Master 2

sustainability
Review
A Review of Monitoring Technologies for Solar PV Systems
Using Data Processing Modules and Transmission Protocols:
Progress, Challenges and Prospects
Shaheer Ansari 1 , Afida Ayob 1, * , Molla S. Hossain Lipu 1,2, * , Mohamad Hanif Md Saad 3,4
and Aini Hussain 1
1 Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,

Bangi 43600, Malaysia; p100855@siswa.ukm.edu.my (S.A.); draini@ukm.edu.my (A.H.)
2 Centre for Automotive Research (CAR), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia
3 Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Bangi 43600, Malaysia; hanifsaad@ukm.edu.my
4 Institute of IR 4.0, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia
* Correspondence: afida.ayob@ukm.edu.my (A.A.); lipu@ukm.edu.my (M.S.H.L.)
Abstract: Solar photovoltaic (PV) is one of the prominent sustainable energy sources which shares a
greater percentage of the energy generated from renewable resources. As the need for solar energy
has risen tremendously in the last few decades, monitoring technologies have received considerable
attention in relation to performance enhancement. Recently, the solar PV monitoring system has been
integrated with a wireless platform that comprises data acquisition from various sensors and nodes
through wireless data transmission. However, several issues could affect the performance of solar
Citation: Ansari, S.; Ayob, A.; Lipu, PV monitoring, such as large data management, signal interference, long-range data transmission,
M.S.H.; Saad, M.H.M.; Hussain, A. A and security. Therefore, this paper comprehensively reviews the progress of several solar PV-
Review of Monitoring Technologies based monitoring technologies focusing on various data processing modules and data transmission
for Solar PV Systems Using Data protocols. Each module and transmission protocol-based monitoring technology is investigated with
Processing Modules and regard to type, design, implementations, specifications, and limitations. The critical discussion and
Transmission Protocols: Progress,
analysis are carried out with respect to configurations, parameters monitored, software, platform,
Challenges and Prospects.
achievements, and suggestions. Moreover, various key issues and challenges are explored to identify
Sustainability 2021, 13, 8120.
the existing research gaps. Finally, this review delivers selective proposals for future research
https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158120
works. All the highlighted insights of this review will hopefully lead to increased efforts toward the
Academic Editor: Aritra Ghosh
enhancement of the monitoring technologies in future sustainable solar PV applications.
Received: 10 June 2021 Keywords: solar PV; wireless monitoring system; sensors; data processing board; data transmission
Accepted: 15 July 2021 protocols; data acquisition
Published: 21 July 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in 1. Introduction
published maps and institutional affil- The depletion of fossil fuels and carbon emission issues have transformed power
iations. systems from conventional systems to renewable systems [1–3]. Moreover, the need for
energy security and economic stability has increased, and hence more and more emphasis
is now being given to the generation of renewable energy [4,5]. Among the renewable
energy sources, solar energy is attractive and sustainable [6]. Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. energy is considered a clean, attractive, and secure source of electricity generation [7,8].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. The solar PV system promises a great future and is increasingly popular due to its simple
This article is an open access article installation, low maintenance cost, robustness, and zero fuel cost [9,10]. Solar power is
distributed under the terms and abundant; thus, it could play a crucial role in fulfilling global energy requirements including
conditions of the Creative Commons heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems, domestic lighting, hot water
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
systems, and other key applications [11]. The cost reduction in solar PV installation is
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
due to several factors such as improved technology, economies of scale, supply chain
4.0/).
Sustainability 2021, 13, 8120. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158120 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2021, 13, 8120 2 of 34
competitiveness, and the growing experience of developers [12,13]. At present, solar PV

energy is the third-largest renewable source of energy generation after wind and hydro [14].
In the last two decades, the solar PV system has become one of the main sources for
power generation [15,16]. In 2018, a unique milestone in the field of solar PV systems was
achieved i.e., the 100 GW threshold of annual installations was crossed [17]. According
to the Renewable Energy Market Report 2018 by the International Energy Agency (IEA),
there will be a comprehensive growth in the generating capacity of solar PV systems from
572 GW to 720 GW between 2018 and 2023 [18]. Further, the global solar PV power capacity
is expected to increase to more than 2840 GW by 2030, and to 8519 GW by 2050 [12].
Since the need for solar energy has risen around the globe, the development of an ad-
vanced monitoring method has become an urgent necessity. Due to various environmental
factors such as soiling, temperature, irradiance etc., the operation and functionality of solar
PV systems can be affected. Thus, the accuracy and performance of the solar PV system
can be improved by employing an efficient solar PV monitoring system [19]. Monitoring
is the process of observing and recording the parameters from the solar PV power plant
in real-time. An efficient monitoring technology of the solar PV system improves the
performance efficiency as it provides updated information and executes the preventive
measures if any flaws are found. The monitoring method also notifies the users by an alert
signal when unexpected events occur in a solar PV system [20]. The monitoring of the solar
PV power plant is performed either at the module, string, or system level. The monitoring
of the solar PV at the system level provides information about the system exclusively. The
monitoring technology related to panels and strings helps in identifying the root cause
of the problem precisely. Every panel and string needs to be monitored for the overall
efficiency improvement of a solar PV power plant, as even a change in the output from a
single panel can affect the efficiency of the entire system. Henceforth, numerous monitoring
methods have been introduced in recent decades. There has been a change of trend from
wired to wireless monitoring systems in the past decade [21].
In the past, the wired monitoring system was commonly used for transferring data
through an RS232 cable or an RS485 cable [22,23] However, as the solar PV system has
expanded, real-time monitoring using conventional wired cables has resulted in additional
significant costs. Moreover, the cables carrying the data are exposed to environmental
conditions such as rain, humidity, temperature, etc. In contrast, the wireless monitoring
system is less prone to environmental conditions compared to the wired monitoring
system and can deliver faster decision-making in real-time. This is due to the exposure of
sensors and nodes to the open environment installed for data acquisition and transmission.
Furthermore, wireless monitoring technologies not only increase mobility and network
security by implementing associated security protocols, but they also have a longer range,
a high response time, and low maintenance costs. Nevertheless, various factors can cause a
change in the output of the system, including a change from a sunny sky to a cloudy sky,
the temperature of the panel, humidity, irradiance, the mounting angle, and the mismatch
between the specification from the manufacturers and the actual PV output [24]. Therefore,
further exploration is required to design an effective solar PV monitoring technology before
the system can be implemented, considering the number of anticipated challenges.
Very few notable review articles have been published on solar PV monitoring technolo-
gies. Shariff et al. [25] emphasized different designs and topologies of solar PV monitoring
systems. The different monitoring characteristics such as sampling time, mechanisms for
data transfer, associated software etc., were highlighted in the work but the works did
not outline the current progress in the field of monitoring with regards to module-based
technology. Madeti and Singh [26] focused on examining solar PV systems in terms of
the sensors employed, the controllers used, and data transmission techniques. Rahman
et al. [27] discussed the architecture and features of various monitoring systems for so-
lar PV power plants. Triki-Lahiani et al. [28] explained the various monitoring systems
and concentrated on addressing the major failures in solar PV systems. All the above-
highlighted reviews do not consider the insights of the technological implementation of
data transmission and data processing modules in the field of solar PV wireless monitor-
Sustainability 2021, 13, 8120 ing systems in a comprehensive manner. 3 of 34
To bridge the existing research gaps, this review unveils new contributions with a
detailed investigation of the monitoring technologies of the solar PV system. The review
offers
datathe followingand
transmission contributions:
data processing modules in the field of solar PV wireless monitoring
• systems in a comprehensive
A comprehensive manner.
explanation of various data processing modules for solar PV mon-
To bridge the existing research
itoring systems is presented in terms gaps, this review unveils
of categories, new contributions
specifications, design with a
implemen-
detailed investigation of the monitoring technologies of the solar PV system. The review
tation, software platforms, results, and limitations.
offers the following contributions:
• The categories of the various data transmission modules for wireless communication
• A comprehensive explanation of various data processing modules for solar PV moni-
in solar PV monitoring systems are reported, highlighting topology, data transmis-
toring systems is presented in terms of categories, specifications, design implementa-
sion rage, sampling rate, power consumption, and range.
tion, software platforms, results, and limitations.
• • TheTheexisting issues
categories and
of the challenges
various for the monitoring
data transmission modules technologies of solar PV appli-
for wireless communication
cations are covered, emphasizing data handling, security, signal interference,
in solar PV monitoring systems are reported, highlighting topology, data transmission energy
efficiency, etc. rate, power consumption, and range.
rage, sampling
• • Some
Theconstructive
existing issuesfuture recommendations
and challenges are presented
for the monitoring toward
technologies the PV
of solar development
appli-
cations are covered, emphasizing data handling,
of an efficient and reliable solar PV monitoring system. security, signal interference, energy
efficiency, etc.
•
TheSome
paper is organized into eight sections. Section 2 presents the survey methodol-
constructive future recommendations are presented toward the development of
ogy of this reviewand
an efficient paper. Section
reliable solar3PV
covers an overview
monitoring system.of the solar PV monitoring system
and theTheclassification of the modules based on the data transmission and data processing
paper is organized into eight sections. Section 2 presents the survey methodology
boards.
of thisSections 4 and 5Section
review paper. highlight the data
3 covers processing
an overview technology
of the and data transmission
solar PV monitoring system
technology
and the classification of the modules based on the data transmission and dataissues
for monitoring solar PV systems, respectively. The current and chal-
processing
lenges are Sections
boards. discussed in 5Section
4 and 6. the
highlight Section 7 presentstechnology
data processing the discussion andtransmission
and data future perspec-
technology
tives. for monitoring
The concluding solar PV
comments systems,
are respectively.
outlined in SectionThe8. current issues and challenges
are discussed in Section 6. Section 7 presents the discussion and future perspectives. The
concluding
2. Survey comments are outlined in Section 8.
Methodology
2. There
Surveyhas been a growing interest among researchers to enhance the performance of
Methodology
solar PVThere
monitoring
has beensystems
a growing using various
interest among technologies.
researchers toInenhance
line with
the this matter, various
performance of
data processing
solar modules
PV monitoring and data
systems usingtransmission protocols
various technologies. In have beenthis
line with introduced in the last
matter, various
decade. Figure 1 denotes
data processing modules theand
number of papers published
data transmission protocols between
have been2010 and 2020.
introduced A sharp
in the
last decade. Figure 1 denotes the number of papers published between 2010
upward trend is visible in the number of articles accepted from 2010 to 2020 which implies and 2020. A
sharp upward trend is visible in the number of articles accepted from
the importance and potential deployment of various modules and communication proto- 2010 to 2020 which
colsimplies thePV
in solar importance
applications.and potential
A total of deployment
443 papersofwere
various modules between
published and communication
2010 and 2020.
protocols in solar PV applications. A total of 443 papers were published between 2010 and
Among the total number of manuscripts, 43.57% of the articles were published in the first
2020. Among the total number of manuscripts, 43.57% of the articles were published in
seven years (2010–2016). However, the number of articles published in the next four years
the first seven years (2010–2016). However, the number of articles published in the next
(2017–2020)
four yearsincreased
(2017–2020)atincreased
a greateratrate. In this
a greater period,
rate. In this56.43%
period, of the articles
56.43% were published
of the articles were
which is 12.86%
published higher
which thanhigher
is 12.86% the previous
than the seven
previousyears.
seven years.
80
70 75
70
Number of articles
60 55
50
50 42
40
40 31 34
30 21
20 12 13
10
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Year
Figure 1. Research trend of solar PV monitoring systems from 2010 to 2020.
Figure 1. Research trend of solar PV monitoring systems from 2010 to 2020.
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 36
The goal of this review is to gather all the recent information, conduct an analysis,
The goalaofcritical
and provide this review is to gather
discussion allmonitoring
of the the recent information,
technologies conduct
for solaran analysis,
PV systems. and
provideGoogle
Firstly, a critical discussion
scholar, of the monitoring
IEEEXplore, MDPI, andtechnologies
ScienceDirect fordatabases
solar PV were
systems. Firstly,
utilized to
Google the
explore scholar, IEEEXplore,
related work for this MDPI, andSecondly,
paper. ScienceDirect databases
keywords, werepaper
abstract, utilized to explore
content, nov-
the related
elty, and the work
main fortopic
this ofpaper. Secondly,
interest of the keywords,
journal were abstract,
applied paper content,
to search for novelty,
the relevantand
the main topic of interest of the journal were applied to search for the
publications within the scope of this paper including solar PV, wireless monitoring sys- relevant publications
withinsensors,
tems, the scopedataofprocessing
this paper board,
includingandsolar
data PV, wireless monitoring
transmission protocols. Thesystems, sensors,
final suitable
data processing
works board, and
were investigated data transmission
by assessing the impactprotocols.
factors, the The final process,
review suitable and
works thewere
cita-
investigated by assessing the impact factors, the review process, and the citations.
tions.
The outcome
The outcome of of the
thescreening
screeningprocess
processcancanbebecategorized
categorized into four
into sections.
four Firstly,
sections. the
Firstly,
review of solar PV monitoring systems based on data processing
the review of solar PV monitoring systems based on data processing modules with its modules with its design
features,
design implementation,
features, implementation,comments or suggestions,
comments and limitations
or suggestions, is presented.
and limitations Secondly,
is presented.
various data transmission protocols are studied for solar PV monitoring
Secondly, various data transmission protocols are studied for solar PV monitoring systems. Thirdly,
sys-
the review
tems. Thirdly,investigates
the reviewvarious issuesvarious
investigates and shortcomings of the monitoring
issues and shortcomings technology
of the monitoring
for solar PVfor
technology systems.
solar PV Finally,
systems.the review
Finally,delivers some
the review selective
delivers somefuture prospects
selective future forpro-
the
further enhancement of solar PV monitoring systems. The review
spects for the further enhancement of solar PV monitoring systems. The review process process can be divided
intobe
can two phasesinto
divided as shown
two phasesin Figure 2 and in
as shown summarized
Figure 2 and as summarized
follows: as follows:
(a) Screening Method

