u t r a l (pH) s o i l s . Reaches g r e a t e s t s i z e
and v a l u e along streams and a t t h e base o f
n o r t h - o r e a s t - f a c i n g slopes. Heavy, s t r o n g
d u r a b l e heartwood e a s i l y worked.
iuropean Larch L a r i x decidua No E Both Japanese and European Larch have been
Japanese Larch Larix leptolepis No E used s u c c e s s f u l l y on r e c l a i m e d mined land.
I f t h e s o i l c o n d i t i o n s a r e r i g h t , growth i s
r a p i d . But l a r c h e s a r e o f t e n damaged by
severe exposure and sometimes by l a t e f r o s t s
They a r e a l s o s e n s i t i v e t o compacted s o i l s .
Both species p r o v i d e good l e a f l i t t e r .
Sweet Gum Liquidambar s t y r a c i f l ua Yes E/ 1 T h r i v e s on t h e r i c h , moist, a l l u v i a l c l a y an1
loam s o i l s o f r i v e r bottoms. Best growth i s
made on i m p e r f e c t l y and p o o r l y d r a i n e d s o i l s
having a h i g h c l a y c o n t e n t . Timber p r o d u c t s
used w i d e l y .
Liriodendron t u l i p i f e r a Yes E/ (Central Grows w e l l o n l y i n moderately moist, w e l l -
and South) drained, l o o s e - t e x t u r e d s o i l s . U s u a l l y founl
I/(South) i n v a l l e y s and stream bottoms. Wood e a s i l y
worked; used f o r s h i n g l e s , boats, p u l p .
Vorway Spruce Picea a b i e s No E Uplands species.
Jack Pine Pinus banksiana Yes E/ I Makes reasonably good growth on s o i l s w i t h
a pH o f 4.5-6.6. Can m a i n t a i n i t s e l f on ver.
d r y sandy o r g r a v e l l y s o i l s . Produces poor
t i m b e r b u t widespread i n some n o r t h e r n areas
t h a t o t h e r w i s e would s u p p o r t no t r e e growth.
Short L e a f Pine Pinus e c h i n a t a Yes E/(South) The optimum pH range i s 4.5-6.0. W i l l not
I/(South) t o l e r a t e a h i g h pH. I t i s i n t o l e r a n t o f
shade b u t o t h e r w i s e i s adaptable and w i l l
grow on a wide v a r i e t y o f a c i d s p o i l s . I t
has some i n s e c t problems b u t w i l l s p r o u t
f r e e l y i f c u t o r f i r e k i l l e d when young.
Good marketable timber.
4 u s t r i a n Pine Pinus n i g r a No E Can be p l a n t e d on slopes o f any aspect.
P l a n t i n banks o r blocks. When p l a n t e d
near b l a c k l o c u s t , deer cause browse damage.
Longleaf Pine Pinus p a l u s t r i s Yes E Grows on s o i l s low i n o r g a n i c m a t t e r , l i g h t -
c o l o r e d , sandy i n t h e s u r f a c e p o r t i o n , and
medium t o s t r o n g l y a c i d . Drainage i s o f t e n
good t o excessive. May be worked f o r t u r -
p e n t i n e and r o s i n i n combination w i t h
timber production.
Red Pine Pinus r e s i n o s a Yes E S u s c e p t i b l e t o saw f l y damage i n some areas.
T o l e r a n t o f slopes o f a l l aspects.
' i t c h Pine Pinus r i g i d a Yes E Deep r o o t e d and a c i d t o l e r a n t . Can s u r v i v e
f i r e i n j u r y . Small s e e d l i n g s a r e suscep-
t i b l e t o deer browsing. P l a n t i n bands o r
blocks.
I a s t e r n White Pine Pinus s t r o b u s Yes E/(North) Adapted t o n o r t h e r n Appalachians.
I P r e f e r s humid c o n d i t i o n s w i t h a pH of be-
tween 4.5 and 6.0. Can s u r v i v e a wide range
o f s o i l c o n d i t i o n s and a l i t t l e shade d u r i n s
i n i t i a l growth.

I) J ' R E c L A ~ ~AND
T ~REVEGETATION
~~ HANDBOOK
FOR
PERMANENT REVEGETATION - TREES AND SHRUBS SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
11%
 Eastern (E) o r
onimon Name L a t i n Name Native Interior ( I ) Comments
Province

c o t c h Pine Pinus s y l v e s t r i s No Very t o l e r a n t o f a c i d c o n d i t i o n s (4.0-7.5)

and slopes o f any aspect and steepness.
o b l o l l y Pine Pinus taeda Yes A v e r y promising species w i t h r a p i d e a r l y
growth and a marketable t i m b e r . Survives
pH 4.4-7.5 b u t i s s u s c e p t i b l e t o i c e and
snow damage.
i r g i n i a Pine Pinus v i r g i n i a n a Yes Adapted t o t h e southeast States. Optimum pH
5.0-6.0 b u t w i l l grow on s o i l s w i t h pH as
low as 4.6. F a i r l y t o l e r a n t o f d r y condi-
t i o n s below 1,000 ft. I n t o l e r a n t o f shade
b u t responds w e l l t o f e r t i l i z e r . I t has a
t a l l narrow growth and i s good i n combina-
t i o n w i t h black locust.
,merican Sycamore Platanus o c c i d e n t a l i s Yes Bottom l a n d species.
a s t e r n Cottonwood Popul us d e l t o i d e s Yes Bottom l a n d species. A d e s i r a b l e t r e e w i t h
good cover and r a p i d growth.
y b r i d Pop1a r Populus spp. N/ A Rapid growth and good s u r v i v a l a t low pH.
Marketable t i m b e r a f t e r 20 y e a r s . Cannot
w i t h s t a n d grass c o m p e t i t i o n .
l h i t e Oak Quercus a l b a Yes Survives and grows w e l l on most s o i l types
except wet bottom and optimum pH range
5.5-8.0. Fairly tolerant o f nutrient
d e f i c i e n c i e s and some shade.
: o r t h e r n Red Oak Quercus r u b r a Yes Survives on a wide range o f s o i l types b u t
i s s e n s i t i v e t o d e f i c i e n c i e s i n s o i l mois-
t u r e when young. pH range 5.0-7.0. Slow
i n i t i a l growth.
; l a c k Locust Robinia pseudo-acacia Yes Optimum pH range 6.0-7.6. W i l l o f t e n grow
on pH o f lower values. P r e f e r s l i m e s t o n e
s o i l . Not t o l e r a n t o f poor drainage o r
c o m p e t i t i o n . P l a n t below 3,500 f t i n t h e
Appalachians. I t i s spread by suckers and
was used e x t e n s i v e l y on s p o i l banks.
S u s c e p t i b l e t o damage by t h e l o c u s t s b o r e r
which a l s o l i m i t s m a r k e t a b i l i t y o f t h e
timber. Good l e a f l i t t e r .
TABLE 2 - SHRUB SPECIES RECOMMENDED FOR USE ON RECLAIMED MINE SITES

onunon Name L a t i n Name Native Height

Category Comments

u l l - l e a f Indigobush Amorpha f r u t i c o s a Yes 10'-20' Legume which s u r v i v e w e l l i n a c i d

