ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

School of Mechanical, Chemical & Materials Engineering

Department of Mechanical Design &
Manufacturing Engineering

Assignment of Precision manufacturing I

Prepared by : Kebebe Urgie ID: A/PE20988/12
Sub_to : Dr, Guteta
1,What precision machining method is used to produce diamond cutting tool used for machining
hard materials for high precision. Explain the procedures using possible diagrams and sketch
where necessary.
Diamond is a transparent solid made mostly of one kind of atom, carbon. It serves mankind in two
very different ways - as a gem stone and as an industrial tool. Diamond is often regarded as the
most beautiful of all gems and it is the hardest of all materials.
One of the basic factors which lifts diamond, both as a gem and as a cutting tool, far above all
other crystalline materials is its extreme hardness. This is obviously the primary reason why
diamond is so valuable as an industrial tool. The same property of hardness, combined of course
with its optical properties which produce luster, makes it supreme as a gem stone. Other minerals
such as zircon and topaz also show a very high brilliance, but the lack of hardness makes them
inferior as gem stones.
Diamonds, once regarded as rare and extraordinary-are now of everyday use in many parts of the
world. They are used in grinding wheels to sharpen tools or to precisely machine materials.
Diamond tools are found to be very efficient for grinding and shaping hard metal carbides,
ceramics, plastics, crystals and other hard and abrasive materials. Diamonds are also used in drill
crowns for the production of long holes, for sampling and prospecting purposes. Of late, diamond
tools have been used in the manufacture of micron-sized features in applications such as - micro
heat exchangers, microshafts, micromirrors, microreactors and others.

A Brief History of Diamond Machining

Diamond has been valued as a gem for many years. As a cutting tool it was apparently first used
in 1779 for cutting hardened steel threads. The significance of diamond tools in precision
machining was realized in the 1850's. A diamond pointed pantograph made in the 1850's was
reported to be able to engrave legible characters 2.5:m high. The Lord=s prayer was reportedly
engraved into an area 100 x 40:m by 1920. By 1926, it was claimed that 80 Abibles per square
inch@ could be engraved (3,556,480 letters/bible). These are dimensions requiring a scanning
electron microscope, which was not developed until decades later. The outstanding importance of
diamond as a tool capable of cutting the hardest metal alloys and the most abrasive materials was
first appreciated in the period between the world wars. The full importance of this technical
advance was realized during the second world war. By the 1960's diamond machining was
pervasive at government research labs and was moving into the optics industries.
From the mid-thirties onwards, the demand for industrial diamond has increased steadily so that
the consumption has risen to the very high figure of about 20 million carats per year. Man was
forced to study the possibility of making diamonds with fewer impurities. Recent developments in
this field has resulted in the synthesis of diamonds suitable for use as abrasive on an industrial
scale. Cutting with very small (tens of microns) tools was further developed by the Japanese in the
1980's. Diamond tools have found application in this burgeoning field as well. They have been
employed, highly successfully, in making micron-sized features.

Features of Diamond Machining

High quality tools can be made of single crystal natural diamond. They are used to make high
precision parts in metals, plastics, ceramics and a host of other materials.
The advantages of using diamond cutting tools often include improved workpiece quality,
increased productivity, and reduced costs. High hardness and wear resistance result in good surface

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finishes over long production runs, consistent control of dimensions for extended periods, and long
tool life.
Diamonds have a much higher thermal conductivity at room temperature than other materials, and
this plays an important part in the industrial use of the stones. When a tool is cutting at high speed,
the removal rate of heat from the cutting point is very important in preventing loss by burning or
thermal fracture of the work piece.
Hence it is the combination of extreme hardness and high thermal conductivity that makes
diamond so important as an industrial tool. It is not sufficient to have either of these properties
alone. This consideration suggests that development of any equivalent industrial material will be
extremely difficult if not impossible.
Diamond has maximum hardness among natural materials. The hardness of a diamond varies
greatly with the cleavage direction. Best results are obtained from a diamond mounted as a cutting
tool when it is correctly oriented to within one degree. The stone must be mounted so that the tool
approaches the work piece along one of its hard planes, rather than parallel to its cleavage planes,
to prevent premature wear and possible flaking or chipping.