Final Selection
148 references were selected and analyzed based
on the impact factor, review process, and citation.
148
Initial Screening and Evaluation Second Screening
Google Scholar, Scopus databases, Relevant 228 articles were
443
Web of Science, ScienceDirect, IEEE identified based on keywords,
Xplore, MDPI were chosen and 228
title, abstract, article content,
accordingly 443 papers were selected
novelty and journal's main
subject of interest
(b) Review Results

Solar PV monitoring Solar PV monitoring
technologies based on data technologies based on data
Progress of solar processing modules transmission protocols
PV monitoring - Types - Range
technologies - specifications - Power Consumption
- Design and Implementations - Topology
- Software/ Language used - Data transmission rate
- Monitoring Platform - Sampling rate
- Achievements - Limitations
Future Prospects Issues and challenges

Selective and important suggestions for further - Data handling and security
enhancement of solar PV monitoring technologies - Signal interference
towards sustainable operation and management. - Energy efficiency
- Data transmission range
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram of
of the
the survey
survey methodology.
methodology.
2.1. Selection Process

•2.1. Selection
In the first search results, a total of 443 articles were found using various platforms
Process
including Google scholar, IEEEXplore, MDPI, and the ScienceDirect databases.
• In the first search results, a total of 443 articles were found using various platforms
• In the second screening results, a total of 228 articles were selected based on the
including Google scholar, IEEEXplore, MDPI, and the ScienceDirect databases.
appropriate title, keywords, abstract, and content of the paper.
• In the second screening results, a total of 228 articles were selected based on the
• In the third assessment results, the articles were analyzed based on impact factor,
appropriate title, keywords, abstract, and content of the paper.
review process, and citation. Accordingly, a total of 148 references were finalized for
• In the third assessment results, the articles were analyzed based on impact factor,
the review paper consisting of journals, conferences proceedings, and recognized
review process, and citation. Accordingly, a total of 148 references were finalized
webpages.
for the review paper consisting of journals, conferences proceedings, and recog-
nized webpages.
2.2. Review Results
•2.2.Review Resultstechnologies for solar PV systems based on data processing modules
Monitoring
• were explained.
Monitoring technologies for solar PV systems based on data processing modules
• Further,
were the monitoring technologies considering various data transmission proto-
explained.
• cols for solar
Further, PV application
the monitoring were discussed.
technologies considering various data transmission protocols
• Key issues and limitations of
for solar PV application were discussed.the solar PV monitoring system based on the presented
• technology
Key issues andwere explored.of the solar PV monitoring system based on the presented
limitations
• Recommendations
technology and future directions for the further improvement of the monitor-
were explored.
• ing technology for solar
Recommendations PV systems
and future werefor
directions presented.
the further improvement of the monitor-
ing technology for solar PV systems were presented.
3. Overview and Taxonomy of Solar PV Monitoring System
3. Overview and Taxonomy of Solar PV Monitoring System
The architecture of the solar PV monitoring system can be divided into three levels,
The the
namely, architecture of the solar
data acquisition PVthe
level, monitoring system level,
data processing can beanddivided into display
the data three levels,
and
storage level, as illustrated in Figure 3 [27]. In the data acquisition level, the dataand
namely, the data acquisition level, the data processing level, and the data display arestor-
col-
age level,
lected from as the
illustrated
variousinsensors
Figure such
3 [27].asInvoltage,
the datacurrent,
acquisition level, the data
temperature, are collected
humidity, irradi-
from the
ance, etc.,various
and aresensors
then sent such as voltage,
to the next stagecurrent,
using temperature,
either the wired humidity, irradiance,
or the wireless etc.,
system.
and are then sent to the next stage using either the wired or the wireless system.
In the next level, the data are stored temporarily in auxiliary devices such data loggers, In the next
level, the data
processed, andare stored
sent temporarily
to the last stage forin auxiliary devices
the display of thesuch dataInloggers,
results. the lastprocessed, and
level, the data
sent to the last stage for the display of the results. In the last level, the
are received by the workstation and then the required actions are taken by the system to data are received
by the workstation and then the required actions are taken by the system to be configured
be configured accordingly. These data can be accessed from anywhere at any time via the
accordingly. These data can be accessed from anywhere at any time via the internet.
internet.
Solar Panel
wireless Wireless Router

module Data logger
Wired
Work station ; wired and
Sensors Operating systems wireless
Figure 3.
Figure 3. The
The basic
basic architecture
architecture of
of aa solar
solar PV
PV monitoring
monitoring system.
system.
A comprehensive review of solar PV monitoring system-based data processing

processing mod-
ules and data transmission protocols
protocols has been carried out. The data transmission modules
allow the acquisition, control, and management of connected devices and networks in aa
real-time environment. Furthermore, they act as middleware that connects with different
devices through cloud computing technology. The solar-based monitoring system is com-
prised of
of aafour-layer
four-layerstructure
structurewhich
whichconsists of of
consists sensors (electrical
sensors andand
(electrical environmental)
environmental)for
gathering data such as panel voltage, current, temperature, humidity (small scale) etc.,
for gathering data such as panel voltage, current, temperature, humidity (small scale) etc., a
network layer for the transmission of the data by utilizing various transmission protocols
a network layer for the transmission of the data by utilizing various transmission proto-
cols such as ZigBee, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, LoRa etc., a data processing layer for processing
necessary
such dataWi-Fi,
as ZigBee, through variousLoRa
Bluetooth, dataetc.,
processing modules layer
a data processing such for
as Raspberry
processing Pi and Ar-
neces-
duino,
sary dataand lastly,various
through an application layer which
data processing acts as
modules an interface
such as Raspberry between end
Pi and devices and
Arduino,
and
the lastly,
networkan asapplication
depicted layer which
in Figure 4. acts as anFernandez
Further, interface between end
et al. [29] devices the
explored andfunction-
the
network as depicted in Figure 4. Further, Fernandez et al. [29] explored
ality of the various layers such as the sensor, transmission, data processing, and applica- the functionality
of thelayers.
tion various Thelayers
authorssuchrevealed
as the sensor,
that thetransmission,
change in the data processing,
execution and application
of various layers is based
layers. The authors revealed that the change in the execution of
on applications such as small scale or large-scale monitoring, and software-based various layers is based on or
applications such as small scale or large-scale monitoring, and
cloud-based monitoring. The classification of various electrical and environmentalsoftware-based or cloud-
param-
based monitoring. The classification of various electrical and environmental parameters
eters based on large-scale and small-scale solar PV systems is presented in Table 1. Plat-
based on large-scale and small-scale solar PV systems is presented in Table 1. Platforms
forms such as BeagleBone, Arduino, Raspberry Pi, PLC, and the microcontroller chip have
such as BeagleBone, Arduino, Raspberry Pi, PLC, and the microcontroller chip have been
been reviewed in relation to the application of data transmission protocols, the parameters
reviewed in relation to the application of data transmission protocols, the parameters
measured,
measured, the thesoftware
software used,
used, thethe monitoring
monitoring platform,
platform, andandthe the related
related results.
results. In addition,
In addition,
themonitoring
the monitoringsystem
system consists
consists of of several
several network
network protocols
protocols for communication
for communication to ensure
to ensure
the protection of data during transmission between connected
the protection of data during transmission between connected devices [30] Furthermore, devices [30] Furthermore,
issuesrelating
issues relating to to
lowlow range,
range, low low computational
computational speed,speed, low storage
low storage memorymemory etc., moti-
etc., motivates
vates
the the requirement
requirement of the communication
of the communication protocolprotocol for the monitoring
for the monitoring system [31].system [31]. In
In this
this regard,
regard, communication
communication protocolsprotocols
utilizingutilizing
various various
wireless wireless communication
communication modules such modules
as ZigBee,
such Wi-Fi (ESP8266
as ZigBee, module),
Wi-Fi (ESP8266 Bluetooth,
module), GSM, and
Bluetooth, the LoRa
GSM, module
and the LoRahave been have
module
reviewed for monitoring solar PV systems.
been reviewed for monitoring solar PV systems.
Application layer Data processing layer
Data
Networking layer Sensor and actuator layer
Figure 4. Primary layers for the development of a solar-based monitoring system.

Figure 4. Primary layers for the development of a solar-based monitoring system.
Table 1. Classification of various electrical and environmental parameters monitored under large-
Table
scale 1. small-scale
and Classification ofPV
solar various electrical and environmental parameters monitored under large-
systems.
scale and small-scale solar PV systems.
Parameters
Solar PV System Parameters
Solar PV System Environmental Electrical
Environmental Electrical
Irradiance Array output voltage
Irradiance
Array Temperature
Array output voltage
Array output current
Large scale Array
SpeedTemperature
of wind Array output current
Grid voltage
Large scale Humidity
Speed of wind Current toGrid
and from grid
voltage
Air pressure Grid impedance
Humidity Current to and from grid
Air pressure PanelGrid
output voltage
impedance
Irradiance Panel output current
Panel Temperature Panel
Inverter output
output voltage
voltage
Small scale Irradiance Panel output current
Humidity Inverter output current
Panel Temperature Load output voltage
Inverter output voltage
Small scale Load output current
Humidity Inverter output current
Load output voltage
Load output current
Sustainability 2021,
Sustainability 2021, 13,
13, 8120
x FOR PEER REVIEW 77of 36
of 34
Various state-of-the-art monitoring technologies for solar PV applications have been

Various state-of-the-art monitoring technologies for solar PV applications have been
comprehensively
comprehensively studied
studied based
based onon the
the application
application of of electronics
electronics modules
modules required for
required for
data processing, data transmission protocols, and Artificial Intelligence (AI)
data processing, data transmission protocols, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques. techniques.
Monitoring
Monitoring technology
technology depending
depending on on various
various data
data processing
processing boards
boards has
has been
been explored.
explored.
The advancements in solar PV monitoring systems in relation
The advancements in solar PV monitoring systems in relation to BeagleBone to BeagleBone [32], Arduino
[32], Ar-
[33,34] Raspberry Pi [35,36], PLC [37], and microcontroller chips such as
duino [33,34] Raspberry Pi [35,36], PLC [37], and microcontroller chips such as ATMEGA8 ATMEGA8 and
ATMEGA16 [38] have been explained along with their limitations. Data
and ATMEGA16 [38] have been explained along with their limitations. Data transmission transmission pro-
tocols suchsuch
protocols as ZigBee [39,40],
as ZigBee GSM
[39,40], [41],[41],
GSM Wi-Fi [42],[42],
Wi-Fi Bluetooth [43],[43],
Bluetooth and and
LoRaLoRa
[44] have also
[44] have
been studied with regard to the various aspects such as range, parameters
also been studied with regard to the various aspects such as range, parameters to be moni- to be moni-
tored,
tored, program
program language,
language, sampling
sampling time
time etc.
etc. The review of
The review of the
the monitoring
monitoring technologies
technologies
based
based on
on two
two distinct
distinct classes
classes is
is presented
presented inin Figure
Figure 5.5.
IoT Based Solar PV

Monitoring
Based on Data Processing Based on Transmission

Modules Protocols
BeagleBone Arduino Raspberry Pi ZigBee Wi-Fi Bluetooth
Microcontroller
PLC GSM LoRa
Chip
Classification of data processing technology and data transmission protocols for a solar PV monitoring
Figure 5. Classification monitoring system.
system.
4. Progress of Data Processing Modules for Solar PV Monitoring System