c o n d i t i o n s . Forms dense t h i c k e t s -
spreads s l o w l y .
omnon Buttonbush Cephalanthus o c c i d e n t a l i s Yes 10'-20' Shallow ponds and wet shores.
horny 01 ive Elaeagnus pungens 10'-20' -
e k i n Cotoneaster Cotoneaster a c u f i f o l i a 10'-20' -
utumn-01 i v e Elaeagnus umbellata No 10'-20' Non-legume b u t f i x e s atmospheric
n i t r o g e n . Good f o r w i l d l i f e and
h i g h l y adaptable.
mur P r i v e t L i g u s t r u m amurense No 10'-20' F r u i t provides food f o r w i l d l i f e .
....................................................................................................................
apanese Pol ygonum Pol ygonum cuspi datum - 3'-10' Q u i t e adaptable - p r e f e r s moist
1ower s i t e s but survives acid conditions.
oralberry Symphoricarpos o r b i c u l a t u s Yes 3'-10' Old f i e l d s and open woods.
h e r r y 01 ive Elaeagnus mu1ti f l o r a - 3'-10'
uropean B a r b e r r y Berberis vul gari s No 3'-10' Birds eat f r u i t s .
1ueberry Vacci n i um spp. Yes 3'-10' A
f rcui di t- s. o i l p l a n t s ; t a s t y , e d i b l e

7
1 RECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION HANDBOOK
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PERMANENT REVEGETATION - TREES AND SHRUBS SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
119
 REFERENCE
( 1 ) M i l l s , T.R. and C l a r , M.L., Oct 1976, "Erosion and Sediment Control - Surface M i n i n g i n t h e Eastern US: Plan-
ning," EPA 62513-76-006.
( 2 ) Bennett, O.L. e t a l . , 1978, " P l a n t M a t e r i a l s and T h e i r Requirements f o r Growth i n Humid Regions," Proc. Reclama.
t i o n o f D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands Symp., S c h a l l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds.), ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, W I .
(3) Vogel , W.G. and C u r t i s , W.R., 1978, "Reclamation Research on Coal Surface-Mined Lands i n t h e Humid East ,I' Proc.
Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands Symp., S c h a l l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds.), ASA, CSSA, Madison, W I .
(4) C h i r o n i s , N.P., J u l y 1977, "Guide t o P l a n t s f o r Mine Spoils," Coal Age, pp. 122-130.
( 5 ) Chapman, A.G., Aug 1967, " E f f e c t s o f S p o i l Grading on Tree Growth," M i n i n g Congress J.
(6) Plass, W.T., 1975, "An E v a l u a t i o n of Trees and Shrubs f o r P l a n t i n g on Surface-Mine Spoils," USDA F o r e s t Service
Research Paper NE-317, Princeton, WV.
( 7 ) Jewel1 , K.E., 1978, " S o i l Forming Factors and Yellow-Poplar Seed1 i n g Growth on Eastern Ohio M i n e s o i l s , " Master
Thesis, School o f N a t u r a l Resources, Dept. o f F o r e s t r y , Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .
(8) Geyer, W.A. and Rogers, N.F., May-June 1972, " S p o i l s Change and Tree Growth on Coal-Mined S p o i l s i n Kansas,"
Journal o f S o i l and Water Conservation.
( 9 ) McGuire, J.R., J u l y 1977, "There i s More t o Reclamation than P l a n t i n g Trees," American Forests Magazine.
(10) Krause, R.R., Jan 1972, "Recovery o f Mined Land," Coal M i n i n g and Processing.

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1 RECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION

PERMANENT REVEGETATION - HERBACEOUS SPECIES

HANDBOOK
FOR
SMALL MINE
171
OPERATORS
PROBLEM & PURPOSE
A good cover o f herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n p r o t e c t s regraded doned mine s p o i l s . T h i s i s l a r g e l y i n response t o S t a t e
and t o p s o i l e d areas from e r o s i o n . The performance s t a n - requirements t o c o n t r o l e r o s i o n on s u r f a c e mine s i t e s
dards o f t h e Regulations p l a c e s t r o n g emphasis on t h e and t h i s i s a l s o a requirement o f t h e p r e s e n t Regulations.
need t o e s t a b l i s h an e f f e c t i v e cover o f herbaceous vege- The h i g h e s t sediment y i e l d s from mined areas o c c u r d u r i n g
t a t i o n as soon as i s p r a c t i c a b l e t o p r o v i d e e r o s i o n t h e f i r s t s i x months o f mining, and i t has been shown
c o n t r o l . Recently t h e r e has been c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e a r c h t h a t a good v e g e t a t i v e cover can h a l v e t h e y i e l d o f s e d i -
i n t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n on aban- ment w i t h i n s i x months ( 4 ) .
APPLICABILITY
The requirements o f t h e Regulations t o e s t a b l i s h an be used (see Sheet 7 : l l ) . The need t o p r o t e c t regraded
e f f e c t i v e herbaceous cover as soon as p r a c t i c a b l e a f t e r and t o p s o i l e d areas i s most u r g e n t on s i t e s which a r e
r e g r a d i n g and t o p s o i l i n g a p p l i e s t o a l l s u r f a c e mine h i g h l y s u s c e p t i b l e t o erosion, and a delay c o u l d be
s i t e s . I n cases where i t i s n o t f e a s i b l e t o sow p e r - c o s t l y i n terms o f f a i l u r e t o meet t h e standards f o r
lmanent species, a quick-growing annual cover crop. should succ&s f o r r e v e g e t a t e d areas. I
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
The r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n s o f t h e Regulations have been men- m a t e l y equal t o t h a t o f s i m i l a r non-mined lands f o r
t i o n e d f o r r e v e g e t a t i o n g e n e r a l l y on Sheet 7:13. Sec- a t l e a s t t h e l a s t two f u l l years o f l i a b i l i t y r e q u i r e d
t i o n s 816.111-816.117 o f t h e performance c o n t r o l s c o n t a i n under S e c t i o n 816.116(b). The standards f o r success
t h e requirements f o r r e v e g e t a t i n g mine s i t e s . I n o f r e v e g e t a t i o n a r e covered i n S e c t i o n 816.116. T h i s
S e c t i o n 816.111 i t i s s t a t e d t h a t " t h e v e g e t a t i v e cover r e q u i r e s t h a t "ground cover and p r o d u c t i v i t y o f l i v i n g
s h a l l be capable o f s t a b i l i z i n g t h e s o i l s u r f a c e from p l a n t s . . . . s h a l l be equal t o t h e ground cover and p r o -
e r o s i o n . " S e c t i o n 816.113 r e q u i r e s t h a t "seeding and d u c t i v i t y o f l i v i n g p l a n t s on t h e approved r e f e r e n c e
p l a n t i n g o f d i s t u r b e d areas s h a l l be conducted d u r i n g area." On mine s i t e s w i t h a p e r m i t area o f l e s s than
t h e f i r s t normal p e r i o d f o r f a v o r a b l e p l a n t i n g con- 40 acres, t h e RA may approve a herbaceous cover o f
d i t i o n s . " That s e c t i o n a l s o r e q u i r e s a temporary 70% s u s t a i n e d f o r 5 consecutive y e a r s r a t h e r than
cover to,,be used "when necessary t o e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r o l u s i n g a r e f e r e n c e area f o r j u d g i n g success. Mine
erosion. S e c t i o n 816.11 5 ( r e v e g e t a t i o n - g r a z i n g ) o p e r a t o r s should make s u r e t h a t S e c t i o n 816.1 16 i s
s t a t e s t h a t when t h e approved post-mining l a n d use i s f u l l y understood as i t a p p l i e s t o t h e i r s i t e and
range o r p a s t u r e land, t h e r e c l a i m e d l a n d must be used approved post-mining l a n d use.
f o r l i v e s t o c k g r a z i n g a t a g r a z i n g c a p a c i t y approxi-
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
11. NLJTPIENTS
- -- a r o s t i s c u r v u l a ) . B l a c k w e l l s t i t c h qrass (Panicum
Herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n shows r a p i d response t o n u t r i e n t ;irgatum), and i(&tucky 31 t a l l f e s i u e ( ~ e s t u c aarun-
d e f i c i e n c y o r t o x i c i t y . A t low pH, s u f f i c i e n t molyb- dinaceae). Lovegrass, when f e r t i l i z e d , was s u p e r i o r
denum may n o t be a v a i l a b l e f o r r h i z o b i a i n t h e r o o t on a c i d s p o i l s and even 70-90% cover was o b t a i n e d i n
nodules o f legumes. T h i s p a r t i a l l y accounts f o r t h e one season on s p o i l s w i t h a pH 4.0-4.5 when o t h e r
l o w t o l e r a n c e which legumes have f o r s p o i l s w i t h a l o w pH. species made h a r d l y any growth ( 1 0 ) . The S o i l Con-
" F i n d i n g legumes t h a t w i l l grow and n o d u l a t e on e x t r e m e l y s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e (MD) recommends t h e f o l l o w i n g
a c i d s p o i l s i s more d i f f i c u l t than f i n d i n g grasses." The seed mixes f o r use r e c l a i m e d mine s p o i l s (Table 1 ) .
more t o l e r a n t legumes a r e B i r d s f o o d T r e f o i l (Lotus c o r - TABLE 1
n i c u l a t u s ) , Sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza coneata) , and SEEDING MIXES & PLANTING SEASONS FOR USE ON RECLAIMED
annual Lespedeza (L. s t i p u l a c e a ) (10). Aluminum and man- MINE SITES
ganese come i n t o s o l u t i o n i n i n c r e a s i n g amounts as
a c i d i t y increases. These appear t o be t h e main cause o f Rate Seeding dates
t o x i c i t y t o p l a n t s , and Vogel suggests t h a t grasses and Species Lbs/Ac Below 1800' Elev
legumes t o l e r a n t o f a c i d s p o i l s a r e p r o b a b l y those which
a r e m s t t o l e r a n t o f aluminum and manganese t o x i c i t y (10).
Most orphan mine s p o i l s a r e d e f i c i e n t i n phosphate which
1. B i r d s f o o t t r e f o i l , " V i k i n g " 10 Mar. 5 -
Jan. 1
( t r i p 1e i n o c u l a t e d ) &
i s another reason f o r t h e l o w t o l e r a n c e o f legumes t o
"Kentucky 31" t a l l fescue 50 Aug.1-Oct.1
s t r i p mine s p o i l c o n d i t i o n s . The problem p r o b a b l y a r i s e s
Canada bluegrass 10
w i t h f e r r i c hydroxide, a p r o d u c t o f t h e weathering o f
p y r i t e which can s p e c i f i c a l l y absorb l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s 2. Crownvetch ( t r i p l e i n - 10 Mar. 5 - June 1
o f phosphate making i t u n a v a i l a b l e f o r p l a n t s ( 8 ) . On oculated) &
manv s i t e s a f a i r l y heavy d r e s s i n g o f phosphate f e r t i l i z e r "Kentucky 31" t a l l fescue 50 Aug. 1 - Oct. 1
w i l i be necessary.- v a r i b u s r e s e a k h e r s have shown t h a t Jun. 1 - A u g . 1
3. B i r d s f o o t t r e f o i 1 ( t r i p l e 10
mine s p o i l s i n t h e e a s t e r n USA a r e f r e q u e n t l y d e f i c i e n t inoculated)
i n phosphorus and n i t r o g e n b u t t h a t potash i s n o r m a l l y Weeping lovegrass (on s i t e , 3
adequate. Phosphorus i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n es- w i t h l o w e r pH than Crownvetch)
t a b l i s h i n g legumes which a r e u s u a l l y recomnended t o
reduce t h e long-term requirement f o r n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r 4. Crownvetch ( t r i p l e i n o c - 15 Jun. 1 - Aug. 1
because o f t h e i r a b i l i t y t o f i x atmospheric n i t r o g e n . u lated)
R e f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s f r e q u e n t l y necessary and observant, Weeping lovegrass 3
and responsive management i s e s s e n t i a l t o c o r r e c t n u t r i - 5. weeping 3
lovegrass* Jun.1-Aug.1
e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s t o o b t a i n vigorous herbaceous veg-
e- t---a-t i. n
- .n. .. 6. red to^ 5 Mar. 5 - Jun. 1
11. TIMING &
The importance o f c o r r e c t t i m i n g i n sowing cover must be Aug. 1 - Oct. 1
emphasized. Even d u r i n g summer months q u i c k temporary
cover crops (see Sheet 7 : l l ) can be p r o v i d e d by summer Source: (1 )
annuals g i v i n g e f f e c t i v e e r o s i o n c o n t r o l a t an e a r l y date. *Add b r i s k l y l o c u s t , b l a c k l o c u s t , autumn o l i v e O r Russia
111. RECOMMENDED SPECIES o l i v e t o mix a t 1 t o 2 1bs/ac.
I n f i e l d t r i a l s on a c i d s p o i l s i n Kentucky, t h r e e grasses
performed e s p e c i a l l y we1 1 : Weeping lovegrass (Era-
122
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
i r a n d t recommends t h e f o l l o w i n g legumes f o r r e v e g e t a t i n -g
The f o l l o w i n c l Tables l i s t and d e s c r i b e s ~ e c i e sof urasses
l i n e d lands i n t h e I n t e r i o r coal province: a l f a l f a small g r a i n and legumes which a r e f r e q u e n t l y used i n s o i l
Medicago s a t i v a ) , Yellow sweet c l o v e r ( M e l i l o t u s o f f i c - conservation. Various mixes o f these species w i l l be
anal i s ) , B i r d s f o o t t r e f o i l (Lotus c o r n i c u l a t u s ) , Annual
s u i t a b l e f o r v a r i o u s conditons on d i f f e r e n t mine s i t e s ,
espedeza (Lespedeza s t i p u l a c e a e ) , Perennial lespedeza and l o c a l e x p e r t i s e and experience should be used i n
Lespedeza cuneata) . choosing a s u i t a b l e mix, f e r t i l i z e r r a t i o and l i m e r e -
quirement f o r each s i t e .
TABLE 2 - GRASSES COMMONLY USED I N SOIL CONSERVATION

ommon Name L a t i n Name Comments

leepi ng Eragrosti s A p e r e n n i a l bunch grass 5 ' (1.5 m) t a l l , w i t h an e x t e n s i v e b u t s h a l l o w f i b r o u s