Structure and Properties of Diamond

Diamond is a crystalline form of carbon and has the crystal structure shown in fig 1. Diamond
crystallizes most commonly in octahedra whose faces are {111} planes or in dodecahedra whose
faces are {110} planes. The simple cube (with {100} faces) is found but is less common. Very
often the crystal shape is not perfect, for example the dodecahedra have round surfaces and the
octahedra may develop as thin plates.

Fig.1 crystal structure of diamond

Characteristics of diamond tool material

Diamond tools are divided into natural diamond and artificial diamond tools. Natural diamond
has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity in natural substances. But it is expensive and
difficult to machine, except for a few special purposes such as watches precision parts, optical
accessories and jewelry carving processing. It is rarely used as a cutting tool in industry. With the
development of high technologies and precision machining, such as nuclear reactors, the
navigation gyro of mirrors, computer hard chips, accelerator electron gun and other precision parts
processing, natural diamond single crystal can meet the above requirements. In recent years, with

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the development of a variety of chemical mechanism of the grinding diamond tools and the
technology of protective atmosphere brazing diamond, it makes the manufacturing process of
natural diamond tools to become simple. Therefore, in the precision mirror machining application,
the natural diamond plays an important role.
The hardness and abrasive resistance of diamond is high, and its micro hardness is up
to10000HV. At the same time, the processing surface quality is good because of its low friction
coefficient and it has no affinity with the non-ferrous metal. It can process non-ferrous metal
materials and non-metallic materials, such as copper, aluminum, ceramics, hard alloy, plastic,
rubber, graphite, glass and all kinds of wear-resistant wood (especially solid wood and plywood
and other composite materials).
Diamond also has disadvantages of poor toughness and low thermal stability. It is easily carbonized at
700℃, so it is not suitable for processing iron and steel materials. The iron atoms and carbon atoms react
easily at high temperature, and diamond is transformed into graphite structure. In addition, it is also worn
quickly for cutting with nickel-based alloy.

Diamond cutting tools and their uses

This technology has been applied to the cutting tools since the low pressure chemical vapor
deposition (CVD) method develop successfully. Through years of application and research and
development, the thick film of CVD diamond welding tool has entered the practical stage. The
companies in the United States like the Kennametal, General Motors Corp and Norton have
product sales. CVD diamond film coated blade is in the applied research stage, some domestic
universities, research institutes and tools manufacturers such as Harbin Institute of Technology,
Tsinghua University, Beijing Institute of Technology, Shanghai Jiaotong University and
Guangzhou nonferrous Metal Research Institute are stepping up the related products research and
development work.
The hot wire method, microwave plasma method and DC plasma jet method are used to made
CVD diamond. CVD diamond cutting tools can be roughly divided into two categories:
diamond film coated tools and diamond thick film welding tool.

CVD diamond film coated tool

CVD diamond film cutting tools with the overall coating of diamond surface can be refined into a
cutting edge with any shape and geometry. Diamond film coated tools are better than that of PCD in
some aspects
How diamond tools are made by fixing the diamond onto the tools base via electroplating method or
via CVD method. they can usually be made to good processing precision. ceramic bonded diamond
tools.
Deposition of thick film diamond tool

With the rapid development of the technology of diamond deposition, the film is developed into thick
film.
The tools bonding material is glass and ceramic powder Manuel MBD diamond block for granite
polishing small diamond flicker diamond abrasive L125mm plastic
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 • Very long cutting life
• For manual grinding machine
• Easy operation
• High strength plastic base, strong and light.
Diamond machining

Diamond turning and milling have evolved into fast and reliable techniques for generating complex
optical surfaces that cannot be produced economically in any other way or cannot be created in
any other way at all. Products that require diamond machining for the fabrication of at least one of
their components are all around us, such as a computer mouse, a DVD player, a pocket camera, a
mobile phone, a barcode scanner, reflective tape or a contact lens. All these components are mass
produced by injection or compression molding or, in the case of glass lenses, by hot isostatic
pressing, relying on the quality of diamond turned metal molds. Diamond-machined optical
components are needed for projection systems, displays, laser scanners, sensors, scientific
instruments, medical and defense equipment, laser beam guiding, illumination systems and many
more. These products exhibit a multitude of different surfaces ranging from rotational symmetric
a spheres to freeform and structured surfaces with Fresnel or prismatic elements. The surface finish
obtained by diamond machining is between 1 and 10nm Sa, depending on machining conditions
and on material properties; the achieved figure accuracy ranges between 0.1 and 1 mm
peak-to-valley, depending on the size and shape of the workpiece.
How has diamond machining reached the precision and flexibility that is available today?
There are two key elements that have enabled the evolution of mechanical machining towards
higher accuracy:
1, control of the accuracy of the machine, and
2, control of the accuracy of the tool.

