Vagina:: Female Reproductive System (Human), Details ..
Vagina:: Female Reproductive System (Human), Details ..
Vagina:: Female Reproductive System (Human), Details ..
female reproductive system (or female genital system) is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function
in human reproduction. The female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to
produce gametes, and to carry a fetus to full term. The internal sex organs are the uterus and Fallopian tubes, and the ovaries.
The uterus or womb accommodates the embryo which develops into the fetus. The uterus also produces vaginal and uterine
secretions which help the transit of sperm to the Fallopian tubes. The ovaries produce the ova (egg cells). The external sex
organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of the vulva including the labia, clitoris and vaginal opening.
The vagina is connected to the uterus at the cervix.
Quick facts: Female reproductive system (human), Details ...
At certain intervals, the ovaries release an ovum, which passes through the Fallopian tube into the uterus. If, in this
transit, it meets with sperm, a single sperm can enter and merge with the egg, fertilizing it. The corresponding
equivalent among males is the male reproductive system.
Fertilization usually occurs in the Fallopian tubes and marks the beginning of embryogenesis. The zygote will
then divide over enough generations of cells to form a blastocyst, which implants itself in the wall of the uterus. This
begins the period of gestation and the embryo will continue to develop until full-term. When the fetus has developed
enough to survive outside the uterus, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel the newborn through
the birth canal (the vagina).
Internal organs
Vagina
Main article: Vagina
The vagina is a fibromuscular (made up of fibrous and muscular tissue) canal leading from the outside of the body to
the cervix of the uterus or womb. It is also referred to as the birth canal in the context of pregnancy. The vagina
accommodates the male penis during sexual intercourse. Semen containing spermatazoa is ejaculated from the male
at orgasm, into the vagina potentially enabling fertilization of the egg cell (ovum) to take place.
Cervix
Main article: Cervix
The cervix is the neck of the uterus, the lower, narrow portion where it joins with the upper part of the vagina. It
is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall. Approximately half its length is
visible, the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view. The vagina has a thick layer outside and it is the opening where the
fetus emerges during delivery.
Uterus
Main article: Uterus
The uterus or womb is the major female reproductive organ. The uterus provides mechanical protection, nutritional support,
and waste removal for the developing embryo (weeks 1 to 8) and fetus (from week 9 until the delivery). In addition,
contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus are important in pushing out the fetus at the time of birth.
The uterus contains three suspensory ligaments that help stabilize the position of the uterus and limits its range of movement.
The uterosacral ligaments keep the body from moving inferiorly and anteriorly. The round ligaments restrict posterior
movement of the uterus. The cardinal ligaments also prevent the inferior movement of the uterus.
The uterus is a pear-shaped muscular organ. Its major function is to accept a fertilized ovum which becomes implanted into
the endometrium, and derives nourishment from blood vessels which develop exclusively for this purpose. The fertilized
ovum becomes an embryo, develops into a fetus and gestates until childbirth. If the egg does not embed in the wall of the
uterus, a female begins menstruation.
Fallopian tube
Main article: Fallopian tube
The Fallopian tubes are two tubes leading from the ovaries into the uterus. On maturity of an ovum, the follicle and the
ovary's wall rupture, allowing the ovum to escape and enter the Fallopian tube. There it travels toward the uterus, pushed
along by movements of cilia on the inner lining of the tubes. This trip takes hours or days. If the ovum is fertilized while in the
Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in the endometrium when it reaches the uterus, which signals the beginning
of pregnancy.
Ovaries
Main article: Ovary
The ovaries are small, paired organs located near the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity. These organs are responsible for the
production of the egg cells (ova) and the secretion of hormones. The process by which the egg cell (ovum) is released is
called ovulation. The speed of ovulation is periodic and impacts directly to the length of a menstrual cycle.