ovegrass curvula r o o t system p r o v i d i n g good, quick, and e f f e c t i v e e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . W i l l t o l e r a t e
pH as low as 4.0. I t has low n u t r i e n t requirements b u t i s responsive t o f e r t i l e
s o i l . I t i s hardy i n a l l r e g i o n s and i s propogated by seed. Some values as a
f o r a g e crop.
ermuda Grass Cvnodon A f a s t , spreading p e r e n n i a l grass w i t h deep, spreading rhizomes and s t o l o n s .
ars. Very e f f e c t i v e i n e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . W i l l t o l e r a t e pH l e v e l s as low as 3.5. Re-
sponsive t o n i t r o g e n i n t h e s o i l . P r e f e r s l i g h t e r s o i l s . Not hardy n o r t h o f
I n d i a n a and Pennsylvania. I t i s propogated by seeding o r by p l a n t i n g rhizomes
and s t o l o n s . A good f o r a g e crop.
a l l Fescue Festuca A p e r e n n i a l bunch grass, deep-rooted and v a l u a b l e f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l , e s p e c i a l l y
arundinaceae i n combination w i t h legumes. T o l e r a t e s pH of 4.5. N, P, K, C, Mg must be a v a i l -
a b l e f o r good s u r v i v a l . T a l l fescue i s d r o u g h t - r e s i s t a n t b u t p r e f e r s moist, me-
dium t o heavy s o i l . I t i s hardy i n a l l zones and i s propagated by seed. Used
e x t e n s i v e l y on mine s p o i l s .
hewings Festuca A fine-stemmed grass w i t h a deep f i b r o u s r o o t system, v e r y e f f e c t i v e f o r e r o s i o n
escue rubra c o n t r o l . T o l e r a t e s pH above 4.5. N, P, K, Ca, Mg must be a v a i l a b l e f o r s u r v i v a l .
D r o u g h t - r e s i s t a n t and hardy i n a l l zones. Propagation by seed and used w i d e l y i n
s o i 1 conservation.
ed Top Agrostis alba Perennial grass w i t h u p r i g h t and c r e e p i n g stems and a f i b r o u s r o o t system. Good
f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . T o l e r a n t o f low pH l e v e l s and s u r v i v e s w i t h low n u t r i e n t s
b u t responds w e l l t o f e r t i l e s o i l . T o l e r a t e s poor drainage. Should n o t be grown
i n t h e southern Appalachians. Propagated by seed and f a i r l y t o l e r a n t o f shade
and wear.
witchgrass Panicum A p e r e n n i a l , b r o a d l e a f grass reaching 5 ' (1.5 m) t a l l . Produces dense sod, makin
virgatum i t h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . T o l e r a t e s pH above 4.5 and low f e r t i l i t
though i t responds w e l l t o f e r t i l i z e r . D r o u q h t - t o l e r a n t b u t p r e f e r s m o i s t s o i l .
Used i n c e n t r a l and e a s t e r n s t a t e s o n l y . Propagated by seed. Spreads s l o w l y by
s h o r t rhizomes. As a forage, i t has low n u t r i t i o n a l v a l u e b u t i s used f o r hay on
some mined areas.
olonial Agrostis G e n e r a l l y s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o A g r o s t i s a1 ba.
entgrass tenuius
reeping Agrosti s G e n e r a l l y s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o A g r o s t i s alba.
en t g r a s s pal u s t r i s
elvet Agrostis Generally s i m i l a r characteristics t o Agrostis alba.
entgrass c a n i na
i g b l uestem Andropogon A grass r e a c h i n g 5 ' (1.5 m) i n h e i g h t , w i t h a s t r o n g and deep r o o t system produc-
gerardi i n g a dense sod, h i g h l y e r o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t . T o l e r a t e s pH above 6.0 and s u r v i v e s
i n f e r t i l e s o i l , though responds w e l l t o f e r t i l i z e r . Best on m o i s t , w e l l - d r a i n e d
s o i l s and i s hardy i n a l l zones.
.ittle Andropogon Reaches 3 ' (0.9 m) i n h e i g h t , producing a dense underground r o o t system r e s i s t a n t
11uestem scoparius t o e r o s i o n . T o l e r a t e s pH o f 4.5, s u r v i v e s i n f e r t i l e s o i l s b u t i s more drought
r e s i s t a n t than B i g bluestem. Hardy i n a l l zones. D i f f i c u l t t o e s t a b l i s h and t h e
seed may be d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n .
;roomsedge Andropogon A grass w i t h a s h a l l o w r o o t system, n o t good f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l b u t may be usefu
11uestem virginicum on s o i l s w i t h a v e r y low pH ( 3 . 5 ) . I t i s a l s o t o l e r a n t o f v e r y poor s o i l s and i s
hardy i n a l l zones. Forage i s o f low q u a l i t y .

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TABLE 3 -
SMALL GRAINS COMMONLY USED I N SOIL CONSERVATION

Common Name L a t i n Name Comments

Rye Secal e An u p r i g h t annual, n o t spreading, w i t h a f a i r l y s h a l l o w r o o t system, g i v i n g a

cereal e r a p i d cover. Valuable as a temporary cover crop. I t i s t h e most p r o d u c t i v e small
g r a i n on a c i d s o i l s and a l s o can t o l e r a t e low f e r t i l i t y and poor drainage. Hardy
i n a l l zones and propagated by seed.
Bar1ey Hordeum spp. Annual, u p r i g h t , w i t h s h a l l o w r o o t system g i v i n g a r a p i d cover. D i f f e r e n t var-
i e t i e s of v a r y i n g pH t o l e r a n c e b u t g e n e r a l l y s e n s i t i v e o f s o i l f e r t i l i t y o r d r a i n -
age problems. Hardy i n a1 1 zones, propagated by seed.
Oats Avena Annual, u p r i g h t , w i t h s h a l l o w r o o t system g i v i n g a q u i c k cover. I t has a wide
sativa range o f pH t o l e r a n c e b u t r e q u i r e s f a i r l y f e r t i l e s o i l s . I t i s more t o l e r a n t of
p o o r l y d r a i n e d s o i l s than b a r l e y b u t p r e f e r s c o o l e r zones. Propagated by seed.
Wheat T r i ticum Annual, u p r i g h t , w i t h s h a l l o w r o o t system g i v i n g a r a p i d cover. Has narrow pH
a e s t ivum t o l e r a n c e range and r e q u i r e s f e r t i l e and w e l l - d r a i n e d s o i l s . Hardy i n a l l zones
and propagated by seed.