4. Progress of Data Processing Modules for Solar PV Monitoring System
A comprehensive review of various data processing modules for a solar PV monitor-
A comprehensive review of various data processing modules for a solar PV monitor-
ing system has been performed which gives an insight into its implementation, design,
ing system has been performed which gives an insight into its implementation, design,
specifications, used software, and limitations.
specifications, used software, and limitations.
4.1.
4.1. BeagleBone-Based
BeagleBone-Based Module
Module
The
The BeagleBone
BeagleBone modulemodule is is an
an open-source
open-source Linux
Linux platform
platform and and is also considered
is also considered as as
microcomputer
microcomputer which whichwas wasdeveloped
developedbyby Texas
Texas Instruments,
Instruments, digi-Key,
digi-Key, andand
NewarkNewark ele-
element
ment 14 in[45].
14 in 2008 2008The
[45]. The consists
board board consists of several
of several busses
busses such such as
as Serial Serial Peripheral
Peripheral InterfaceInter-
(SPI),
face
12C and Control Area Network (CAN), analog inputs, general-purpose input-outputinput-
(SPI), 12C and Control Area Network (CAN), analog inputs, general-purpose pins,
output pins,etc.
serial ports serial ports
[46]. etc.developed
It was [46]. It wastodeveloped
assist youngto assist
studentsyoung students
learning learning
about about
open-source
open-source
hardware and hardware
software. and software. Furthermore,
Furthermore, it is widely itaccepted
is widely accepted worldwide
worldwide due to various due
to various
factors suchfactors
as its such
networkas itscapabilities,
network capabilities, remote
remote control, control,
time time management,
management, etc. etc.
Ngo and Floriza proposed a BeagleBone module-based solar PV monitoring system
for computing the energy generated as shown in Figure 6 [32]. The proposed system not
only
only computes
computes the the energy generated
generated from the solar PV system, but it also monitors its
consumption by bythethe respective
respective households.
households. In addition,
In addition, the designed
the designed system was system was
equipped
equipped with a web-based
with a web-based mobile for
mobile application application
analyzingfor theanalyzing the dataAn
data in real-time. in algorithm
real-time.was An
developed was
algorithm withdeveloped
a web-based application
with a web-based for calculating
application thefor
monthly household
calculating energy
the monthly
consumption
household charge
energy as well as the
consumption energy
charge generated
as well as theby the system.
energy Furthermore,
generated after
by the system.
analyzing the information provided by the web-based application software,
Furthermore, after analyzing the information provided by the web-based application soft- it was easier
to takeit the
ware, wasnecessary
easier to steps
take theto limit the consumption
necessary steps to limitoftheenergy and hence
consumption of limiting
energy andthe
electricity
hence cost. the
limiting Solar PV in a household
electricity cost. Solarsystem
PV in awas analyzedsystem
household by the was
proposed
analyzeddesign
byandthe
proposed design and several electricity parameters such as voltage, current, output
several
power,electricity
and energy parameters such as voltage,
were calculated. current,
The extracted output parameters
electrical power, and energy were
were transmitted
calculated. The extracted electrical parameters were transmitted
by the sensors to the server and further to mobiles via the Short Messaging Serviceby the sensors to the
(SMS).
server and further to mobiles via the Short Messaging Service (SMS). The presented design
The presented design consisted of sensors such as INA219 for measuring DC power and
consisted of sensors such as INA219 for measuring DC power and the CS5463 sensor for
the CS5463 sensor for the measurement of AC power, the BeagleBone Black module, and
the measurement of AC power, the BeagleBone Black module, and the GSM module for
the GSM module for the transmission of data to the server. A python script was scripted
the transmission of data to the server. A python script was scripted in BeagleBone Black
in BeagleBone
module Black module
to communicate to communicate
with different sensors. Itwith
was different sensors.
realized that It was realized
the proposed model that
the proposed model could be enhanced comprehensively by
could be enhanced comprehensively by employing sophisticated data processing modules employing sophisticated
data
for processing
handling modules
complex data inforthe
handling
calculationcomplex
of thedata in the
energy calculation
tariff for differentof the energy tariff
household
for different
utilities. household
Moreover, utilities.
Okhorzina et al.Moreover, Okhorzina
[47] proposed et al.monitoring
a low range [47] proposed and acontrol
low range
monitoring
system and control
by utilizing system bymodule.
the BeagleBone utilizingThethepaper
BeagleBone
proposed module. Theand
a tracking paper proposed
cooling
a tracking
system and cooling
to eliminate system toofeliminate
the problem the heating theofproblem of theThe
solar panels. heating of solar
designed panels.
system is The
comprised of a BeagleBone
designed system is comprised module
of a which controls
BeagleBone the overall
module whichworking
controlsofthetheoverall
systemworking
in
conjunction
of the system with the temperature
in conjunction withsensors. An algorithm
the temperature wasAn
sensors. prepared
algorithm to control and to
was prepared
monitor
control theandheat of thethe
monitor solar
heatPVofsystem by utilizing
the solar PV system a liquid cooling amechanism.
by utilizing liquid coolingIt was
mecha-
observed that the algorithm proposed by the author needs more attention
nism. It was observed that the algorithm proposed by the author needs more attention to control the to
cooling
controlofthethecooling
PV station as well
of the as the functionality
PV station as well as theoffunctionality
the station which could
of the enhance
station which thecould
performance of the system.
enhance the performance of the system.
Power
Generation
Home
PV Panel Inverter Circuit Breaker
Current sensor Power Analyzer Circuit Breaker
Arduino Uno BeagleBone GSM Module
Output Device
Figure6.6.BeagleBone-based
Figure BeagleBone-based monitoring
monitoring of solar
of solar PV PV systems.
systems.
Although
Although thethe BeagleBone
BeagleBone modules
modules havehave
variousvarious advantages
advantages such as such
compactas compact
size, low size,
power consumption
low power of up toof
consumption 2 W,
uphigh
to 2processing power, open-source
W, high processing platform to play
power, open-source etc., to
platform
their usage is limited by factors such as low numbers of Universal Serial Bus (USB)
play etc., their usage is limited by factors such as low numbers of Universal Serial Bus ports
for connecting
(USB) ports for external devices,
connecting expensive
external cost, expensive
devices, the lack of cost,
extensive community
the lack support,
of extensive commu-
limited connectivity to Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and lastly, limited color in HDMI resolutions
nity support, limited connectivity to Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and lastly, limited color in HDMI [48].
resolutions [48].
4.2. Arduino Based Module
4.2. The IvreaBased

Arduino Interaction
ModuleDesign Institute invented Arduino technology which was in-
tended for students with no background in the field of electronics hardware as well as
The Ivrea[49].
programming Interaction Design
Due to the easy Institute invented
availability Arduino
of hardware technology
design whichpro-
and software was in-
tended for students with no background in the field of electronics hardware
gramming codes, Arduino is currently one of the most influential open-source hardwaresas well as
programming [49]. Due to the easy availability of hardware design and software
to work with. Arduino IDE is used to program an Arduino board which is a simplified program-
ming codes, Arduino is currently one of the most influential open-source hardwares to
work with. Arduino IDE is used to program an Arduino board which is a simplified
version for C++. Furthermore, Arduino boards can read input from several sources as well
as publish the output in various forms such as the switching on/off of the motor, writing a
text online, and controlling light [50].
Allafi et al. [34] designed a monitoring system for standalone PV systems by utilizing
low-cost Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) with Arduino Uno. The data
was extracted by the current sensor ACS712 and a voltage sensor and sent to the Arduino
Uno microcontroller which was further transmitted to the computer through a USB cable.
Furthermore, the Modbus library was installed on Arduino to set up the communication
between Arduino and SCADA. The main aim of the proposed system was to determine
the MPPT efficiency of the system from the data extracted by the sensors. In addition
to the proposed system, more functionality in terms of observing electrical as well as
environmental parameters such as panel voltage, panel current, temperature, and humidity
could be implemented for future research works. Furthermore, Vargas et al. [51] developed
a low-cost data logger system for monitoring remote PV systems through Arduino Uno.
The proposed design meets the necessary requirements laid down by the International
Electro-Technical Commission (IEC). The low-cost data logger utilizing Arduino was
capable of operating in remote locations with less network coverage and with minimum
maintenance costs. To overcome the limitations of Arduino Uno, the author suggested
improvements such as integrating the 12C bus with PCB, a Real-Time Clock (RTC), two
external ADCs, SD flash memory, a visual interface, and a power consumption module to
make the system compatible according to IEC standards. The temperature sensor DS18B20
along with the current sensor and voltage sensor were placed to extract the data and to send
it to an improved data logger. The algorithm to operate Arduino was written in C/C++
with Arduino IDE. The test on the improved data logger was held for one month to test the
efficiency in compliance with IEC standards. For further upgradation, the suggested model
could be developed for a large coverage area with more data handling capabilities, and
the complexity of the model could be reduced by using an easy programming language.
Recently, Jamil et al. [52] presented an Arduino-based performance monitoring system for
floating solar PV systems. In this approach, the main controller was regarded as Arduino
Nano. Furthermore, electrical parameters such as voltage, current, and output power
of solar PV modules of 10 W were monitored. Moreover, the monitoring of the module
was performed on both the floating system as well as a land system. It was concluded
that power output and efficiency were higher in the floating system compared to the
land system. The presented system is simpler in implementation; hence, the system can
be developed with high wattage monitoring capabilities. Gonzalen and Calderón [53]
introduced a hybrid approach with PLC and Arduino to monitor the temperature of solar
panels in Smart Grids/Micro-Grids applications. The acquisition and display of data were
performed in combination with PLC and SCADA while the extraction and transmission of
data were completed by the Arduino MEGA 2560 R3 platform. Although the extensive
extraction of temperature was executed, the utilization of various other sensors for the
extraction of electrical and environmental parameters could be considered in future works.
Although the technology of Arduino boards possesses several advantages such as low
cost, adaptability to various operating systems such as Linux, Windows and Macintosh,
easy and flexible programming environment, etc., it suffers from various limitations too.
Firstly, it suffers from a limited bit resolution of up to 10 bits. Secondly, for complex and
advanced research, more sophisticated platforms are chosen over Arduino boards as the
latter is not capable of handling complex data consisting of several processes at once [54].
4.3. Raspberry Pi-Based Module

The Raspberry Pi module is a single-board computer with a low-cost package [33,55].
It is a device similar to a fully functional computer manufactured on a single printed circuit
board. The size of Raspberry Pi is as small as a credit card but it has the capability of
performing a task similar to a computer [56]. The Linux operating system is used to operate
Raspberry Pi [57]. The ARM-based CPU embedded in Raspberry Pi draws less power
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 o
performing a task similar to a computer [56]. The Linux operating system is used to op
ate Raspberry Pi [57]. The ARM-based CPU embedded in Raspberry Pi draws less pow
which eliminates
which theeliminates
need for athe heatneed
sinkfor
[58]. The easy-to-use
a heat sink [58]. The module of Raspberry
easy-to-use module Piof
canRaspberry
be utilized forcan
enabling wireless technology [59] and Arduino interaction [60].
be utilized for enabling wireless technology [59] and Arduino interaction [60]. Mo Moreover,
many variants of the
over, manyoperating
variants system
of theare supported
operating by Raspberry
system are supportedPi which only requires
by Raspberry Pi which o
power to bootrequires
[61]. Due to its numerous advantages stated above,
power to boot [61]. Due to its numerous advantages stated Raspberry Pi modules
above, Raspberry
are now usedmodules
in real-time monitoring
are now used inschemes.
real-time monitoring schemes.
Pereira et al. Pereira
developed et al.adeveloped
multi-useraremote system-based
multi-user RenewableRenewable
remote system-based Energy Mon- Energy Mo
itoring System (REMS) using Raspberry Pi and the internet
toring System (REMS) using Raspberry Pi and the internet of things of things (IoT) concept as
(IoT) concept as
depicted in Figure 7 [62]. The REMS was updated by the Analogue
picted in Figure 7 [62]. The REMS was updated by the Analogue Digital Converter EDigital Converter
Embedded System
bedded (ADCES)
System and the communication
(ADCES) was established
and the communication in Linux and
was established in cloud
Linux and clo
server profiles. The REMS server and online server database had
server profiles. The REMS server and online server database had a storage a storage capacity of capacity
84.44 MB and84.44
2 GB,MB respectively. The data was stored at 1 sample/minute
and 2 GB, respectively. The data was stored at 1 sample/minute with with the size of the size
150 bytes for 150
391 bytes
days. forThe391experiment was performed on a 50 W load with the
days. The experiment was performed on a 50 W load with the follow following
specifications: model YL95P-17b
specifications: model2/3, a maximum
YL95P-17b 2/3, a power
maximum of 95power
Wp, 14.3% efficiency,
of 95 Wp, 14.3% anefficiency ,
open-circuit voltage (Voc) of 22.5 V, and a short circuit current (Isc) of
open-circuit voltage (Voc) of 22.5 V, and a short circuit current (Isc) of 5.59 5.59 A. The devel-
A. The dev
oped architecture
opeddid not have did
architecture to unlock
not haveports and/orports
to unlock firewall when
and/or using when
firewall the multi-user
using the multi-u
cloud service. It was
cloud proposed
service. It wasthat cryptography
proposed to secureto
that cryptography data storage
secure and database
data storage and database c
confidentiality
fidentiality should be implemented. The proposed model could betomodified
should be implemented. The proposed model could be modified record to reco
data from other
data types
fromofother
analog or digital
types of analogsensors as well
or digital as forasother
sensors well types
as for of applications
other types of applicatio
using renewable
using renewable sources. In addition, the utilization of programmingsuch
sources. In addition, the utilization of programming languages as
languages such
Basic C language and Linux is preferred.
Basic C language and Linux is preferred.
2
3 PHP WEB
a#b#c#d# MySQL server
Serial data base
Solar panel ADCES data
Raspberry Pi
1 1
Analog Web monitor