After ovulation, the egg cell is captured by the Fallopian tube, after traveling down the Fallopian tube to the uterus,
occasionally being fertilized on its way by an incoming sperm. During fertilization the egg cell plays a role; it releases certain
molecules that are essential to guiding the sperm and allows the surface of the egg to attach to the sperm's surface. The egg
can then absorb the sperm and fertilization can then begin.[citation needed]The Fallopian tubes are lined with small hairs (cilia) to
help the egg cell travel.
External organs
Main article: Vulva
The vulva consists of all of the external parts and tissues and includes the mons pubis, pudendal cleft, labia majora, labia
minora, Bartholin's glands, clitoris and vaginal opening.
The menstrual cycle can be described by the ovarian or uterine cycle. The ovarian cycle describes changes that occur in
the follicles of the ovary whereas the uterine cycle describes changes in the endometrial lining of the uterus. Both cycles can
be divided into three phases. The ovarian cycle consists of the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase whereas the
uterine cycle consists of menstruation, proliferative phase, and secretory phase.
Ovarian cycle
Follicular phase
Main article: Follicular phase
The follicular phase is the first part of the ovarian cycle. During this phase, the ovarian follicles mature and get ready to
release an egg. The latter part of this phase overlaps with the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle.
Through the influence of a rise in follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) during the first days of the cycle, a few ovarian
follicles are stimulated. These follicles, which were present at birth and have been developing for the better part of a year in a
process known as folliculogenesis, compete with each other for dominance. Under the influence of several hormones, all but
one of these follicles will stop growing, while one dominant follicle in the ovary will continue to maturity. The follicle that
reaches maturity is called a tertiary, or Graafian, follicle, and it contains the ovum.
Ovulation
Main article: Ovulation
Ovulation is the second phase of the ovarian cycle in which a mature egg is released from the ovarian follicles into the
oviduct. During the follicular phase, estradiol suppresses production of luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary
gland. When the egg has nearly matured, levels of estradiol reach a threshold above which this effect is reversed and estrogen
stimulates the production of a large amount of LH. This process, known as the LH surge, starts around day 12 of the average
cycle and may last 48 hours.
The exact mechanism of these opposite responses of LH levels to estradiol is not well understood. In animals, a gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (GnRH) surge has been shown to precede the LH surge, suggesting that estrogen's main effect is on the
hypothalamus, which controls GnRH secretion. This may be enabled by the presence of two different estrogen receptors in the
hypothalamus: estrogen receptor alpha, which is responsible for the negative feedback estradiol-LH loop, and estrogen
receptor beta, which is responsible for the positive estradiol-LH relationship. However, in humans it has been shown that high
levels of estradiol can provoke abrupt increases in LH, even when GnRH levels and pulse frequencies are held
constant, suggesting that estrogen acts directly on the pituitary to provoke the LH surge.
The release of LH matures the egg and weakens the wall of the follicle in the ovary, causing the fully developed follicle to
release its secondary oocyte. The secondary oocyte promptly matures into an ootid and then becomes a mature ovum. The
mature ovum has a diameter of about 0.2 mm.
Which of the two ovaries—left or right—ovulates appears essentially random; no known left and right co-ordination
exists. Occasionally, both ovaries will release an egg; if both eggs are fertilized, the result is fraternal twins.
After being released from the ovary, the egg is swept into the fallopian tube by the fimbria, which is a fringe of tissue at the
end of each fallopian tube. After about a day, an unfertilized egg will disintegrate or dissolve in the fallopian tube.
Fertilization by a spermatozoon, when it occurs, usually takes place in the ampulla, the widest section of the fallopian tubes. A
fertilized egg immediately begins the process of embryogenesis, or development. The developing embryo takes about three
days to reach the uterus and another three days to implant into the endometrium. It has usually reached the blastocyst stage at
the time of implantation.
In some women, ovulation features a characteristic pain called mittelschmerz (German term meaning middle pain). The
sudden change in hormones at the time of ovulation sometimes also causes light mid-cycle blood flow.