TABLE 4 - FORAGE LEGUMES

Common Name L a t i n Name Comments

Medicago A deep-rooting legume, good f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n a grass m i x t u r e .

sativa T o l e r a n t pH between 6-7. Good f e r t i l i z a t i o n and drainage a r e e s s e n t i a l . Hardy i n
most zones and propagated by seed. E x c e l l e n t forage.
N h i t e Clover T r i f o l ium A deeply-rooted legume, always used i n combination w i t h grass, g i v i n g good e r o s i o n
repens c o n t r o l . The pH range i s 6-7. P r e f e r s f e r t i l e and w e l l - d r a i n e d s o i l s . Hardy i n
a l l zones and propagated by seed. E x t e n s i v e l y used i n r e c l a m a t i o n o f d i s t u r b e d
areas.
Crimson Clover T r i f o l ium A legume w i t h b o t h t a p r o o t s and f i b r o u s r o o t s . I t has a r a p i d f a l l growth and
incarnatum i s v a l u a b l e f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . The pH range i s 5.5-8. Good f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s
e s s e n t i a l f o r e f f e c t i v e cover. G e n e r a l l y o n l y used i n southeastern s t a t e s . Prop-
agated by seed and used e x t e n s i v e l y f o r d i s t u r b e d areas. Provides good w i n t e r
grazing.
Birdsfoot Lotus A p e r e n n i a l legume w i t h t a p r o o t which p e n e t r a t e s t o 3 ' (0.9 m) i n depth w i t h a
trefoil corniculatus l a t e r a l r o o t system p r o v i d i n g good e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . T o l e r a n t o f low pH and a l s o
t o l e r a n t o f s o i l s w i t h low f e r t i l i t y and poor drainage. Used i n n o r t h e a s t e r n and
n o r t h - c e n t r a l s t a t e s . Propagated by seed. A u s e f u l f o r a g e c r o p used e x t e n s i v e l y
w i t h a grass m i x t u r e on a c i d s p o i l s .
Seri cea Lespedeza Perennial 5 ' - 1 3 ' (1.5-2 m) t a l l w i t h deep t a p r o o t system. Good f o r e r o s i o n con-
1espedeza cuneata t r o l , w i t h a pH range o f 4.5-6.5. T o l e r a n t o f f a i r l y low s o i l f e r t i l i t y and
drought. Used m a i n l y i n southeastern s t a t e s , propagated by seed. Used f o r hay
and pasture.
Annual Lespedeza An annual lespedeza, deep-rooted and good f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . The pH range i s
lespedeza s t ipulacea 4.5-6.5. T o l e r a n t o f low f e r t i l i t y b u t responds w e l l t o f e r t i l i z e r . A l s o used
m o s t l y i n southeastern s t a t e s .
Red Clover Trifolium Perennial, deep, t a p r o o t e d legume w i t h dense f i b r o u s r o o t system, e f f e c t i v e i n
pratense e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . T o l e r a n t o f pH as low as 4.5. P e r f o m s b e s t on f e r t i l e s o i l s
which a r e w e l l - d r a i n e d . M o s t l y used i n n o r t h e a s t e r n s t a t e s and propagated by
seed, o f t e n w i t h a nurse c r o p o f small g r a i n .
Crownvetch Coroni 11a Perennial legume, w i t h a r o o t system which i s spreading b u t a l s o w i t h a deep
varia t a p r o o t . Very good f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l and t o l e r a t e s a low pH, b u t b e s t when
pH i s above 6.0. P r e f e r s f e r t i l e s o i l s though i s t o l e r a n t o f low f e r t i l i t y and
drought c o n d i t i o n s . Hardy i n a l l zones and propagated b y seed though i t i s slow
t o e s t a b l i s h . It i s used w i d e l y f o r s t a b i l i z i n g highway embankments.
H a i r y vetch V i c i a v i l 1osa A p e r e n n i a l legume w i t h a mat growth. Very f a s t t o spread. E f f e c t i v e i n e r o s i o n
c o n t r o l . A pH range o f 4.8-8.2. Lime i s needed on a c i d s p o i l . I t i s hardy i n
a l l zones and propagated by seed. Good f o r l i v e s t o c k forage.
Lathco La t h y r u s T a l l c l i m b i n g p e r e n n i a l , good f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . A pH range o f 4.8-5.0, Re-
flatpea syl vestriS sponsive t o f e r t i 1izer. D r o u g h t - t o l e r a n t , used m o s t l y i n t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n s t a t e s .
Propagated by seed and good f o r w i 1d l i f e cover.

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MEASURES PERMANENT REVEGETATION - HERBACEOUS SPECIES
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 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
TABLE 5 - AGRICULTURAL AND LAWN GRASSES FOR POSSIBLE USE I N RECLAMATION

Common Name L a t i n Name Comments

Bromegrass Bromus A cool season grass. Spread by rhizomes and producing a deep r o o t system and a
inermi s heavy sod. E x c e l l e n t i n e r o s i o n c o n t r o l e s p e c i a l l y i n combination w i t h a legume.
The pH range i s 5-6, b e s t on f e r t i l e s o i l s . F a i r l y d r o u g h t - r e s i s t a n t . Should
o n l y be p l a n t e d i n t h e e a s t e r n s t a t e s . Propagation by seeds. Forage i s h i g h l y
palatable.
Timothy Phleum Cool season grass, f o r m i n g a dense sod, e x c e l l e n t f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l , t o l e r a n t
pratense o f pH above 5 i f n u t r i e n t s a r e a v a i l a b l e . Not t o l e r a n t o f poor s o i l s . Do n o t
p l a n t i n southern s t a t e s . Propagated by seeds and may produce a v a l u a b l e hay
crop.
3rchard grass Dactyl i s Good f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l e s p e c i a l l y i n combination w i t h legumes. Has a pH t o l -
g l omerata erance range o f 4.5 t o 7. T o l e r a n t o f i n f e r t i l e s o i l s b u t responds w e l l t o
f e r t i 1i z e r . Hardy i n a1 1 zones, propagated by seed. Produces v a l u a b l e f o r a g e
and g r a z i n g p a s t u r e of b e t t e r qua1 i t y mine s p o i l s .
'erennai a1 Lo1ium A bunch grass v a l u a b l e f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l because o f t h e r a p i d cover i t provides.
ryegrass perenne Has a pH t o l e r a n c e range o f 5.5 t o 7 b u t i s n o t t o l e r a n t o f low f e r t i l i t y n o r
drought. Not hardy i n t h e n o r t h e r n and n o r t h e a s t e r n s t a t e s . Propagated by seed
and u s e f u l f o r p a s t u r e hay o r s i l a g e , a l o n e o r i n combination w i t h o t h e r grasses
o r legumes.
Italian Lo1 ium A bunch grass, n o t creeping, b u t used f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l i n combination w i t h
ryegrass mu1t i f l o r u m o t h e r species. S i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o r y e g r a s s and used t o g i v e r a p i d cover
d u r i n g c o l d months.
(entucky Poa Gives r a p i d cover. Perennial w i t h dense rhizome sod. R a p i d i t y o f cover and
11uegrass pratensis d e n s i t y o f sod make i t e x c e l l e n t f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . T o l e r a n t o f pH as low as
5.5. Best on h i g h l y f e r t i l e s o i l s b u t t o l e r a n t o f poorer s o i l s . P r e f e r s cool
m o i s t c o n d i t i o n s and n o r t h e r n exposure.
:anadian Poa Perennial grass n o t as r a p i d as Kentucky bluegrass b u t g i v i n g good e r o s i o n con-
11uegrass compressa t r o l . The lower l i m i t o f pH range i s 5.0. Grows w e l l on s o i l s d e f i c i e n t i n
n i t r o g e n and phosphorus and d r o u g h t - r e s i s t a n t . P r e f e r s cool c o n d i t i o n s and nor+
e r l y exposures. Propagated by seed.
teed Phalaris T a l l , coarse, c o o l season grass forming a sod w i t h a dense r o o t system g i v i n g good
:anarygrass arundinanceae e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . The pH range i s 4.9-8.2. Responds w e l l t o f e r t i l i z e r and i s
t o l e r a n t o f wet c o n d i t i o n s . Useful i n most of t h e n o r t h e r n Appalachians and t h e
n o r t h - c e n t r a l s t a t e s . Propagated by seed o r by d i v o t s spread w i t h a manure
spreader and d i s k harrowed. Good f o r waterway s t a b i l i z a t i o n .
lahiagrass Paspal um A warm-season p e r e n n i a l w i t h a deep-rooted rhizomatous sod. E x c e l l e n t i n t h e
notatum southeastern s t a t e s f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . P r e f e r s pH between 5.5 and 6.5. Tol-
e r a n t of low f e r t i l i t y s o i l s and t o l e r a n t o f drought. Propagated by seed. Only
f o r use i n southern s t a t e s .
Japanese Zoysia A low-growing rhizomatous grass, good f o r e r o s i o n c o n t r o l . Once e s t a b l i s h e d
lawn grass japonica responds w e l l t o f e r t i l i z e r b u t a l s o t o l e r a n t o f low f e r t i l i t y . M o s t l y c o n f i n e d
t o t h e southeastern s t a t e s . Spread by rhizomes.