Table. Diamond-machined optical elements and precision parts exhibiting different types of surfaces.

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Table. Evolution of commercially available diamond machining equipment

2) with a contouring accuracy less than 0.1 mm over 812.8mm is supposed to be the most precise
machine in the world. Other special purpose machines have been built for diamond turning of large
mirrors up to 2032mm diameter.
Fresnel lenses up to 1950mm diameter, precision drums up to 2000mm in length and mandrels for
the production of Wolter mirrors for X-ray telescopes.
The progress made in the development of tools and equipment is reflected by an improvement in
the achievable surface roughness and figure accuracy, but even more by the tremendous increase
in complexity of accessible surface shapes. While in the 1970s and 1980s diamond turning had
been welcomed as a cost-effective technique for generating rotationally symmetric aspherical
surfaces it has become possible today to create freeform shapes and structured surfaces, even
in combination. Increasing complexity is associated with a loss of symmetry of the surface and
hence with an increase in the number of degrees of freedom needed for moving a tool past a
surface, i.e. an increase in the number of controllable machine axes. For diamond machining, the
challenge is twofold.
First, it is not easy to maintain stiffness and contouring accuracy (which has now become
volumetric accuracy) when adding more axes to a machine.
Second, owing to the nature of the cutting tool (which is a polished single crystal diamond), only
a very few cutting operations can be realized (compared with conventional multi-axis machining),
which are essentially limited to single edge circumferential milling (fly-cutting) and ball-end
milling, the latter being used if small radii of curvature make flycutting impractical. On the other
hand, because cutting edges are extremely sharp (less than 50nm edge roundness), the surface
finish does not depend on cutting speed, so that, in contrast to conventional machining, milling
operations may be substituted by scraping or chiselling, and turning operations may be slowed
down, allowing for adjusting the tool’s position by an additional linear axis in correspondence with
the angular position of the workpiece. This technique is called SSS turning, if the third axis is a
major axis of the machine, or FTS turning, if the tool is driven by a voice coil or a piezo actuator.
Because the moving mass is smaller in FTS turning, accelerations may be higher, but strokes are
much smaller than in SSS turning.

Diamond turning machines

Single point diamond turning has long been a well-established technology for the fabrication of a
wide range of non-ferrous metals, crystals and polymers.

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Nanotch 350 UPL (Moore Nanotechnology system Ltd.) and Nanoform 350 (Precistech Ltd.) are
two widely used diamond turning machines with 350 mm of swing capability. Here it takes
Nanoform 350 UPL as an example to explain its configuration.
This two-axis ultraprecision lathe is characterized as “T” axis configuration. the X slide moves
spindle box along X direction, while diamond cutting tool is moved along Z direction by Z slide.
Both slides are built on the machine base and vertical to each other. They are also in the same
height so as to improve motion accuracy. Nanotech 350 UPL employs high stiffness hydrostatic
slideways, state-of-the-art linear motors with sinusoidal drive amplifiers and a 6,000 rpm heavy-
duty groove compensated air bearing work spindle with liquid cooling for long-term thermal
stability.
With Nanotech 350UPL components used in the electro-optics, aerospace, consumer electronics
and computer industries can be machined with good surface finish (in several nanometres) and
high form accuracy (in ten of nanometres). Nanotech 350 UPL has optional grinding system for
micro-grinding optical components and direct grinding of lens molds in non-diamond machinable
materials such as metals and ceramics.

Figure. Schematic of the vertical axis large optics diamond turning machine (courtesy of LLNL).