Luteal phase
Main article: Luteal phase
The luteal phase is the final phase of the ovarian cycle and it corresponds to the secretory phase of the uterine cycle. During
the luteal phase, the pituitary hormones FSH and LH cause the remaining parts of the dominant follicle to transform into the
corpus luteum, which produces progesterone. The increased progesterone in the adrenals starts to induce the production of
estrogen. The hormones produced by the corpus luteum also suppress production of the FSH and LH that the corpus luteum
needs to maintain itself. Consequently, the level of FSH and LH fall quickly over time, and the corpus luteum subsequently
atrophies. Falling levels of progesterone trigger menstruation and the beginning of the next cycle. From the time of ovulation
until progesterone withdrawal has caused menstruation to begin, the process typically takes about two weeks, with 14 days
considered normal. For an individual woman, the follicular phase often varies in length from cycle to cycle; by contrast, the
length of her luteal phase will be fairly consistent from cycle to cycle.
The loss of the corpus luteum is prevented by fertilization of the egg. The syncytiotrophoblast, which is the outer layer of the
resulting embryo-containing structure (the blastocyst) and later also becomes the outer layer of the placenta, produces human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which is very similar to LH and which preserves the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum can
then continue to secrete progesterone to maintain the new pregnancy. Most pregnancy tests look for the presence of hCG.
Ovulation is the release of egg from the ovaries. In humans, this event occurs when the de Graaf's follicles rupture and release
the secondary oocyte ovarian cells. After ovulation, during the luteal phase, the egg will be available to be fertilized by sperm.
In addition, the uterine lining (endometrium) is thickened to be able to receive a fertilized egg. If no conception occurs, the
uterine lining as well as blood will be shed during menstruation.
Quick facts
Ovulation in humans
Ovulation occurs about midway through the menstrual cycle, after the follicular phase, and is followed by the luteal
phase. Note that ovulation is characterized by a sharp spike in levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH),
resulting from the peak of estrogen levels during the follicular phase. This diagram shows the
hormonal changes around the time of ovulation, as well as the inter-cycle and inter-female variabilities in its timing.
In humans, ovulation occurs about midway through the menstrual cycle, after the follicular phase. The few days surrounding
ovulation (from approximately days 10 to 18 of a 28-day cycle), constitute the most fertile phase. The time from the beginning
of the last menstrual period (LMP) until ovulation is, on average, 14.6 days, but with substantial variation between females
and between cycles in any single female, with an overall 95% prediction interval of 8.2 to 20.5 days.
The process of ovulation is controlled by the hypothalamus of the brain and through the release of hormones secreted in
the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). In the pre-
ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle, the ovarian follicle will undergo a series of transformations called cumulus expansion,
which is stimulated by FSH. After this is done, a hole called the stigma will form in the follicle, and the secondary oocyte will
leave the follicle through this hole. Ovulation is triggered by a spike in the amount of FSH and LH released from the pituitary
gland. During the luteal (post-ovulatory) phase, the secondary oocyte will travel through the fallopian tubes toward the uterus.
If fertilized by a sperm, the fertilized secondary oocyte or ovum may implant there 6–12 days later.
Follicular phase
See also: Folliculogenesis
The follicular phase (or proliferative phase) is the phase of the menstrual cycle during which the ovarian follicles mature. The
follicular phase lasts from the beginning of menstruation to the start of ovulation.
For ovulation to be successful, the ovum must be supported by the corona radiata and cumulus oophorousgranulosa cells. The
latter undergo a period of proliferation and mucification known as cumulus expansion. Mucification is the secretion of
a hyaluronic acid-rich cocktail that disperses and gathers the cumulus cell network in a sticky matrix around the ovum. This
network stays with the ovum after ovulation and has been shown to be necessary for fertilization.