sensor
Digital sensors
User
Figure 7. The block
Figurediagram of Raspberry
7. The block diagram Pi
of and IoT-based
Raspberry REMS.
Pi and IoT-based REMS.
The work by the authors in [35] proposed a Raspberry Pi-based solar PV monitoring
The work by the authors in [35] proposed a Raspberry Pi-based solar PV monitor
system at the module level using the IEC 61724 standard as presented in Figure 8 [35].
system at the module level using the IEC 61724 standard as presented in Figure 8 [35]. T
The monitoring was performed at the module level which gave detailed information
monitoring was performed at the module level which gave detailed information about
about the solar PV plant performance. The system not only monitors the electrical and
solar PV plant performance. The system not only monitors the electrical and environm
environmental data, but it also evaluates PV module performance and identifies any
tal data, but it also evaluates PV module performance and identifies any abnormal beh
abnormal behaviors. The variable parameters of the solar PV were monitored under the
iors. The variable parameters of the solar PV were monitored under the environment
environment of LABVIEW. The design was implemented with a 5 kWp solar PV consisting
LABVIEW. The design was implemented with a 5 kWp solar PV consisting of 18 PV m
of 18 PV modules where each module had a capacity of 310 Wp. The results showed that
ules where each module had a capacity of 310 Wp. The results showed that the error r
the error rate was estimated to be less than 2%. The introduced design could be altered to
was estimated to be less than 2%. The introduced design could be altered to store the d
store the data on the cloud/internet for future reference so it can be accessed easily.
on the cloud/internet for future reference so it can be accessed easily.
AC Grid
Monitoring
Cloud
Vac and Iac
End Device
Arduino Uno
Vdc and Idc
Temperature
Humidity
Wind Speed End Device
Irradiance
Arduino Uno Raspberry Pi
Gateway
Figure
Figure8.8.Presented
Presenteddiagram
diagramfor
foraaRaspberry
Raspberry Pi-based
Pi-based monitoring
monitoring system.
system.
Ranjitand
Ranjit and Abbod
Abbod [63][63] designed
designed a cloud-based
a cloud-based Raspberry
Raspberry Pi system
Pi system forPV
for solar solar
mon-PV
monitoring consisting of four thermocouples connected to the ADAFRUIT
itoring consisting of four thermocouples connected to the ADAFRUIT MAX31855 proces- MAX31855
processor.
sor. Data recorded
Data recorded by the Raspberry
by the Raspberry Pi were transferred
Pi were transferred to the cloud to the cloud
system. It system.
was pro-It
was proposed
posed that technological
that technological implementationimplementation can
can assist in assist inthe
lowering lowering
fatigue atthethefatigue
panelsat
the panels which could be easily detectable when any fatigue condition
which could be easily detectable when any fatigue condition occurs. The methodology occurs. The
methodology could be improved by the inclusion of a cryptographic
could be improved by the inclusion of a cryptographic method to secure the data compre- method to secure
the data comprehensively.
hensively. Bikrat et al.
Bikrat et al. [64] established [64] established
a system a systemPi3
with a Raspberry with
carda for
Raspberry
the moni- Pi3
card for the monitoring of a remote solar PV system using Bluetooth and
toring of a remote solar PV system using Bluetooth and Wi-Fi modules. Bluetooth protocol Wi-Fi modules.
Bluetooth
was protocol
implemented by was implemented
transferring the databyfrom
transferring the to
the sensors datathefrom the sensors
Raspberry to the
Pi module.
Raspberry
Wi-Fi protocolPi module.
was usedWi-Fi protocol
to transfer wasfrom
data usedthe
to transfer
gatewaydata to thefrom the gateway
supervision ma-to
the supervision machine/cloud. The comparative analysis among
chine/cloud. The comparative analysis among different Raspberry Pi modules confirmed different Raspberry
Pi modules confirmed the superiority of the Raspberry Pi3 module over other modules.
the superiority of the Raspberry Pi3 module over other modules. Further modifications
Further modifications such as flexibility in the operating system as well as the processing
such as flexibility in the operating system as well as the processing application could lead
application could lead to future expansion.
to future expansion.
Raspberry Pi is one of the most effective data processing modules in the field of
Raspberry Pi is one of the most effective data processing modules in the field of mon-
monitoring systems. However, it does have some technical drawbacks such as, it does not
itoring systems. However, it does have some technical drawbacks such as, it does not have
have a Real-Time Clock (RTC) with a backup battery, and it has a high power consumption
a Real-Time Clock (RTC) with a backup battery, and it has a high power consumption and
and weight [65]. Moreover, it lacks a Basic Input Output System (BIOS), and thus it always
weight [65]. Moreover, it lacks a Basic Input Output System (BIOS), and thus it always
boots from an SD card. Besides, it does not have a built-in Analog to Digital (AD) converter
boots from an SD card. Besides, it does not have a built-in Analog to Digital (AD) con-
and hence, an external component must be used for AD conversion [66].
verter and hence, an external component must be used for AD conversion [66].
4.4. PLC-Based Module
4.4. PLC-Based Module
A programmable logic controller (PLC) or a programmable controller is part of a com-
A programmable
puter family applied inlogic controller
commercial and(PLC) or a applications
industrial programmable controller
[67,68]. is partrobust
PLC exhibits of a
computer family applied in commercial and industrial applications [67,68].
construction and operational features such as sequential control, ease of programming, PLC exhibits
robust
timersconstruction
and counters, andeasy-to-use
operationalhardware,
features suchandasreliable
sequential control, capabilities
controlling ease of program-which
ming,
are essential in automation and monitoring applications. PLC modules are capabilities
timers and counters, easy-to-use hardware, and reliable controlling reliable and
which are in
efficient essential in automationofand
the synchronization monitoring
methods, controlapplications.
applications,PLCandmodules
automated are reliable
systems.
and efficient in the
Furthermore, synchronization
it observes the stateofofmethods,
processescontrol applications,
such as monitoringand andautomated
relates thesys-
data
tems. Furthermore,
acquired from various it observes the state
sensors [69]. of processes
The main operationsuch as monitoring
of the and relates
PLC is to monitor the
and make
data acquired
a decision fromon
based various
how thesensors [69].isThe
system main operation
programmed of thethe
and how PLC is to monitor
output and
is controlled.
make a decision
Moreover, based on
a PLC-based how isthe
system system is programmed
implemented and
in various fields how
such as the output iscontrol,
monitoring, con-
trolled.
and PVMoreover,
applicationsa [70,71].
PLC-based system
The basic PLC is implemented
monitoring systeminis various
displayedfields such9 [66].
in Figure as
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12

monitoring, control, and PV applications [70,71]. The basic PLC monitoring system i
played in Figure 9 [66].
String 1 Display
Data logger
-----------
Slave
---
PLC
module Arra
y PV
junct inver
ion ter
box
String N PLC
----------- Array PV
Junction module inverter
---
Box
Figure 9. Configuration
Figure of a of
9. Configuration solar PV monitoring
a solar system
PV monitoring implementing
system the PLC
implementing module.
the PLC module.
Han et al. [72]Han

proposed
et al. [72]a PLC-based
proposed monitoring
a PLC-basedsystem to record
monitoring systemeachtosolar
recordPVeach sola
module parameter. The low-cost PLC module was applied on the 16-bit
module parameter. The low-cost PLC module was applied on the 16-bit microcont microcontroller
unit MCU) which generated
unit MCU) which a 100 kHz carrier.
generated a 100 kHz A 6.4 kW solar
carrier. A 6.4VkW plant consisting
solar V plant of consisting
16 panels and an inverter rated at 10 kW were employed. The system operated at 49.4 V,
panels and an inverter rated at 10 kW were employed. The system operated at 49.4
8.1 A, and 400 W of maximum power. Communication modules were not utilized in the
A, and 400 W of maximum power. Communication modules were not utilized in th
proposed topology resulting in cost reductions in the system. The proposed monitoring
posed topology resulting in cost reductions in the system. The proposed monitorin
system was integrated with the home network consisting of the home plug. Another
tem was integrated with the home network consisting of the home plug. Another co
concept in the field of the solar PV power plant is string monitoring with PLC which was
in the field of the solar PV power plant is string monitoring with PLC which was prop
proposed by Goto et al. [73]. The monitoring of each string in a solar PV plant consisted
by Goto et al. [73]. The monitoring of each string in a solar PV plant consisted of
of 10–20 panels. The need for string monitoring was implemented due to factors such as
panels. The need for string monitoring was implemented due to factors such as aging
aging solar panels and initial failure which degrades the output power of the solar power
panels and initial failure which degrades the output power of the solar power plan
plant. The authors monitored 30 power stations with capacities ranging from 1 to 15 MW.
authors monitored 30 power stations with capacities ranging from 1 to 15 MW. A
A case study of a 1 MW solar plant consisting of 314 strings was investigated for 13 months
study of a 1 MW solar plant consisting of 314 strings was investigated for 13 months
from January 2015 to January 2016. It was observed that the proposed methodology for
January 2015
monitoring primarily focused to January
on string2016. It was observed
monitoring. Hence,that the the proposed methodology
methodology could be for m
toring primarily
improved by incorporating thefocused
monitoringon string
techniquemonitoring.
at array and Hence, the methodology
module-level for low could b
proved by incorporating the monitoring technique
power generation applications. Mao et al. [69] introduced an intelligent solar PV moduleat array and module-level fo
power generation applications. Mao et al. [69] introduced
monitoring scheme based on a parallel resonant coupling unit. The proposed design used a an intelligent solar PV m
monitoring scheme
DC bus and a communication based
channel to on a parallel
modulate theresonant
data intocoupling unit. The
high frequencies proposed
for carrier design
communication. The presented scheme delivered high transmission efficiency and strongfrequenci
a DC bus and a communication channel to modulate the data into high
carrier
anti-interference communication.
ability with low costs. The presented
Kabalci and scheme
Kabalci delivered high transmission
[74] suggested a PLC-based efficienc
strong anti-interference
solar PV monitoring method to develop ability withgrid
a micro low model
costs. Kabalci and Kabalci [74] suggested a
on the MATLAB/Simulink
environment. based solar was
The system PV monitoring
designed using method to develop
a DC-AC a micro
converter, threegrid
solarmodel
power onplants
the MATLAB
ulink environment. The system was designed using
with a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) system, a multilevel inverter for three- a DC-AC converter, three solar p
phase AC line voltage, with a 25 km transmission line and a PLC modem. It was stated invert
plants with a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) system, a multilevel
three-phase
that the proposed technique ACeliminated
line voltage, thewith
need a 25
forkm transmission
additional line and
monitoring a PLC
costs since modem. I
stated the
power lines carried thatgenerated
the proposed technique
voltage as welleliminated
as transferred the need for additional
the power drawn from monitoring
the loads. Thesince power
proposed linesdiagram
block carried ofthethegenerated
PLC-based voltage as wellmethod
monitoring as transferred the power d
is presented
fromThe
in Figure 10 [74]. themethodology
loads. The proposed block diagram
of the proposed of the system
monitoring PLC-based couldmonitoring
be furthermethod i
sented in Figure
enhanced by simplifying 10 [74]. The
the utilization methodology
of technology of the
at the proposedlevel
distribution monitoring
as well system
as cou
furtherlevel
the sub-distribution enhanced
too. by simplifying the utilization of technology at the distribution le
well as the sub-distribution level too.
25.5 kW solar
plant #1
Energy 25 km
Generation Inter phase Micro grid
conversio transmission
station transformer load side
n section line
25.5 kW solar
plant #2
Coupling Power Plant
circuit measurment
BPSK BPSK Coupling

25.5 kW solar modem Modem Circuit
plant #3
Power
output
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Proposed
Proposed block
block diagram
diagram for
for aa solar
solar PV
PV monitoring
monitoring system
system implementing
implementing the
the PLC
PLC module.
module.
PLC exhibits strong points in the progress of solar solar PV

PV monitoring
monitoring systems
systems as as itit can
can
deliver aabetter
betterperformance
performancethan thanother
other monitoring methods in terms of controlling
monitoring methods in terms of controlling outputs. out-
puts.
In In addition,
addition, PLC can PLClastcan
forlast
5–10for 5–10and
years years
hasand
lowhas low costs
cooling cooling costs
since sincenot
it does it generate
does not
generate
much much
heat [75].heat [75]. However,
However, the outcome
the outcome of PLC of PLCgood
is not is notenough
good enough when han-
when handling a
dling amount
large a large amount of data
of data or or complex
complex data. Furthermore,
data. Furthermore, the Pentium
the Pentium system,system,
which iswhich
widely is
widely available
available today, outperforms
today, outperforms even the even the fastest
fastest PLC. Moreover,
PLC. Moreover, debugging
debugging in PLCin mayPLC
become tedious
may become as finding
tedious the fault
as finding is notisvery
the fault not easy
very [76].
easy [76].
4.5. Microcontroller-Based Module