- - - - -

( 1 ) SCS Maryland, J u l y 1975, "Standard and S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r C r i t i c a l Area P l a n t i n g ( S t r i p Mine Areas i n Western

Maryland," USDA SCS, College Park, MD.
( 2 ) Breeding, C.H.J., Apr 1961, "Crownvetch as an A i d t o S t r i p Mine Reclamation," M i n i n g Congress Journal.
( 3 ) S t r i f f e r , W.D. and May, R.F., " F o r e s t R e s t o r a t i o n of S t r i p Mined Areas," Proceedings o f D i v i s i o n o f Watershed
Management.
( 4 ) Vogel, W.G. and C u r t i s , W.R., 1978, "Reclamation Research on Coal Surface Mined Land i n t h e Humid East," Proc.
Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands Symp., S c h a l l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds. ) , ASA, CSSA, Madison, W I .
( 5 ) Gardner, H.R. and Wool h i s e r , D.A., 1978, " H y d r o l o g i c and C l i m a t i c Factors," Proc. Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y
D i s t u r b e d Lands Symp., S c h a l l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds.), ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, W I .
( 6 ) C h i r o n i s , M.P., J u l y 1977, "Guide t o P l a n t s f o r Mine Spoils," Coal Age, pp. 122-130.
( 7 ) Davis, H., Jan 1974, " P l a n t an Acid-Loving P l a n t t o S t a r t New Worlds o f L i f e i n A c i d Streams," Coal Age, p. 78.
( 8 ) Doubleday, G.P., 1974, "The Reclamation of Land A f t e r Coal Mining," Outlook on A g r i c u l t u r e 8 ( 3 ) .
( 9 ) Bennett, O.L., "Grasses and Legumes f o r Revegetation o f S t r i p - M i n e d Areas," USDA, Morgantown, WV.
(10) Vogel, W.G. and Berg, W.A., May-June 1966, "Grasses and Legumes f o r Cover on A c i d S t r i p - M i n e Spoils," Journal of
S o i l and Water Conservation.

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The performance c o n t r o l s o f t h e Regulations v a r y i n G e n e r a l l y any change i n land-use, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
a number o f places according t o t h e approved post-mining cases where i t i n v o l v e s o b t a i n i n g variances from t h e
land-use. T h i s sheet i s i n t e n d e d t o g i v e t h e o p e r a t o r an approximate o r i g i n a l contour r e s t o r a t i o n requirement, i s
overview o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e post-mining uses, and some o f l i k e l y t o lengthen t h e a p p l i c a t i o n process. However,
t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f each. The post-mining l a n d use w i l l c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d and planned post-mining uses can save
be a major f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g t h e f u t u r e hydrology and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s and s i g n i f i c a n t l y r a i s e t h e post-mining
w a t e r q u a l i t y o f t h e area. value o f t h e land.
APPLICABILITY
A l l mine o p e r a t o r s should c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r a l l t h e forms which s u r f a c e m i n i n g o f f e r s can be r e a l i z e d . For
a l t e r n a t i v e post-mining uses o f t h e s i t e . The choice i n s t a n c e Peabody c o n s t r u c t e d a 400 m g a l l o n water supply
w i l l depend on a number o f f a c t o r s which w i l l a f f e c t t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r t h e town o f L y n n v i l l e on one o f t h e i r
f e a s i b i l i t y o f each use. For instance, some c o u n t i e s i n s u r f a c e m i n i n g s i t e s ( 6 ) . I n such a case, c a r e f u l op-
West V i r g i n i a a r e r e p o r t e d t o have o n l y 6% o f t h e i r l a n d e r a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g t o make sure t h a t t h e f i n a l c u t i s
area which i s n o t t o o steep f o r urban o r a g r i c u l t u r a l l o c a t e d c o r r e c t l y t o minimize earthmoving t o c r e a t e t h e
uses ( 5 ) . I n these areas t h e demand f o r development reservoir i s essential.
l a n d i s l i k e l y t o be high. I f t h e l o c a l p l a n n i n g agency I n areas o f poor groundwater resources i t may a l s o
dpproves such a change of use, t h e RA i s l i k e l y t o g r a n t be f e a s i b l e t o c r e a t e a q u i f e r s . Due t o f r a c t u r i n g and
a v a r i a n c e [785.15]. G e n e r a l l y any change i n use must s h i f t i n g o f t h e overburden, v o i d s i n c r e a s e and t h e
r e s u l t i n a post-mining use which i s an equal o r b e t t e r p o t e n t i a l water s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y a l s o increases. Ift h e
economic o r p u b l i c use. volume i s c o n f i n e d by impermeable g e o l o g i c s t r a t a , t h i s
I n some cases, t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r c r e a t i n g new land- can f o r m an underground r e s e r v o i r (7).
REVELANT SECTIONS OF THE REGULATIONS
S e c t i o n 779.22 (Land-use i n f o r m a t i o n ) r e o u i r e s as p l a n s o f t h e area. I n t h i s s e c t i o n i t i s s t a t e d
) a r t of t h e requirements f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on e n v i r o n - t h a t , "where a l a n d use d i f f e r e n t from t h e w e -
nental resources, a map o f t h e uses o f t h e l a n d a t t h e m i n i n g l a n d use i s proposed, a l l m a t e r i a l s needed
time o f f i l i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n , and a n a r r a t i v e o f t h e f o r approval o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e use" [816.133] must
3 a p a b i l i t y and p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e land. be provided.
S e c t i o n 779.27 r e q u i r e s t h e a p p l i c a n t t o determine 4. Plans o f any proposed impoundments which a r e
vhether any l a n d w i t h i n t h e proposed mine area may be proposed t o be p a r t o f t h e post-mining l a n d use
,rime farmland. I f so t h e s e c i a l performance standards p l a n must be i n c l u d e d as a requirement o f S e c t i o n
For prime farmland ( P a r t 823P apply. 780.25.
P a r t 780 (Minimum Requirement f o r Reclamation and P a r t 785 (Requirements f o r Permits f o r Special
Jperators Plan) r e q u i r e s : Categories o f M i n i n g ) i n c l u d e d a s e c t i o n [785.14] on
1. A F i s h and W i l d l i f e P l a n C780.161. T h i s i s Mountaintop Removal m i n i n g and a s e c t i o n [785.16] on
m o s t l y t o show how adverse impacts o f m i n i n g on variances from t h e "approximate o r i g i n a l contour"
f i s h and w i l d l i f e can be minimized. For areas r e s t o r a t i o n requirements. These s e c t i o n s may be impor-
where t h e approved post-mining use o f t h e l a n d i s t a n t f o r operators wishing t o create r e l a t i v e l y f l a t
f o r f i s h and w i l d l i f e , t h e a p p l i c a n t w i l l need t o development l a n d i n areas o f steep t e r r a i n .
show how t h e s i t e i s enhanced f o r t h i s use. An i m p o r t a n t s e c t i o n o f t h e performance c o n t r o l s
2. Reclamation Plan: P r o t e c t i o n o f t h e h y d r o l o g i c [ P a r t 8161 i s S e c t i o n 816.101 ( B a c k f i l l i n g and Grading:
balance [780.21]. T h i s S e c t i o n i s a l s o m o s t l y con- General Requirements) which c o n t a i n s t h e "approximate
cerned w i t h m i n i m i z i n g t h e adverse impacts o f min- o r i g i n a l contour" requirement. There a r e a l s o d i f f e r -
i n g water resources. But c l e a r l y , where enhance- ences i n t h e requirements o f S e c t i o n 816.11 1 (Revegeta-
ment o f t h e water storage c a p a c i t y o f t h e area i s t i o n : General Requirements) and S e c t i o n 816.1 16
planned, i t must be shown i n t h i s S e c t i o n . (Revegetation : Standards and Success) according t o t h e
3. Reclamation Plan - Post-Mining Land Uses approved post-mining l a n d use. Throughout P a r t 816
C780.231. T h i s S e c t i o n r e q u i r e s a d e t a i l e d de- t h e r e a r e a number o f cases where i t i s s t a t e d t h a t t h e
s c r i p t i o n o f t h e proposed l a n d uses f o r t h e s i t e . RA may approve a l t e r n a t i v e l a n d uses i f t h e proposed use
The o p e r a t o r must show t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e l a n d uses i s compatible w i t h a d j a c e n t l a n d uses, and i f i t can be
have been considered and a l s o show t h a t t h e chosen shown t h a t t h e ~ r 0 ~ 0 S euse d i s f e a s i b l e . There a r e
I use i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e l a n d use p o l i c i e s and
DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES
several o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s . -
These " g u i d e l i n e s " a r e i n t e n d e d as no more than a o p e r a t o r w i t h a q u i c k reminder o f a l t e r n a t i v e uses and
c h e c k l i s t o f p o s t - m i n i n g l a n d uses, t o p r o v i d e t h e t h e i r implications.
1 LAND USE DEMAND PROBLEMS COMMENTS