Basic steps in Diamond Turning

Much like the traditional optical-fabrication process, the diamond-turning process can be described as
a series of steps used to make an optical element.
The steps used in diamond turning are:
1. Preparing the blank with all the required features of the element with an extra thickness of material
(generally 0.1 mm extra material or plating is adequate) on the surface to be diamond turned
2. Mounting the blank in an appropriate fixture or chuck on the diamond-turning machine

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3. Selecting the diamond tool appropriate for material and shape of optical component
4. Mounting and adjusting the diamond tool on the machine
5. Machining the optical surface to final shape and surface quality
6. Cleaning the optical surface to remove cutting oils or solvents

Figure. Current diamond turning process

Fig, Empire Precision

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 Fig, Diamond Turning Machine Cross Section
With diamond turning, a special high-precision cutting tool featuring is used on the lathe. The diamond
may be natural or synthetic. Regardless, all diamond turning operations are performed using a
diamond-tipped cutting tool.

Most diamond turning operations involve the use of a single-point cutting tool. In other words, the
diamond-tipped cutting tool only has a single, fixed point. Known as single-point diamond turning
(SPDT), it’s become synonymous with this machining process. However, there are diamond turning
operations that involve the use of a multi-point cutting tool. The diamond-tipped cutting tool may
feature a contoured head to achieve a specific size and shape with the finished workpiece.

Diamond turning is used primarily in machining applications that require a high level of precision. It’s
usually performed using a CNC lathe. As a result, manufacturing companies can program diamond
turning operations using a computer. The computer transmits the signals to the lathe, which then
executes the operation by selectively cutting the workpiece using a diamond-tipped cutting tool.

In addition to turning, diamonds are used in several other machining processes, some of which include
milling, honing and grinding. Diamonds, of course, are expensive, making these processes somewhat
restrictive for manufacturing companies. Nonetheless, diamonds are recognized as being one of the
hardest materials in the world, making them useful in a variety of machining processes.

Diamond tools play a critical role in ultra-precision machining due to their excellent physical and
mechanical material properties, such as that cutting edge can be sharpened to nanoscale accuracy.

Generally, the aspheric lenses are producing by the injection moulding process in mass production,
where the ultra-precision lathe is used as a secondary machining processes to finish these lenses. these
machining has then capability to control the cutting edges of the tool to 1µm accuracy.
Ultra precision diamond turning of hardened steel to produce optical quality surfaces can be realized
by applying an ultrasonic assisted process. With this technology optical moulds used typically for
injection moulding can be machined directly from steel without the requirement to overcoat the mould

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with a diamond machinable material such as Nickel Phosphor. This has both the advantage of
increasing the mould tool lifetime and also reducing manufacture costs by dispensing with the
relatively expensive plating process. This publication will present results we have obtained for
generating free form moulds in hardened steel by means of ultrasonic assisted diamond turning with a
vibration frequency of 80 kHz. To provide a baseline with which to characterize the system
performance we perform plane cutting experiments on different steel alloys with different
compositions. The baseline machining results provides us information on the surface roughness and
on tool wear caused during machining and we relate these to material composition. Moving on to
freeform surfaces, we will present a theoretical background to define the machine program parameters
for generating free forms by applying slow slide servo machining techniques. A solution for optimal
part generation is introduced which forms the basis for the freeform machining experiments. The entire
process chain, from the raw material through to ultra-precision machining is presented, with emphasis
on maintaining surface alignment when moving a component from CNC pre-machining to final
machining using ultrasonic assisted diamond turning. The free form moulds are qualified on the basis
of the surface roughness measurements and a form error map comparing the machined surface with
the originally defined surface. These experiments demonstrate the feasibility of efficient free form
machining applying ultrasonic assisted diamond turning of hardened steel.
Single point diamond turning (SPDT) is highly controllable and versatile in producing axially
symmetric forms, non-axially-symmetric forms, microstructured surfaces, and free forms. However,
the fine SPDT marks left in the surface limit its performance, and they are difficult to reduce or
eliminate. It is unpractical for traditional methods to remove the fine marks without destroying their
forms, especially for the aspheres and free forms. This paper introduces abrasive jet polishing (AJP)
for the posttreatment of diamond-turned surfaces to remove the periodic microstructures. Samples of
diamond-turned electroless nickel plated plano mirror were used in the experiments. One sample with
an original surface roughness of more than 400nm decreased to 4nm after two iterations abrasive jet
polishing; the surface roughness of another sample went from 3.7nm to 1.4nm after polishing. The
periodic signatures on both of the samples were removed entirely after polishing. Contrastive
experimental research was carried out on electroless nickel mirror with magnetorheological finishing,
computer controlled optical surfacing, and AJP. The experimental results indicate that AJP is more
appropriate in removing the periodic SPDT marks. Also, a figure maintaining experiment was carried
out with the AJP process; the uniform polishing process shows that the AJP process can remove the
periodic turning marks without destroying the original form
Diamond grinding; allows access to more materials than diamond turning. It is capable of
fabrication of a range of materials including optical glass, crystals, ferrous metals, polymers and
ceramics. Nanotech 500FG (Moore Nanotechnology System Ltd.) is a typical multi-axis It is
capable of generating arbitrary conformal optical surface (including non-spherical and non-
axisymmetric) shapes within a 250 mm × 250 mm × 300 mm machining envelope. Nanotech
500FG has three linear axes. They are the independently mounted X and Z axis with a “T”
configuration and Y axis mounted integral to Z axis to eliminate “stacked” axes. The slideways
stiffness is 350 N/μm. The motion accuracy of work spindle is lower than 50 nm. Rotary table (B-