4.5. Microcontroller-Based Module
The
The microcontroller isisan
microcontroller anembedded
embeddedcomputer
computer system
system that
that hashas transformed
transformed the the
IoT
IoT
[58,77,78]. Today, microcontrollers are extensively used in various fields [79] both inboth
[58,77,78]. Today, microcontrollers are extensively used in various fields [79] sci-
in scientific
entific research
research and industrial
and industrial use The
use [80]. [80].microcontroller
The microcontroller
modulemodule
alongalong
with with dif-
different
ferent interfaces
interfaces is designed
is designed to monitor
to monitor differentdifferent parameters
parameters of power
of solar PV solar PV power
plants. Theplants.
sche-
The schematic circuit of a solar PV monitoring system with ATMEGA8 microcontroller
matic circuit of a solar PV monitoring system with ATMEGA8 microcontroller is depicted is
depicted in
in Figure 11. Figure 11.
Suryavanshi et al. [81] proposed a solar PV monitoring system based on AVR
microcontroller ATMEGA16. The load and battery were connected to the solar panel
through a relay. The microcontroller sensed the power requirement of the load and
accordingly managed two PV cells to connect to the load. The relay system was employed
to manage the direction of the power from the solar panel either to the load or to the
battery. Further improvements with regard to the maintenance of the solar panels
by monitoring the environmental parameters could be assessed to develop a more
reliable wireless solar PV monitoring system. A sensor network for monitoring solar
PV with microcontroller PIC181F4620 was designed by Ayesh et al. [82]. Microchip
MiWi protocol was used to monitor individual panels. The proposed structure was
built to monitor open-circuit voltage (Voc ), and short circuit currents (Isc ) under various
conditions such as dust accumulation, cracks in the string, shading, and MPPT. It was
claimed that the monitoring of other electrical parameters such as Vpv and Ipv must be
observed to effectively measure the power generated by the PV system under various
conditions. Harmini and Nurhayati [83] developed a monitoring system for a standalone
PV plant using an ATMEGA8 microcontroller through the ethernet. The accuracy of
the panel output was determined by a voltage sensor and current sensor readings. It
was concluded that the voltage sensors had an accuracy of about 99.3% and 95% for
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEERcurrent
REVIEW sensors. Although the author implemented a real-time monitoring system by36
14 of
utilizing a visual basic system, it is necessary to integrate the technique with cloud-based
monitoring to effectively utilize the monitored data for future reference.
Figure 11. Circuit diagram of a Microcontroller-based monitoring method for a solar PV system.
Although
Figure 11. Circuit diagram of the microprocessor is considered
a Microcontroller-based monitoringas the basic
method for abuilding
solar PVblock in many fields, it
system.
has some drawbacks, such as a lack of memory isolation and real-time performance. More-
over, the power consumption
Suryavanshi of the system
et al. [81] proposed onPV
a solar themonitoring
chip increases duebased
system to theon
high-density
AVR micro-
integration of the embedded components [79]. The microcontroller
controller ATMEGA16. The load and battery were connected to the solar panel is prone to unlimited
through a
physical access from attackers investigating its design and functionality [78].
relay. The microcontroller sensed the power requirement of the load and accordingly Furthermore,
due to its low
managed twostorage capabilities
PV cells to connect and
to lack of real-time
the load. performance,
The relay system was microcontroller-based
employed to manage
systems are lessofeffective
the direction the power in the
from present scenario.
the solar panel either to the load or to the battery. Further
Table 2 provides
improvements witharegard
detailedto specification
the maintenancebetween thesolar
of the various databy
panels processing modules
monitoring the en-
utilized in solar PV systems.
vironmental parameters could be assessed to develop a more reliable wireless solar PV
monitoring system. A sensor network for monitoring solar PV with microcontroller
PIC181F4620 was designed by Ayesh et al. [82]. Microchip MiWi protocol was used to
monitor individual panels. The proposed structure was built to monitor open-circuit volt-
age (Voc), and short circuit currents (Isc) under various conditions such as dust accumula-
tion, cracks in the string, shading, and MPPT. It was claimed that the monitoring of other
electrical parameters such as Vpv and Ipv must be observed to effectively measure the power
generated by the PV system under various conditions. Harmini and Nurhayati [83] devel-
oped a monitoring system for a standalone PV plant using an ATMEGA8 microcontroller
through the ethernet. The accuracy of the panel output was determined by a voltage sen-
sor and current sensor readings. It was concluded that the voltage sensors had an accuracy
Table 2. Comparison for the specification of various data processing modules.
Arduino Uno Raspberry Pi3 PLC (FX1N-14MR) BeagleBone ATMEGA 16

Ladder logic, Ethernet,
Communication 4x SPI, 2x I2C, 1x SPI, 2x I2C, 4x UART, 2x SPI, 2x
RS-232, RS-422 and Serial, 12C, SPI
protocol PCM/I2S, 2x UART PCM/I2S, 1x UART I2C, 2x CAN BUS
RS-485 modules
Size of Board 69 × 53 mm 85 × 56 mm 110 × 95 × 17 mm 86 × 56 mm As per Requirement
Speed of Clock 16 MHz 1.2 GHz 140–180 MHz 1.0 GHz 0–16 MHz
RAM 16 MHz 1 GB LPDDR2 - 512 MB DDR3 1 KB SRAM
Supply Voltage 5V 5V 24 V 5V 2.7–5.5 V
GPIO pins 14 26 14 69 32
Storage 16 KB Flash memory,
32 KB Micro SD 8 MB 4 GB, micro-SD
Memory 512 Byte EEPROM
USB port - 4 × USB 2.0 - 1 × USB -
Broadcom BCM2837,
AM335x ARM
Processor ATmega328P ARM Cortex- A53 SLC 5/03 CPU 8 bit processor
Cortex-A8
64-b Quad Core
Power
98.53 mA @ 9 V 400 mA @ 5.1 V 400 mA (Approx) 500 mA 1.1 mA @ 3 V
consumption
Weight
30 g 45 g 120 g 39.68 g 20 g
(Approx)
Cost (Approx) USD 30 USD 25–35 USD 45 USD 30 USD 3 (Approx)
5. Progress of Data Transmission Protocols for Wireless Communication in Solar PV

Monitoring Systems
In this section, a comprehensive review of the data transmission protocols for solar PV
monitoring systems is presented, emphasizing their implementations, design, specification,
results, and limitations.
5.1. ZigBee-Based Module

The ZigBee technology was developed in alliance with IEEE and ZigBee based on
802.15.4 standards [84]. IEEE is responsible for developing its physical layer, its media
storage control layer, and its data link layer while the ZigBee alliance took charge in
the development of its logic network, its data transmission encryption mechanism, the
application interface specification, and the communication interface between the system
protocols. ZigBee modules are driven by low power and can be employed for short-range
monitoring in a wireless sensor network [85,86]. ZigBee is a simple and lightweight wireless
network module that uses Radio Frequency (RF) to support the network within sensors.
The transmission range of ZigBee may vary from 40 m indoors to 120 m outdoors in the
line of sight. ZigBee operates at a 2.4 GHz frequency with a transmission rate of up to
250 kbps [87]. ZigBee uses a ready collision prevention mechanism and a MAC layer to
avoid data collisions. The ZigBee module receives the transmitted data and then replies
with a confirmation message which greatly increases the reliability of data transmission in
a system [88].
Batista et al. [89] presented an overview of ZigBee devices and modules with regard to
smart grid infrastructure and the importance of smart metering. The paper discussed four
cases of ZigBee technology implementation to detect the interference of the signals at a
water treatment plant, a distribution company, a control house of a wind farm, and a home
energy system. Although the experiments were performed at several locations to evaluate
the performance of ZigBee, the methodology was only limited to the examination of
interference of various blockages with no real-time data. Hence, real-time monitoring data
should be integrated for further research works. Papageorgas et al. [90] developed a ZigBee-
based solar PV monitoring system for a single wire Local Interconnected Network (LIN)
bus. The authors also proposed a web-based application to optimize the electrical power
output from the solar plant. A three-tier architecture was proposed for the monitoring
and characterization systems where the characterization module of the PV solar panel
was placed in the first level, the PV cluster gateway was positioned in the second level,
and the PV park coordinator and the web-based communication technologies with remote
monitoring and control computers were located in the final level. The proposed algorithm
to monitor the condition of solar panels could further be improved with the addition of
environmental parameters such as humidity and temperature. Shariff et al. [88] utilized
point to point topology for data transmission with a web-based monitoring interface to
develop a ZigBee-based solar PV monitoring system. The proposed system utilizing ZigBee
modules was implemented with a web-based function as illustrated in Figure 12 [88]. The
test was conducted on 1.25 kW solar panels to extract 600 data points for calculating the
AC voltage with a sampling rate of 60 milliseconds. Further research with regard to the
measurement of efficiency and stability could be performed. In addition, the methodology
could be utilized to identify the faults which could significantly increase the performance
and efficiency of the solar PV monitoring system.
sun
Electrical Grid
Inverter
Logging point 2 Logging point 1 ZigBee

Microprocessor Microprocessor
Ambient temperature PV voltage
Panel temeperature PV current Smartphone and computer
Irradiance Inverter voltage
Inverter current
EEPROM
Real time clock
EEPROM
Figure 12. 12.

Figure TheThe
overall setup
overall setupofofthe
the ZigBee-based grid-connected
ZigBee-based grid-connected photovoltaic
photovoltaic system.
system.
Li Li
etetal.al.[91]
[91]suggested
suggested aa method
methodusing usinga ZigBee
a ZigBee module
module for solar
for solar PV array
PV array onlineonline
monitoring and fault diagnosis. The system was evaluated
monitoring and fault diagnosis. The system was evaluated using 2522 sample data. using 2522 sample data. The The
fault diagnosis accuracy of the PV power plant was estimated to be
fault diagnosis accuracy of the PV power plant was estimated to be 98.58%. More electrical 98.58%. More elec-
trical and environmental parameters could be considered in future work to observe the
and environmental parameters could be considered in future work to observe the faults
faults effectively. Liu [92] developed a solar PV system using ZigBee technology for PV
effectively. Liu [92] developed a solar PV system using ZigBee technology for PV module
module performance monitoring. Furthermore, a feed-forward compensation of network
performance
voltage was monitoring. Furthermore,
proposed to reduce the voltagea feed-forward
fluctuation of thecompensation
grid-connected of current.
network voltage
The
waspaper also proposed a method to reduce Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) in the grid-paper
proposed to reduce the voltage fluctuation of the grid-connected current. The
also proposed
connected a method
current throughto reduce Totalanalysis.
a simulation Harmonic TheDistortion (THD) in the
algorithm developed grid-connected
by the authors
current
could through
be furthera improved
simulation byanalysis.
involvingThe algorithm system
a cloud-based developed by the authors
for real-time could be
monitoring.
Sabry et al. [93] developed a ZigBee-based low-cost solar PV monitoring
further improved by involving a cloud-based system for real-time monitoring. Sabry et al. system equipped
with
[93] driving software
developed for recording
a ZigBee-based PV system
low-cost parameters.
solar PV monitoring The system
paper proposed
equipped a proto-
with driv-
type system for a high voltage series-connected PV array in the range of (100–310) V and
ing software for recording PV system parameters. The paper proposed a prototype system
3A as the maximum current with a sampling frequency of up to 14 samples/seconds. It is
for a high voltage series-connected PV array in the range of (100–310) V and 3A as the
suggested that the proposed model under various conditions/interferences is examined to
maximum
validate thecurrent with a sampling
performance of the system frequency of up to 14
comprehensively. samples/seconds.
Singh and Chawla [94] It is suggested
designed
that the proposed
a solar PV monitoring model underlocated
system various in aconditions/interferences
remote location using ZigBee. is examined to validate
The proposed
thesystem
performance
used theofPythonthe system
languagecomprehensively.
to store the dataSingh in theand ChawlaQuery
Structured [94] designed
Languagea solar
PV(SQL)
monitoring
database.systemFurtherlocated
researchin a remote
could location
be carried out by using ZigBee.the
implementing The proposed at
methodology system
several
used locations.language
the Python Cihan andtoKoseoglu
store the [95] applied
data in theZigBee topology
Structured as wellLanguage
Query to transfer (SQL)
data da-
tabase. Further research could be carried out by implementing the methodology at several
locations. Cihan and Koseoglu [95] applied ZigBee topology as well to transfer data to
observe the panel angle to determine the maximum efficiency. The results indicated that
the efficiency of the panel will be negatively affected if there is an increase in temperature
to observe the panel angle to determine the maximum efficiency. The results indicated that
the efficiency of the panel will be negatively affected if there is an increase in temperature
of 3–5 ◦ C after 20 ◦ C. The suggested methodology could be implemented with a higher
communication distance in order to read the values of current and voltage by utilizing
sensors.
Although ZigBee modules have countless practical applications, they have some
negative points due to the non-conventional protocol design, complexity, the bandwidth
constraints of the communication channel, and the signal processing techniques [96]. The
protocol of ZigBee is inadequate for a large sensor network consisting of several large-scale
clusters [97]. Moreover, the security aspect of ZigBee is weak and is prone to cyber-attacks
which can be hacked or breached by professional hackers. The RF features in ZigBee are
limited, creating a disruption of the signal by any obstacle. Furthermore, some other issues
relating to ZigBee are signal interference, discrete communication, low range, and loss of
signals in lifts, basements etc.
5.2. Wi-Fi-Based Module