Urban Industrial, I n some areas o f Variances from t h e The post-mining l a n d v a l u e f o r development l a n d

Uses Residential , steep t e r r a i n t h e approximate o r i g i n a l i n areas where s u i t a b l e l a n d i s scarce may be more
Commercial , lack o f level land contour requirement than t e n times i t s pre-mining value.
etc. i s a s e r i o u s con- must be obtained. The haphazard c r e a t i o n o f areas of f l a t o r
s t r a i n t t o develop- Settlement o f s p o i l g e n t l y s l o p i n g l a n d i n areas o f steep t e r r a i n may
ment. mass may cause prob- r e s u l t i n an u n d e s i r a b l e change i n landscape charac-
Urban uses demand lems f o r several ter.
a v a i l a b l e water and y e a r s a f t e r mining. I n some remote areas a c c e s s i b i l i t y can be im-
developable l a n d i n C r e a t i o n o f develop- proved. There a r e cases o f a i r s t r i p s on reclaimed
close proximity. a b l e l a n d must be mine s i t e s , and improved s e c t i o n s o f roads.
One may be a v a i l a b l e consistent w i t h land The clearance o f o l d deep mine d e r e l i c t i o n
without the other. use p o l i c y of l o c a l (waste dumps, e t c . ) i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h on-going s u r -
Accessibility i s p i anning agency. f a c e mine o p e r a t i o n s has g r e a t p o t e n t i a l f o r c r e a t i o r
necessary. of i n d u s t r i a l l a n d arid l a n d f o r o t h e r uses.
 DISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED)
LAND USE DEMAND PROBLEMS COMMENTS

ater Surface Poor groundwater r e - Supply should be M i n i n g o p e r a t i o n s may have t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r

torage Storage sources and u n r e l i a - protected. c r e a t i n g impoundments e i t h e r by damming o r by excava.
ble or insufficient The presence o f t i o n . I n e i t h e r case c a r e f u l p l a n n i n g and coordina-
stream f l o w makes a c i d - f o r m i n g mat- t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l t o minimize t h e earthmoving r e -
s u r f a c e water s t o r - e r i a l s may make q u i red.
age necessary, impoundment un- C r e a t i o n o f an assured w a t e r supply and develop.
particulary i n parts feasible. ment l a n d may h e l p small communities i n mountainous
o f Appalachia. O l d deep mine work- areas achieve some o f t h e i r l o n g term o b j e c t i v e s .
Water impoundments i n g s i n t h e area may There a r e a number o f cases o f impoundments i n
may have p o t e n t i a l cause problems. f i n a l c u t s which a r e n o t a f f e c t e d by a c i d drainage,
f o r multi-use f o r b e i n g used t o supplement l o c a l w a t e r supply. A
recreation, wild- r e l i a b l e w a t e r supply may a t t r a c t some processing i n
l i f e , etc. d u s t r i e s and o f f s e t unemployment problems.

Ground I n some areas, F r a c t u r i n g and Surface m i n i n g increases v o i d space i n c a s t

Water groundwater y i e l d i s s h i f t i n g o f over- ground by 15-25%. T h i s increases n o t o n l y t h e w a t e r
Storage v e r y low, u s u a l l y burden w i l l i n c r e a s e s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y b u t a l s o t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y and hence
due t o t h e absence storage capacity b u t t h e recharge r a t e . Provided t h a t t h e water i n t h e
o f water-bearing t h e a q u i f e r must a1 - s p o i l can be c o n f i n e d by r e l a t i v e l y impermeable
strata (aquifers). so be confined. s t r a t a i t can be recovered by pumping. The problem
The c r e a t i o n o f P o l l u t i o n o f ground- o f oxygenated w a t e r coming i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h p y r i t e
a q u i f e r s and r e c l a - w a t e r by a c i d d r a i n - must o f course be recognized.
mation t o o r i g i n a l age may make w a t e r
c o n t o u r may be unusable.
feasible.