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axis) is used to carry the grinding spindle. When replacing the grinding spindle with a diamond
tool, the machine is also capable of turning operations.
Nanotech 500FG is capable of generating components with non-axisymmetric and axisymmetric
geometrics, such as conformal optics with spherical, aspheric, cylindrical, conical geometries;
lenses & mould inserts; F-Theta Lenses; aspheric lenses & mirrors; diffractive element; polygons
and prisms.
To pursue a more rigidity structure an ultraprecision grinding machine – PicoAce machine with
novel pyramidal space frame structure was commissioned by Load point Ltd recently. PicoAce is
suitable for traverse grinding of flat or convex work surfaces up to a maximum of φ305 mm
diameter or plunge grinding of flat surfaces to a maximum diameter of φ200 mm. The general
arrangement of PicoAce is, the principal machine elements: cup wheel grinding spindle, rotary
work table, X and Z slideways are mounted in a closed loop structure. The structure takes the form
of a pyramid shape frame fixed to a solid rectangular base. The cup wheel spindle has a vertical
axis and is arranged to slide up and down in a cylindrical Z slideway positioned centrally over the
base. Directly beneath the wheel spindle is the rotary table mounted on the X slidway. With this
novel structure the static loop stiffness of PicoAce is 100 N/μm in vertical direction. High motion
resolution of 1 nm is achieved in Z axis. It can produce optical quality surface finishes with low
levels of subsurface damage on a range of hard and brittle materials.

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2, Discus machine tools used for Micro turning, micro drilling & micro milling.
Micromachining is the basic technology for fabrication of micro-components of size in the range
of 1 to 500 μm. Their need arises from miniaturization of various devices in science and
engineering, calling for ultra-precision manufacturing and micro-fabrication.

Micromachining refers to mechanical micro cutting using geometrically determined cutting

edge(s) (micro turning, micro milling and micro drilling, etc.) performed on conventional precision
machines or micromachines.

WHY MICRO MACHINING?

Final finishing operations in manufacturing of precise parts are always of concern owing to
their most critical, labour intensive and least controllable nature.
In the era of nanotechnology, deterministic high precision finishing methods are of utmost
importance and are the need of present manufacturing scenario.
The need for high precision in manufacturing was felt by manufacturers worldwide to improve
interchangeability of components, improve quality control and longer wear/fatigue life.

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A, Micro turning is one type of micromachining process which uses a solid tool and its material
removal process is almost similar to conventional turning operation. The objective of this paper
is to provide a state of the art in the field of micro turning. In recent years, researchers have
explored a number of ways to improve the micro turning process performance by analyzing the
different factors that affect the quality characteristics. The experimental and theoretical studies
show that the process performance can be improved considerably by proper selection of micro
turning parameters. This paper reviews the research work carried out so far in the area of micro
turning and reports about the experimental and theoretical studies on micro turning to achieve
more efficient material removal rate coupled with reduction in tool wear and improved surface
quality
Micro turning tools and tooling system

Miniaturized tools with clamping – Swiss type lathe or multipurpose tooling system – Used as a tool
block
Monolithic carbide tools – boring and grooving – smallest diameter of 0.2
mm to 4 mm maximum.