Wi-Fi technology is based on the 802.11 family standard which is implemented to
develop a wireless local area network (WLAN) [98]. The Wi-Fi-based monitoring system
depends on a Wi-Fi module commonly using ESP8266 for data transmission. This tool
can read current changes up to 5A with an error reading of 2.5% in the ammeter and
voltages up to 30 V with an error reading of 0.073% in the voltmeter. The range of the
Wi-Fi module can reach up to 100 m with the data rate between 11 Mb/s and 54 Mb/s.
However, the Wi-Fi module consumes more power in transmitting data than other data
transmission modules.
Pramono et al. [99] introduced a method to monitor and protect the solar PV sys-
tem with low power communication using an ESP 8266 Wi-Fi module. A total of three
nodes consisting of a 12 V DC motor, LED lights, and LED lamps were observed with an
average error of 2.4% for the current sensor and 0.073% for the voltage sensor recorded.
The proposed work needs further improvements to elevate the efficiency as well as to
decrease the transmission time of the data. Allafi and Iqbal [42] proposed a method
based on an ESP32 module to monitor the electrical parameters of the solar panel and
battery. The designed system used low-cost sensors, an ESP32 Wi-Fi module, and an
SD-card reader. A total of 12 solar modules each at 130 W was tested. The work con-
sisted of low power applications which could be improved comprehensively for high
power applications such as 1 kW. In addition to the above methodology, environmental
parameters should be considered for future works in terms of panel conditions. Moreover,
the presented technology proves insufficient for supporting any intelligent decisions or
notifications. Rouibah et al. [100] designed a low-cost monitoring system utilizing a Wi-Fi
module ESP8266 for maximum power point tracking (MPPT) in a solar PV plant. The
system consisted of two electronic boards, a data acquisition sensing board, and a DC-DC
boost converter. Besides, a website was also designed to store and display the monitored
data in real-time. The block diagram of the proposed monitoring system is displayed
in Figure 13 [100]. Further improvements related to fault detection as well as remote sens-
ing could be implemented with the integration of a failure system to send the information
related to sensor failure. Gusa et al. [101] proposed a Wi-Fi-based solar PV monitoring
system using a Wi-Fi module for data transmission to monitor solar panel parameters such
as voltage, current, and temperature. The monitoring of the parameters was completed in
real-time. The results showed that the average errors of voltage and current were 0.96%
and 5.6%, respectively. The methodology observed is simple and could be comprehen-
sively improved for a wide range of applications such as fault detection, measurement of
efficiency, as well as panel condition. Aghenta and Iqbal [102] proposed an open source
SCADA architecture to develop an efficient monitoring system and a robust supervisory
control system. The developed structure consisted of various components such as sensors,
ESP32 Thing Micro-Controller (RTU), a Thinger.IO local server IoT platform, a Raspberry Pi
Micro-Controller and a local Wi-Fi Router. The ESP32 Thing Micro-Controller (RTU) is used
to collect the electrical data from various sensors and then transfers the obtained sensor
data to the Thinger.IO local server IoT platform through a Wi-Fi network for data storage,
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
remote control, and real-time monitoring. The proposed SCADA system was tested using 20 of 36
260 W and a 12 V Solar PV System to monitor the voltage, current, and power remotely.
Display
Current ESP8266
Solar panel
Sensor Module
Arduino
Solar panel
2560
Solar panel Voltage
Solar panel
Sensor LCD display
Boost DC-
Solar panel
DC converter
Load
Figure13.13.Schematic
Figure Schematic diagram
diagram of the
of the monitoring
monitoring scheme
scheme using
using an ESP8266
an ESP8266 module.
module.
Someissues
Some issues relating
relating to monitoring
to monitoring using
using Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi arefollows:
are as as follows:
•• The
Thedeployment
deployment of of
unauthorized
unauthorized devices without
devices undergoing
without security
undergoing review
security pos- pos-
review
sesses
sessescould result
could in in
result a threat for for
a threat the the
insertion attack;
insertion attack;
•• Bypassing
Bypassingaccess
accesspoints
pointsbyby
clients makes
clients them
makes prone
them to external
prone threats
to external as well
threats as as
well as
threats against each other;
threats against each other;
•• Interception
Interceptionand monitoring
and monitoring of traffic across
of traffic a LAN.
across The The
a LAN. attacker needsneeds
attacker to be to
within
be within
the range of an access point (approximately 300 feet for 802.11b standard);
the range of an access point (approximately 300 feet for 802.11b standard);
• Acquisition of the frequency by illegitimate traffic thus preventing the legitimate
• Acquisition of the frequency by illegitimate traffic thus preventing the legitimate traf-
traffic reaching clients or the access point.
fic reaching clients or the access point.
5.3. Bluetooth-Based Module
5.3. Bluetooth
Bluetooth-Based Module
is a wireless technology for exchanging data over short distances. Bluetooth
Bluetooth
functions is a wireless
are executed using an technology
IEEE standardforofexchanging
802.15.4 anddata over Wireless
Low-Rate short distances.
Personal Blue-
Area
toothNetworks
functions(LRareWPANs).
executedIt isusing
an emerging
an IEEE platform
standardandof
one of the most
802.15.4 andpopular
Low-Ratemodes
Wireless
ofPersonal
transmission
Area for sending (LR
Networks dataWPANs).
from one device
It is antoemerging
another [103]. Radioand
platform interference
one of the is most
removed
popular in Bluetooth
modes technology for
of transmission andsending
replaced by from
data a Speed
oneFrequency
device to Hopping (SFH)Radio
another [103].
technique which
interference allows devices
is removed to make
in Bluetooth complete and
technology access of the radio
replaced spectrum.
by a Speed Users Hop-
Frequency
have access to data transfer among various devices by forming an ad
ping (SFH) technique which allows devices to make complete access of the radio hoc network [104].spec-
The transmitting power can be increased for sending the data up to 100 m in Bluetooth
trum. Users have access to data transfer among various devices by forming an ad hoc
technology [105].
network [104]. The transmitting power can be increased for sending the data up to 100 m
Sarabia et al. [106] designed a portable solar PV system for measuring the data of the
in Bluetooth technology [105].
generated PV power using Bluetooth communication protocols. The INA219 sensor was
used toSarabia
monitoretthe
al. current,
[106] designed
voltage, aand
portable
powersolar PVassystem
as well executefor
themeasuring the data of the
12C communication
generated PV power using Bluetooth communication protocols. The
protocol. The 12C protocol consists of two communication cables: serial data (SDA) INA219 sensor
and was
used to monitor the current, voltage, and power as well as execute the 12C
serial clock (SCA), which allows up to 127 slave devices to be connected. The latencies communication
protocol.by
generated The 12C protocol
masters of many consists of two
slaves during thecommunication
transmission of cables:
data fromserial
eachdata (SDA)
slave can and
serial
be takenclock (SCA), whichWenxing
into consideration. allows up to presented
[105] 127 slave adevices
solar PVtomonitoring
be connected. The
system latencies
based
generated by masters of many slaves during the transmission of data from each slave can
be taken into consideration. Wenxing [105] presented a solar PV monitoring system based
on Bluetooth technology for a photovoltaics substation. The proposed monitoring system
was combined with an older automation system to develop a new system for a solar PV
on Bluetooth technology for a photovoltaics substation. The proposed monitoring system

was combined with an older automation system to develop a new system for a solar PV
substation. The presented methodology could be improved by integrating the proposed
algorithm with the safety and economics of the substation which could lead to an increase
in the overall efficiency of the system. Le et al. [38] proposed a Bluetooth-based solar PV
monitoring, evaluation, and fault detection system. The proposed system was designed to
monitor the voltage, current, temperature, and irradiance of the solar panel. The results
were displayed in MATLAB/Simulink platform. The experimental test was performed
on a 1 kWp solar panel with a sampling time of 1 min. A fault detection parameter was
proposed by observing the readings of the simulated results and then comparing them
with the theoretical data obtained from the panels. All data visualization, simulation, and
fault detection were completed on a common platform of MATLAB Simulink. Mohapatra
et al. [107] introduced a solar PV monitoring system using Bluetooth module HC-05 to
transmit data. The data were monitored by the user through the Bluetooth Terminal
Application. The paper also focused on the distribution of power using a relay. The
relay was switched ON/OFF by the control signal from the Arduino Uno to distribute
the power properly. As per the review of the methodology, the complexity of the system
could be minimized by utilizing some of the advanced microcontrollers (AVR and ARM
architectures) in conjunction with the Wi-Fi transmission protocols which would provide a
higher transmission range.
Bluetooth offers various advantages but also comes with several disadvantages, in-
cluding factors such as authorization, encryption, and authentication [104]. One of the
main concerns about the security of Bluetooth is the pairing process [108]. Attackers can
imitate users, end connections between the devices, and modify data [109]. Furthermore,
it has a limited operational range of up to 100 m. Moreover, it suffers from high power
requirements and exhibits slow data transmission compared to other monitoring tech-
nologies [110]. In the case of monitoring environmental parameters, transmitting a large
amount of data at short intervals would require a multi-hop routing protocol which could
access larger areas by using other nodes in the network as relays to reach the destination
node [111].
5.4. GSM-Based Module

The Global System for Mobile (GSM) is generally used for the mobile correspondence
framework. The GSM framework is built by utilizing Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) [112]. The GSM framework is portable with a wide coverage area and has a
high consistency [41]. The framework is characterized by distinctive components and
the routes in which they communicate to empower the general framework operation.
The operation of the GSM includes the communication between a mobile phone and a
Public Switch Telephone Network (PSTN). The first GSM framework was propelled in the
mid-1990s [113].
Belghith and Sbita [114] designed solar PV remote monitoring and control systems
with GSM technology and LABVIEW to monitor the parameters and other factors. The
system consisted of sensors connected in a star topology and a PIC18F4550 board with
an inbuilt 8 KB of flash memory, 368 bytes of Random-Access Memory (RAM) and 256 of
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) The microcontroller
programming code was edited with mikroC PRO. The proposed technique could be further
enhanced by storing the data in the cloud, detecting the faulty panel by fault detection
techniques, and expanding the coverage area. Ahmad et al. [91] developed a solar power
monitoring and control system based on the GSM network for rural areas. The information
was transferred to the targeted mobile station through a GSM interface using a Short
Messaging Service (SMS). It is suggested that future work focuses on data security which
could secure the data sent via Short Message Service (SMS). Lelutiu and Georgescu [115]
presented a GSM-based solar PV monitoring system to control the orientation of the solar
panels all year round. The test board consisted of the solar panel, two lead-acid batteries
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

rated at 6 V, ab ATMEGA328 board, a Steca-Solsum 6.6 F/12, 24 V/6A solar PV panel 22 of 36
charge controller, and a two bipolar stepper motor with a torque of 0.23 Nm rated at 12 V.
The system was able to follow the sun tracker through the GSM network. The suggested
work could be enhanced by obtaining the electrical as well as the environmental parameters
technology
to observe thewas integrated
panel conditionwith a cloud server
in conjunction with thefor the display
control and monitoring
of the orientation of the ex-
of the panel.
tracted
In theirdata.
recentFurther,
work, Xia theetpresented work designed
al. [116] developed a feature extraction
a 4G communication platformand a classification
to monitor
model for analysing the health status of the inverter. A probabilistic
electrical parameters such as voltage and current. Further, the monitoring technology was neural network
(PNN) model
integrated withwas designed
a cloud with
server for the the 660and
display setsmonitoring
of faulty ofdatathe for training
extracted data.the model from
Further,
the presented work designed a feature
the PV inverter obtained online at 2–8 kW. extraction and a classification model for analysing
the health
GSM status of the inverter.
technology has taken A probabilistic
a leap in termsneural network (PNN)advancements
of technological model was designedwith higher
with the 660 sets of faulty data for training the model from the PV inverter obtained online
numbers of antennas, low error rates, low costs, wide area coverage and monitoring 24/7
at 2–8 kW.
[117]. Despite the advancements achieved, GSM lags behind in some issues relating to the
GSM technology has taken a leap in terms of technological advancements with higher
sending
numbersofofthe message,
antennas, such
low as the
error interruption
rates, of thearea
low costs, wide datacoverage
and connection problems with
and monitoring
emails
24/7 [117]. Despite the advancements achieved, GSM lags behind in some issues relating Iden-
when many people use the same bandwidth [118]. Furthermore, Subscriber
tification Module
to the sending of the(SIM) cardsuch
message, cloning
as themay lead to fraud,
interruption resulting
of the data in the theft
and connection of data [119].
problems
The
withproposed method
emails when many was
peopleused
usetotheexamine the solar[118].
same bandwidth power transferred
Furthermore, to the batteries
Subscriber
Identification
and Moduleconditions
the temperature (SIM) cardfor cloning may leadoftotime.
that moment fraud, resulting in the theft of
data [119]. The proposed method was used to examine the solar power transferred to the
batteries
5.5. and theModule
LoRa-Based temperature conditions for that moment of time.
Semtech [120]
5.5. LoRa-Based introduced a spread spectrum modulation technique known as LoRa
Module
(long-range) derived from Chirp
Semtech [120] introduced Spread
a spread Spectrum
spectrum (CSS). LoRa
modulation is a low-power
technique known as LoRawide-area
network (LPWAN)
(long-range) derivedtechnology
from Chirp that is specifically
Spread Spectrum (CSS).designed
LoRa for
is a IoT [121,122].
low-power In recent
wide-
years, LoRa has
area network gained technology
(LPWAN) significant that
attention amongstdesigned
is specifically both industrial and research
for IoT [121,122]. In com-
recent years,
munities LoRa
[123]. hasmethod
This gained significant
aims at beingattention amongst
usable both industrial
in long-lived and researchdevices,
battery-powered
communities
where energy[123]. This method
consumption is of aims at beingimportance
paramount usable in long-lived battery-powered
[124]. A typical LoRa network is
devices, where energy consumption is of paramount importance [124]. A typical LoRa
a star-of-stars topology, which includes three different levels of devices, as illustrated in
network is a star-of-stars topology, which includes three different levels of devices, as
Figure 14 [116].
illustrated in Figure 14 [116].
End Devices End Devices End Devices
LoRa Gateway LoRa Gateway
LoRa connection
IP connection
LoRa network
server
Figure 14.
Figure Star topology
14. Star topologybased
basedonon
LoRa Network
LoRa Architecture.
Network Architecture.
Shuda et al. [125] proposed a LoRa-based solar PV monitoring system. A LoRa mod-
ule was selected for its long-range and low power characteristics. Different parameters
such as module voltage, current, backside temperature, ambient temperature, and irradi-
ance were measured. The test was conducted using a 250 Wp monocrystalline PV module
and measurements were recorded accordingly. The results demonstrated that a range of
Shuda et al. [125] proposed a LoRa-based solar PV monitoring system. A LoRa module
was selected for its long-range and low power characteristics. Different parameters such
as module voltage, current, backside temperature, ambient temperature, and irradiance
were measured. The test was conducted using a 250 Wp monocrystalline PV module
and measurements were recorded accordingly. The results demonstrated that a range of
9.27 km was achieved with a Spreading Factor (SF) of 12 and a bandwidth of 125 KHz.
The concept of SF dominates in LoRa based technology as it works on chirp (bits
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of per
36
second) protocol requiring a fixed amplitude and modulation for the transmission of data.
Lower SF relates to the transmission of more chirp per second and vice versa. A graph
was plotted showing the elevation profile between the transmitter node A and the receiver
was plotted showing the elevation profile between the transmitter node A and the receiver
node B as displayed in Figure 15 [125]. The elevation profile suggests that the successful
node B as displayed in Figure 15 [125]. The elevation profile suggests that the successful
transmission and measurement of data packets is achievable at 10 km from the sensor
transmission and measurement of data packets is achievable at 10 km from the sensor
node to the receiver node even without the line of sight. Although an extended range was
node to the receiver node even without the line of sight. Although an extended range was
achieved in transmitting the data from one point to another, the work could be extended
achieved in transmitting the data from one point to another, the work could be extended
for a large solar PV system. In addition, SF should be carefully selected to transmit the data
for a large solar PV system. In addition, SF should be carefully selected to transmit the
with a high transmission rate.
data with a high transmission rate.
Graph: Min. Avg. Max Elevation: 118.165.224m