, g r i c u l - Cropland Most l a n d s u i t a b l e I n steep areas, There i s c o n s i d e r a b l e experience i n r e c l a i m i n g

ure f o r r e c l a m a t i o n as s l o p e w i l l be l i m i t - mineland f o r crops i n West Germany and B r i t a i n . I n
c r o p l a n d w i l l be i n g as most p r o b a b l y t h e US a growing number o f companies p r i o r t o t h e
prime farmland and w i l l the a v a i l a b i l i - 1977 a c t were experimenting w i t h r e c l a m a t i o n f o r
s u b j e c t t o t h e spe- t y o f topsoil. c r o p l a n d b u t w i t h t h e s p e c i a l requirements o f t h e
c i a 1 performance Poor drainage i s a Regulations c o v e r i n g t h e r e c l a m a t i o n o f prime farm-
standards o f P a r t common problem asso- land, e x p e r t i s e i n t h e US w i l l grow r a p i d l y .
823. c i a t e d w i t h cropland Very c a r e f u l management f o r a p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g
The c r e a i i o r i o f on reclaimed mine s u r f a c e mine r e c l a m a t i o n i s necessary t o r e e s t a b l i s h
prime farmland i s land. Where t o p s o i l t h e drainage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e m o i s t u r e and
l i k e l y t o cost i n s u b s t i t u t e s were n u t r i e n t a v a i l a b i l i t y i n t h e s o i l , e t c . Underdrain-
t h e r e g i o n of $5000 used t o supplement age i s f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e d on reclaimed s i t e s .
p e r acre o r more. existing topsoil,
I t may n o t be pos- lack o f organic
sible t o justify m a t t e r and s o i l
t h i s i n some areas. microorganism may
1ead t o d i s a p p o i n t -
i n g results.

Other Ag- Good g r a z i n g l a n d Good qua1 it y p a s t u r e There a r e many cases o f l a n d r e s t o r e d f o r

ricultural can be c r e a t e d on w i l l give excellent g r a z i n g and f o r a g e crops. One o f t h e pioneers i n
Uses reclaimed s i t e s e r o s i o n c o n t r o l on t h i s f i e l d has been t h e A y r s h i r e Coal Company and
without incuring restored sites. t h e i r Meadowlark Farms, I n c . , o p e r a t i n g i n I l l i n o i s ,
heavy c o s t s . When heavy s t o c k i n g I n d i a n a and Kentucky. H i g h l y e f f i c i e n t l i v e s t o c k
S e c t i o n 816.116 r a t e s a r e used u n i t s c o u l d be c r e a t e d on r e c l a i m e d mine s i t e s ,
contains s p e c i f i c damage t o sod i s though t h e s i t e would p r o b a b l y have t o exceed 25
performance stand- l i k e l y on r e s t o r e d acres ( 3 ) .
dards f o r g r a z i n g land. Experiments i n r a i s i n g f r u i t on reclaimed mine
l a n d s . Recent1y s i t e s have been conducted i n West V i r g i n i a w i t h some
experiments i n success ( 2 ) .
growing v a r i o u s
f r u i t crops have
been c a r r i e d out.

1- I I
POSTMINING LAND USES HANDBOOK
FOR 181
ID MEASURES

129
SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
)ISCUSSION & DESIGN GUIDELINES (CONTINUED) -
LAND USE DEMAND PROBLEMS COMMENTS

i s h and The demand f o r w i l d - The impact o f sur- The v a l u e o f h a b i t a t f o r w i l d l i f e depends on

ildlife l i f e h a b i t a t may be f a c e m i n i n g on f i s h s e v e r a l f a c t o r s , some o f which can be v a r i e d . The
from sportsmen, n a t - and w i l d l i f e may be Regulations r e q u i r e t h e use o f n a t i v e species o f t h e
ure conservationists s e r i o u s i n terms o f same seasonal v a r i e t y as pre-mining c o n d i t i o n s .
etc. d e s t r u c t i o n o f hab- W i l d l i f e can make b e t t e r use o f n a t i v e p l a n t s than
itat, pollution o f of i n t r o d u c e d species, and n a t u r a l d i v e r s i t y i s an
s u r f a c e water, e t c . i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n c r e a t i n g w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t . Food
However even some source, cover, "edge" c o n d i t i o n s (hedges, woodland
orphan l a n d now pro- edges, e t c . ) and t h e presence o f w a t e r i n v a r i o u s
v i d e s extremely r i c h forms a r e i m p o r t a n t .
h a b i t a t and i n some
areas non-acid im-
poundments p r o v i d e
e x t r e m e l y r i c h hab-
i t a t and i n some
areas non-acid im-
poundments p r o v i d e
excellent fishing.

o r e s t r y Commercial Comnercial f o r e s t The requirements f o r Surface m i n i n g can improve a c c e s s i b i l i t y b u t i n

a l s o has m u l t i - u s e mechanized c o m e r - some cases where haul roads a r e t o be l e f t permanent-
p o t e n t i a l (hunting/ c i a 1 f o r e s t r y make l y , t h e performance standards c o n t a i n s p e c i f i c r e -
water catchment). a c c e s s i b i l i t y and quirements. There a r e a l s o s p e c i f i c standards f o r
t e r r a i n important s t o c k i n g o f f o r e s t l a n d [816.117].
f a c t o r s i n develop-
i n g comnercial f o r -
e s t land.

ecrea- Various r e c r e a t i o n a l Small mine s i t e s may Mine s i t e s c l o s e t o e x i s t i n g communities may

ion uses can be consid- n o t have t h e poten- have g r e a t p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f r e c r e a t i o n a l
ered f o r post- t i a l for creation l a n d a l o n e o r i n combination w i t h development land.
m i n i n g l a n d use on of facilities for
s u r f a c e mine s i t e s . some r e c r e a t i o n a l
A c c e s s i b i l i t y and activities.
t h e presence o f
water a r e o f t e n two
important factors i n
choice o f r e c r e a t i o n
areas.

REFERENCE
1 ) Vogel, W.G. and C u r t i s , W.R., 1978, "Reclamation Research on Coal Surface-Mined Lands i n t h e Humid East," Proc.
Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands, S c h a l l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds.), ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, W I .
2) C o r n f o r t h , C., Jan 1975, "Reclamation Forges Ahead Throughout t b e Land," Coal M i n i n g and Processing.
3) C o r n f o r t h , C., Aug 1971, "Farming f o r P r o f i t on Reclaimed Land, Coal M i n i n g and Processing.
4 ) Riddle, J.M. and Sperstein, L.W., 1978, "Premining Planning t o Maximize E f f e c t i v e Land Use and Reclamation,"
Proc. o f Reclamation o f D r a s t i c a l l y D i s t u r b e d Lands, S c h a l l e r , F.W. and Sutton, P., (Eds.), ASA, Madison, W I .
5 ) C h i r o n i s , N.P., J u l y 1977, " I m a n g i n a t i v e Plans Make Mined Land B e t t e r Than Ever," Coal Age, pp. 48-51.
6) Grandt, A. F., Aug 1974, "Reclamation Problems i n Surface Mining," Mining Congress J o u r n a l .
7) C u r t i s , W.R., June 1978, "Planning Surface Mining A c t i v i t i e s f o r Water C o n t r o l ," Proc. 5 t h N o r t h American F o r e s t

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S o i l s Conference, USDA F o r e s t Service, Berea, KY.

7
1 POSTMINING LAND USES
HANDBOOK
FOR
I MEASURES )I I SMALL MINE
OPERATORS
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