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 Fig. micro turning

Machine tools for micro turning

• In general – CNC automatic lathe, sliding head mechanism

• Swiss type Lathe
• Swiss type turning centers with milling, drilling, boring – single setup with lower cost –upto 4mm dia..
• Sliding head stock – 32 mm max. dia. with bar feeder.
• 12000 rpm – with guide bushes and 16000 rpm without guide bushes.
• 10000 rpm – sub spindles for milling, drilling.

B, micro drilling

As a subset of the drilling process, industrial microdrilling uses many of the same components and
principles involved in standard-sized drilling operations, but its key distinction lies in its results.
Microdrilling can produce holes with diameters measured in millimeters and micrometers, and
usually with tight tolerances made possible by a high degree of machining precision. Microdrilling
equipment employs smaller drill bits with specific head and flute designs intended to complement
the careful accuracy of its work.

Aside from size considerations, microdrilling has distinct methods of rotation and cycle stages.
These features allow microdrilled parts to have anywhere from one to thousands of microscopic

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holes in them. Such components are often found in applications that precisely regulate the passage
of liquid or gas, small diameter tubing, and certain types of extrusion dies. Microdrilling can be
used in conjunction with lathing processes, as well as CNC automation systems.

As a subset of the drilling process, industrial microdrilling uses many of the same components and
principles involved in standard-sized drilling operations, but its key distinction lies in its results.
Microdrilling can produce holes with diameters measured in millimeters and micrometers, and
usually with tight tolerances made possible by a high degree of machining precision. Microdrilling
equipment employs smaller drill bits with specific head and flute designs intended to complement
the careful accuracy of its work.

Aside from size considerations, microdrilling has distinct methods of rotation and cycle stages.
These features allow microdrilled parts to have anywhere from one to thousands of microscopic
holes in them. Such components are often found in applications that precisely regulate the passage
of liquid or gas, small diameter tubing, and certain types of extrusion dies. Microdrilling can be
used in conjunction with lathing processes, as well as CNC automation systems.

Fig. microdirilling machine

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Microdrills and tooling system
• HSS(resistant to breaking) to carbide(stiffer but brittle).
• Diameter range – 0.12 mm to 2.8 mm.
• Drilling of Aircraft Al, Titanium, SS, Steel.
• 10 mm length with shank.
Characteristic Features and application
• Holes – tens of micrometers – PCB
• Inkjet printers – single row of 251 holes – 50 μm dia.
• Used below 0.5 mm.
• Minimum diameter of micro drills -> 5-50 μm.

C, Micromilling

Used to create 3D features in the range of a few microns to a few hundred microns.
Micro milling is capable of the fabricating holes several tens of micrometers in size for practical
applications

Fig. micromilling machine tool

Milling is a coordinated intermittent subtractive process where the tool edge, once contact is
initiated, continuously impacts the workpiece surface through a series of linear or multi axis
movements. Surface chips of a specific thickness are removed until the desired pattern or toolpath
has been completed. This technique, widely used in manufacturing, can perform fabrication of
basic and complex features. It can have positive, zero, or negative rake angles depending on
the orientation and workpiece material, resulting in different chip removal mechanisms.
Typically, micromilling is conducted using flat or ball end mills with several flutes integrated into
the shaft structure.

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 References

1 Fung, Y. C. & Tong, P. 2001 Classical and computational solid mechanics. Singapore: World Scientific
Publishing Company.
2 Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2010 Engineering. Definition of the Engineers’ Council for Professional
Development.
3, Micro and Nano Manufacturing (7ME6.1A)- Part I Mohit Ostwal
Assistant Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering Jodhpur Institute of Engineering and
Technology- Coed, Jodhpur
4, Xue J.X., You S.Y., Yu J.M. (2003) Development and application of polycrystalline diamond (PCD)
tool. Tool Technology, 4, 45-47.
5, Micromachining – review of literature from 1980 to 2010

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