Total Range achieved for transmitting data : 9.27 km
225 m
200 m
Elevation
175 m
B Receiver Node
150 m
125 m
Sensor Node A
2.5 km 5 km 7.5 km 9.25 km

Data transmission range
Figure 15. Elevation
Figure15. Elevation profile
profile for data transmission for a LORA-based
LORA-based module.
module.
Choi
Choiet et al.
al. [126]
[126] designed
designed aa monitoring
monitoring systemsystemforforrenewable
renewableenergy
energy(solar
(solarand
andwind)
wind)
using
usingLoRa
LoRa technology.
technology. The The LoRa
LoRa network
network used used aa sub
sub 11 GHz
GHz frequency
frequencyfor forlong-distance
long-distance
data
datatransmission.
transmission.AAlow-powered
low-poweredLoRa LoRanetwork
networkwas wasimplemented
implementedby byapplying
applyingananend-to-
end-
end modem without using a base station. The MongoDB database
to-end modem without using a base station. The MongoDB database was employed was employed to store
to
astore
largea amount
large amountof dataofreceived from the
data received from LoRa modem
the LoRa and aand
modem weba server was designed
web server was de-
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signedthe JavaScript,
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PHP, apache, andlanguages.
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basedon on
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efficiency
efficiency ofofthethesolar
solarPVPVplant
plantand
and optimization could also
optimization could alsobe be
performed. Paredesetetal.al.[106]
performed. Paredes [106] proposed
proposed a low-cost
a low-cost LoRa-based
LoRa-based solarsolar PV monitoring
PV monitoring sys-
system
tem that that communicated
communicated with
with solar
solar photovoltaicsplants
photovoltaics plantslocated
locatedininremote
remotelocations.
locations.The The
proposed topology was designed using a 5 kW solar panel. The recorded
proposed topology was designed using a 5 kW solar panel. The recorded data were stored data were stored
in
inaapacket
packet sizesize of
of 38
38 bytes
bytes with
with aa transmission
transmission power power ofof 14
14 dBm
dBm andand SF
SF metric
metricranging
ranging
from 10 to 12. The presented work could be extended by observing
from 10 to 12. The presented work could be extended by observing the fault in the panel, the fault in the panel,
array, or string by the utilization of a fault detection
array, or string by the utilization of a fault detection mechanism. mechanism.
LoRa
LoRais is regarded
regarded as as having
having lowlow power
power and andaalong-range
long-rangetransmission
transmissionofofdatadatapackets.
packets.
Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,itithas hassome
someoperational
operationalrestrictions,
restrictions,such
suchasasnetwork
networksize, which
size, which is is
limited
limited by
duty cyclecycle
by duty [127]. Although
[127]. Althoughthe performance
the performance of Low Range
of Low WideWide
Range Area Network
Area Network(Lora (Lora
WAN)
isWAN)
determined by the Physical
is determined Layer (PHY)/
by the Physical Media Media
Layer (PHY)/ access access
Control (MAC)(MAC)
Control layer which
layer
identifies the devices connected in the network, the duty-cycle
which identifies the devices connected in the network, the duty-cycle regulationsregulations in the industrial,
in the
scientific,
industrial,and medical
scientific, and(ISM) frequency
medical bands turn
(ISM) frequency out to
bands beout
turn keytolimiting factors [128].
be key limiting fac-
tors [128]. There is an increase in packet loss when the number of end nodes in the network
is increased [129]. Moreover, large SFs are required for longer communication but time on
air and off period duration also increase in proportion with SFs. Large SFs are imple-
mented more than small SFs for long-distance communication resulting in a low transfer
rate and a high Packet Error Rate (PER) [130]. The time on-air utilized by data (bytes) to
There is an increase in packet loss when the number of end nodes in the network is
increased [129]. Moreover, large SFs are required for longer communication but time on air
and off period duration also increase in proportion with SFs. Large SFs are implemented
more than small SFs for long-distance communication resulting in a low transfer rate
and a high Packet Error Rate (PER) [130]. The time on-air utilized by data (bytes) to be
transmitted and received with different SFs is shown in Table 3. For example, if 10 bytes of
data were sent with SF = 7, it would take around 0.1 s, whereas if the SF is increased to 11,
it would take 0.5 s for the same byte of data to be transferred.
Table 3. Time on air utilized by data packets at different SFs.
MAC Payload Size

SF = 7 SF = 9 SF = 8 SF = 10 SF = 11 SF = 12
(in Bytes)
10 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.25 0.5 1
20 0.1 0.1 0.18 0.3 0.7 1.4
30 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.48 0.8 1.5
40 0.2 0.1 0.35 0.51 1 1.8
50 0.22 0.2 0.39 0.6 1.2 2.2
The comparison of the specifications for data transmission protocols used in solar
PV monitoring systems is presented in Table 4. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and ZigBee constitute
short range data transmission modules whereas GSM and LoRa comprise long-range data
transmission modules.
Table 4. Comparison of various specifications of data transmission modules.
Module Power Data

Range Topology Sampling Rate
Implemented Consumption Transmission Rate
Bluetooth 100 m 10–500 mW Point to point 1 Mbps 44.1 kHz
Short range
Wi-Fi 150 m 1W Star 11 Mbps 20 MHz
modules
ZigBee 300 m 1 mW Mesh 250 kbps 8 MHz
GSM Long Range 10–30 km 1–5 W Star 270.8 kbps 8 kHz
LoRa module 10–30 km 25 mW Star, Mesh 5469–293 bps 500 kHz
The data transmission rate for Wi-Fi is variable and depends on protocols and frequency utilized. The value of 11 Mbps here refers to
802.11b protocol with 2.4 GHz frequency.
A comprehensive comparative study for the different data processing modules and
the data transmission protocols for solar PV monitoring systems is tabulated in Table 5.
Table 5. Comparative analysis of solar PV monitoring system with various data processing and data transmission modules.
Data Processing Data Measured Parameters Software/ Monitoring Peak Power of Related
Transmission Language Used Monitored PV Achievements
Modules Vpv Ipv Vac Iac G T Voc Ioc Vsc Isc Ist D Platform Reference
Protocol Module/Plants
SIM900D GSM √ √ Web Monitoring, forecasting of
BeagleBone Arduino Based 245 W [32]
shield Application monthly bill
√ Monitoring and Control of
BeagleBone - Not Mentioned LED Display - [47]
Panel
√ √ √ Application of Reliance
Reliance
Arduino Modbus library Arduino IDE 1.56 kW SCADA for low-cost [34]
SCADA
application
√ √ Arduino Minimizing biased reading
Arduino - Arduino IDE 10 w [52]
Application by utilizing DAQ
Wi-Fi Dongle √ √ √ √ Multi-user remote
Raspberry Pi C and Linux Cloud service 50 W [62]
USB monitoring
RFM69HW 433 √ √ √ √
Raspberry Pi MHz Wireless LABVIEW Web Server 250 W and 5 kW Monitoring, Cost Reduction [35]
Transceiver
√ √ √ Data Module Monitoring, No
Wi-Fi Don-
PLC Not Mentioned Logger/Smart 6.4 kW communication modem for [72]
gle/Ethernet
App. PLC module
Ethernet √ Cloud
PLC (100BASE- Not Mentioned System/Host 1–15 MW String monitoring [73]
TX)/Modbus System
PIC181F4620 Microchip MiWi √ √ √ √ WSN measuring Monitoring, Detection, and
Not Mentioned - [82]
Microcontroller protocol unit localization of bypass event
Wi-Fi/Ethernet √ √ Monitoring
Microcontroller Visual Basic - Monitoring [83]
WIZ 107 SR Application
√ √ √ √ √ √ PC Based Monitoring, improvement
Microcontroller ZigBee C and NetBeans 1.25 kW [88]
Application for low cost PV system
ATMega328P √ √ PC Based Monitoring, Significance of
ZigBee C# 5W [95]
microcontroller Application temperature on panel output
√ √ √ √ Monitoring, Checking the
Not Mentioned ZigBee MATLAB MATLAB 150 W range of electrical power [93]
generation
√ √ √ √ C++/CSS, Improving monitoring,
Arduino Mega ESP8266
HTML and Website Based 120 W performance, and [100]
2560 Wi-Fi module
JavaScript. maintenance of system
√ √ Development of low-cost
Microcontroller ESP32 Wi-Fi Arduino SD Card/Web
1.3 kW web-based Monitoring [42]
ESP32 module IDE/HTML page
system
Table 5. Cont.
Data Processing Data Measured Parameters Software/ Monitoring Peak Power of Related
Transmission Language Used Monitored PV Achievements
Modules Vpv Ipv Vac Iac G T Voc Ioc Vsc Isc Ist D Platform Reference
Protocol Module/Plants
Bluetooth √ √ LabVIEW Monitoring, Low cost,
Arduino Uno LabVIEW - [106]
module interface Implementing 12C protocol
HC-05 √ √ √
STM32F4DISCOVERY MATLAB Monitoring, Fault Detection
Bluetooth MATLAB 87 W [38]
board Platform in Panel
module
LabVIEW/ISIS
PIC16F877 √ √ √ √ soft- LabVIEW Monitoring, Replacement of
GSM Module - [114]
Microcontroller ware/mikroC Platform manually module checking
PRO
PIC16F877 √ √ √ Web-Based Solar power monitoring and
GSM module Visual Basic/C - [131]
Microcontroller application control
√ √ √ √ MySQL Mobile Receiver Monitoring and range
Raspberry Pi 3 LoRa Module 250 W and 100 W [125]
database unit measurement test
Hope RMF95 √ √ √ TTN web Based
Raspberry Pi LMIC library 5 kW Module-level monitoring [132]
LoRa Module application
Vpv is panel voltage; Ipv is panel current; Vac is inverter voltage; Iac is inverter current; G is irradiance; T is panel temperature; Voc is open circuit voltage of panel; Ioc is open circuit current of panel; Vsc is short
circuit voltage of panel; Isc is short circuit current of panel; Ist is string current; D is Duty cycle.
Based on the abovementioned reviews, some guidelines need to be taken into consid-
eration to select an appropriate technology for solar PV monitoring systems. The guidelines
are presented in Table 6.
Table 6. Guidelines for the selection of appropriate technology for solar PV monitoring systems.
Technical Specifications Rating Technology Remark

In kB Microcontroller/Arduino
Consideration has to be taken whether data
Storage/memory Internal storage +
BeagleBone/Raspberry Pi needs to be stored locally or sent to the cloud.
micro SD slot
In MB PLC
2.7–5.5 V Microcontroller
BeagleBone/ For the development of an efficient solar PV
Supply Voltage 5V
Raspberry Pi/ monitoring system, the technology chosen
Arduino must match the available power supply
24 V PLC
ZigBee/
<300 m Wi-Fi/
Range The range of data transmission depends on
Bluetooth
the distance to the remote control center.
GSM/
upto 30 km
LoRa
In kbps ZigBee/GSM
The rate of data transmission must be
In Mbps Wi-Fi/
Data transmission rate considered according to the requirements of
Bluetooth
the system.
In bps LoRa
Therefore, the information discussed above will act as guidelines in selecting an

appropriate solar PV monitoring system.
6. Key Issues and Challenges

The main aim of the monitoring system for the PV power plant is to transmit the data
in a reliable, secure, and efficient manner. However, several issues significantly affect the
performance of various monitoring technologies in terms of efficiency, security, range, data
processing capability, sampling rate, and signal interference. Some of the identified key
issues and challenges are discussed in the following subsections.
6.1. Data Handling

With the increase in the size of utility solar power plants, there is an enormous
amount of data that is very difficult to monitor using conventional technologies and data
processing modules. Although Arduino is cost-effective, it lacks powerful capabilities to
acquire complex data and hence should be replaced by a powerful data processing platform
for complex analysis [133]. In addition, PLC modules are also not good at handling large
amounts of data generated by large-scale solar power plants. Raspberry Pi can handle
large and complex data but lacks a real-time clock. Hence, it is a necessity to develop a
powerful module that can acquire a large amount of data in real-time.
6.2. Security
Security is an important aspect of wireless monitoring schemes [134]. The data
transmitted from the sensor node to the central station node may be affected [127]. The
functionality of the system could be compromised due to the existence of weak security
protocols. Security against any cyber-attack and physical tampering should be employed
in all the layers including authentication for legitimate users and end-to-end encryption
to provide privacy and confidentiality. Moreover, only authorized persons should be
allowed to perform a certain task while complying with security protocols [135]. The data
transmission modules are prone to external tampering; thus, they pose huge security issues.
When an unknown device is included in a ZigBee network, unprotected data can be sent
from the device, hence affecting the whole network. The data in a Wi-Fi network can
easily be captured within some ranges. The attackers in a Bluetooth system can interfere
and steal encryption keys, thus accessing the data between the devices. Although LoRa
provides end-to-end security through several steps such as application and network key,
the network key can be extracted if an attacker gains physical access to the device [136].
6.3. Signal Interference

Interference issues can cause severe problems in the data monitoring of a solar PV
system. The network may be affected by interference from other modes of communication.
This results in the poor functioning of the modules, a slow rate of data transfer, poor signal
strength and discontinuous connections. Signal interference in GSM reduces the quality
of the service thereby increasing the loss of revenue [137]. Furthermore, interference in
Raspberry Pi occurs by radio frequency from High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)
cable due to the dropping off of Wi-Fi signals.
6.4. Energy Efficiency

The solar PV monitoring system consists of multiple nodes of transmitters. The energy
efficiency issues are related to the lifetime of the node battery [138]. Any failure of the node
battery results in the low life of the network, thus disturbing real-time communication. This
hampers the extraction of data from different nodes which could affect the performance
of the whole system. Hence, it is essential to develop an energy-efficient communication
protocol [139]. Moreover, the utilization of multiple paths allows better energy efficiency
for real-time communication in the monitoring system.
6.5. Operating System and Programming Language

Data processing platforms utilize different operating systems as well as programming
languages to operate according to the system requirements. BeagleBone and Raspberry Pi
support Linux as an operating system thereby making the module cost-efficient [140,141].
However, Linux is not a user-friendly operating system. Arduino operates on an Arduino-
based programming language but due to its limited library resources, high computational
efficiency in advanced research is not achieved [142]. PLC on the other hand utilizes OS 9
and VxWorks as its operating system while it is programmed by Ladder Logic, Function
Block Diagram (FBD), Structured Text (ST), Instruction List (IL) and Sequential Function
Chart (SFC). These programming languages require an expert as the written program is
hard to debug, it consists of difficult syntax, and is difficult to edit online [143].
6.6. Data Transmission Range

One of the current issues relating to the solar PV system is an increase in the size of
utility-scale solar PV plants. These large-scale solar PV plants cannot be monitored by
low-range data transmission modules such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and ZigBee. The range of
Bluetooth modules is around 100 m while for Wi-Fi and ZigBee the range is around 150 m
and 300 m, respectively, which makes these modules unable to monitor the data from a
solar power plant where the distance between the two farthest PV panels may be in km.
Moreover, the implementation of GSM is not possible for the solar power plants located in
distant places due to the issue of network coverage. LoRa is being considered an important
platform in transmitting data over long ranges but it suffers from a low transfer rate and a
high PER as the distance is increased.
6.7. Environmental Impact

The performance of various data processing and data transmission modules may be
affected by environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, irradiance, dust etc.,
which need to be addressed carefully while installing the boards in the open environment.
For instance, the deposition of dust decreases the intensity of the light captured by the solar
panel, thus reducing the solar PV output. Ramli et al. [144] performed an experimental
investigation using an ARM Cortex-M4 microcontroller STM32F407 as a standalone digital
controller to study the effect of dust accumulation on solar PV output. The results indicated
a decrease in solar PV power by 10.8% over the course of four weeks. Hence, careful
assessment should be performed related to environmental factors of a particular location
before the installation of the devices. For instance, it has been suggested that Raspberry
Pi should be operated in a predefined range as mentioned by the developer. Once the
operation exceeds the threshold limit, a warning icon showing a red half-filled thermometer
will be displayed, and the ARM cores will be progressively throttled back.
6.8. Transmission Module Precision

The influence of unnecessary electromagnetic and radio signals affects the operating
environment of sensing, monitoring, and control systems. Further, the efficiency and
accuracy of the installed transmission modules can be hampered due to the occurrence of
unwanted signals in the form of electromagnetic and radio signals. Hence, the development
of compatible shield/modules integrated with data transmission boards such as ZigBee,
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, GSM, and LoRa modules is essential. This would assist in the prevention
of unwanted interference and remove the mismatching of standardized signals.
6.9. Solar Cell Technology

The efficiency of the solar PV monitoring system depends on the type of solar cell
technology. Further, the monitoring capabilities of the sensors attached depend on the
data extracted from the solar cell in terms of irradiance, temperature, current, and voltage
which are linked to solar cell efficiency. In recent times, very few works have monitored
the efficiency of various solar cell technologies such as mono crystalline, third-generation
PV cells, and perovskite solar cells [145–147]. The authors in [148] compared the efficiency
of various solar cell technologies such as poly-crystalline silicon (pcSi), mono-crystalline
silicon (mc-Si), thin-film copper indium disulfide (CIS), amorphous silicon (a-Si), and
heterojunction incorporating thin film (HIT). The lowest efficiency was recorded for CIS
while the highest efficiency was reported for pcSi technology. Hence, it is necessary to
select a suitable solar cell technology to achieve optimal efficiency.
7. Discussion and Future Perspectives

By reviewing the different solar PV monitoring systems with regard to their applica-
tion and advantages and disadvantages, it has been found in the context of data processing
modules that BeagleBone is a powerful platform, but its usage is limited by a smaller
number of external connections, and the fact that it is expensive and has a limited color
resolution for HDMI. Arduino comes with user-friendly capabilities that are adaptable
to several operating systems but it lacks a limited bit resolution and powerful module
capabilities for processing complex data. Raspberry Pi is an effective module in the field
of monitoring, but it lacks an RTC with a battery backup and BIOS. On the other hand,
PLC has excellent outcomes in controlling data and can work for 5–10 years with a low
cooling cost, yet it is incompatible with handling a large amount of data. Even though
microcontrollers are reusable and energy-efficient, they have programming complexities
that require a skilled person. Microprocessor-based prototypes are efficient and serve as a
base in model development but are unsuited for new users as the programming languages,
such as C/C++, require an expert programmer.
In terms of transmission protocol modules, ZigBee has a low cost and a low power
consumption. However, it suffers from signal interference and the loss of signals. Wi-Fi
can transfer data at high speed, but it has an issue relating to low coverage area. Bluetooth
exhibits easily upgradable characteristics and low power consumption. Nonetheless, it has
a shortcoming in terms of authorization, authentication, and encryption. GSM comes with
a low error rate with wide area coverage. Nevertheless, it experiences data interruption
and data connection problems. LoRa is considered to be powerful module for long-range
data transmission, but it is not suitable to send large payloads (limited to 100 bytes).
Furthermore, the protocol does not allow for the continuous sending of data packets due
to rules in relation to the frequency band it utilizes.
The review provides some useful suggestions to design an efficient solar PV monitor-
ing system for future research works which are highlighted below.
Data transmission modules such as ZigBee and Wi-Fi have short-range transmissions.
Nonetheless, the occurrence of signal interference is prevalent when the device is employed
with other data transmission protocols. Thus, more exploration is required to eliminate the
problems of signal interference for short-distance transmission.
• Although data transmission modules are utilized to transmit data from sensor node
to receiver node, the acquired data needs to be secured from external tampering.
Therefore, careful attention is necessary to examine the security aspects of the data
transmission modules in terms of theft of data, privatization, authentication of the
third party, etc. Further, the implementation of NB-IoT technology could result in
better scalability, quality of service, and security compared to unlicensed LPWA
networks such as LoRa/Sigfox.
• As the size of the solar PV systems is increasing, the complexity of handling several
aspects such as data handling, security, efficiency, and transmission range needs to
be studied. Hence the necessity for an efficient and reliable state-of-the-art wireless
monitoring system to be developed. A new combination of sensor nodes with gateway
devices could be designed.
• The implementation of state-of-the-art technologies related to 5G and Bluetooth low
energy can be utilized in solar PV monitoring systems due to several benefits such
as low power consumption, greater transmission speed, greater capacity of remote
execution with a greater number of attached devices and lower latency.
• Several simulation platforms have been developed for the verification of the data
received in solar PV monitoring systems. The accuracy of the validation of the data
varies with different simulation platforms. Due to the advancements of the solar
PV system worldwide, a validation of the data acquired from the sensor nodes is
required. Thus, a common simulation platform is essential which could be interfaced
with data transmission modules for the evaluation of the data received from the
simulation results.
• For the development of a reliable, robust, and efficient wireless solar PV monitoring
system, the validation of the data under different environmental conditions should
be observed. Therefore, the monitoring system should be tested in changing environ-
mental settings to evaluate the robustness and overall efficiency of the system.
• One of the critical issues related to the energy efficiency of the sensor nodes is the
transmission of the data. Any failure of the node battery results in the low life of the
network, thus disturbing real-time communication. Therefore, further research works
are required to design modules for a long-duration operation without interruptions in
sending the data.
• The data acquired from the solar panel can be affected by the degradation of the solar
panel as well as dust, humidity, irradiance, and temperature. Therefore, an in-depth
study is required to develop a low-cost intelligent real-time PV monitoring system to
identify the degradation.
• The development of open-source platforms and software with regard to data process-
ing modules such as Arduino, Raspberry Pi, etc. affects the availability of information
in the internet as well as in the cost of acquisition, programming, and modification of
devices. Further, the application of open-source platforms will accelerate the develop-
ment of low-cost programmable devices for innumerable tasks in various applications
such as Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) in the coming
years. Additionally, the development of open-source modules would lead to a reduc-
tion in the gap between the prototyping and the product development of PV panels
due to fault conditions.
• The implementation of IoT based wireless solar PV monitoring systems consisting of

sophisticated sensors, data processing boards, and communication protocols could
be developed to achieve an efficient, accurate, and robust monitoring system for the
solar PV environment.
8. Conclusions
The review outlined a comprehensive exploration of various solar PV monitoring
technologies based on the application of various data processing modules and transmission
protocols. In line with this, the review presented an overview of the monitoring system,
classification, detailed description, and limitations of solar PV monitoring systems. As a
first contribution, a comprehensive exploration of different data processing modules for
solar PV monitoring systems is presented with regard to the monitoring platform, structure,
specifications, shortcomings, and contributions. As a second contribution, the various
data transmission modules have been investigated highlighting the types, configuration,
data transmission rate, sampling rate, power consumption, strength, and weakness. As a
third contribution, the current issues and challenges of the existing technologies for solar
PV application were covered emphasizing data handling, security, signal interference,
energy efficiency, transmission range, environmental impact, and efficiency. As a fourth
contribution, some productive future suggestions have been provided to develop an
improved monitoring system that will lead toward sustainable operations and management
in solar PV applications.
The critical analysis, discussion, issues, and recommendations will prove fruitful in
sustainable development with regard to clean energy, emission reduction and economic
prosperity. Further, the development of an advanced solar PV monitoring system could
provide guidelines and encourage solar PV industries and researchers to perform further
research on IoT-based monitoring systems for large-scale solar PV applications. Addition-
ally, this review could assist in selecting the appropriate monitoring technology for the
improvement of efficiency, accuracy, and robustness of solar PV systems towards increasing
green technology and achieving decarbonization goals by 2050.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.A. and A.A.; methodology, S.A.; formal analysis, S.A.
and M.S.H.L.; investigation, S.A. and M.S.H.L.; resources, S.A., A.A., data curation, S.A.; writing—
original draft preparation, S.A.; writing—review and editing, S.A., A.A., M.S.H.L., M.H.M.S.; super-
vision, A.A.; project administration, A.A., A.H.; funding acquisition, A.H. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The authors are thankful to the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia and Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia for the financial support under the grant number LRGS/2018/UNITEN-
UKM/EWS/04.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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sustainability

1 Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

Sustainability 2021, 13, 8120. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158120 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

competitiveness, and the growing experience of developers [12,13]. At present, solar PV

(a) Screening Method

(b) Review Results

Future Prospects Issues and challenges

Sustainability 2021, 13, 8120 5 of 34

2.1. Selection Process

wireless Wireless Router

A comprehensive review of solar PV monitoring system-based data processing

Sustainability 2021, 13, 8120 6 of 34

Application layer Data processing layer

Networking layer Sensor and actuator layer

Figure 4. Primary layers for the development of a solar-based monitoring system.

Various state-of-the-art monitoring technologies for solar PV applications have been

IoT Based Solar PV

Based on Data Processing Based on Transmission

BeagleBone Arduino Raspberry Pi ZigBee Wi-Fi Bluetooth

4. Progress of Data Processing Modules for Solar PV Monitoring System

PV Panel Inverter Circuit Breaker

Current sensor Power Analyzer Circuit Breaker

Arduino Uno BeagleBone GSM Module

4.2. The IvreaBased

4.3. Raspberry Pi-Based Module

Sustainability 2021, 13, 8120 10 of 34

Analog Web monitor

Vdc and Idc

Sustainability 2021, 13, 8120 12 of 34

Han et al. [72]Han

BPSK BPSK Coupling

PLC exhibits strong points in the progress of solar solar PV

4.5. Microcontroller-Based Module

Table 2. Comparison for the specification of various data processing modules.

Arduino Uno Raspberry Pi3 PLC (FX1N-14MR) BeagleBone ATMEGA 16

5. Progress of Data Transmission Protocols for Wireless Communication in Solar PV

5.1. ZigBee-Based Module

Logging point 2 Logging point 1 ZigBee

Figure 12. 12.

5.2. Wi-Fi-Based Module

on Bluetooth technology for a photovoltaics substation. The proposed monitoring system

5.4. GSM-Based Module

Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

End Devices End Devices End Devices

LoRa Gateway LoRa Gateway

Graph: Min. Avg. Max Elevation: 118.165.224m

2.5 km 5 km 7.5 km 9.25 km

Table 3. Time on air utilized by data packets at different SFs.

MAC Payload Size

Table 4. Comparison of various specifications of data transmission modules.

Module Power Data

Technical Specifications Rating Technology Remark

Therefore, the information discussed above will act as guidelines in selecting an

6. Key Issues and Challenges

6.1. Data Handling

6.3. Signal Interference

6.4. Energy Efficiency

6.5. Operating System and Programming Language