An increase in cumulus cell number causes a concomitant increase in antrum fluid volume that can swell the follicle to over
20 mm in diameter. It forms a pronounced bulge at the surface of the ovary called the blister.[citation needed]
Ovulation
Estrogen levels peak towards the end of the follicular phase. This causes a surge in levels of luteinizing hormone (LH)
and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). This lasts from 24 to 36 hours, and results in the rupture of the ovarian follicles,
causing the oocyte to be released from the ovary via the oviduct.
Through a signal transduction cascade initiated by LH, proteolytic enzymes are secreted by the follicle that degrade the
follicular tissue at the site of the blister, forming a hole called the stigma. The secondary oocyte leaves the ruptured follicle
and moves out into the peritoneal cavity through the stigma, where it is caught by the fimbriae at the end of the fallopian
tube (also called the oviduct). After entering the oviduct, the oocyte is pushed along by cilia, beginning its journey toward
the uterus.
By this time, the oocyte has completed meiosis I, yielding two cells: the larger secondary oocyte that contains all of the
cytoplasmic material and a smaller, inactive first polar body. Meiosis II follows at once but will be arrested in
the metaphase and will so remain until fertilization. The spindle apparatus of the second meiotic division appears at the time
of ovulation. If no fertilization occurs, the oocyte will degenerate between 12 and 24 hours after ovulation. Approximately 1-
2% of ovulations release more than one oocyte. This tendency increases with maternal age. Fertilization of two different
oocytes by two different spermatozoa results in fraternal twins.
The mucous membrane of the uterus, termed the functionalis, has reached its maximum size, and so have
the endometrial glands, although they are still non-secretory.[citation needed]
Luteal phase
Main article: Luteal phase
The follicle proper has met the end of its lifespan. Without the oocyte, the follicle folds inward on itself, transforming into
the corpus luteum (pl. corpora lutea), a steroidogenic cluster of cells that produces estrogen and progesterone. These
hormones induce the endometrial glands to begin production of the proliferative endometrium and later into secretory
endometrium, the site of embryonic growth if implantation occurs. The action of progesterone increases basal body
temperature by one-quarter to one-half degree Celsius (one-half to one degree Fahrenheit). The corpus luteum continues
this paracrine action for the remainder of the menstrual cycle, maintaining the endometrium, before disintegrating into scar
tissue during menses.
the formation of the corpus luteum and ends in either pregnancy or luteolysis. The main hormone
associated with this stage is progesterone, which is significantly higher during the luteal phase than in
other phases of the cycle. Some sources define the end of the luteal phase as a distinct ischemic phase.
After ovulation, the pituitary hormones FSH and LH cause the remaining parts of the dominant follicle
to transform into the corpus luteum. It continues to grow for some time after ovulation and produces
the blastocyst and supportive of the early pregnancy. It also raises the woman's basal body temperature.
The hormones produced by the corpus luteum suppress production of the FSH and LH, causing the
corpus luteum will atrophy. The death of the corpus luteum results in falling levels of progesterone and
estrogen. This in turn causes increased levels of FSH, leading to recruitment of follicles for the next
cycle. Continued drops in estrogen and progesterone levels trigger the end of the luteal phase,
The loss of the corpus luteum can be prevented by implantation of an embryo. After implantation,
human embryos produce human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which is structurally similar to LH and can
preserve the corpus luteum. Because the hormone is unique to the embryo, most pregnancy tests look
for the presence of hCG. If implantation occurs, the corpus luteum will continue to produce
progesterone (and maintain high basal body temperatures) for eight to twelve weeks, after which
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Policy
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Infrequent or prolonged menstrual periods, excess hair growth, acne, and obesity can all
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along with weight loss may reduce the risk of long-term complications, such as type 2
diabetes and heart disease.
La sindrome dell'ovaio policistico (sigla PCOS, derivante dall'inglese Poly-Cystic Ovary Syndrome), anche
denominata policistosi ovarica, sindrome di Stein-Leventhal o anovulazione iperandrogenica, è un complesso di sintomi
derivante da uno squilibrio ormonale nelle donne in età riproduttiva.
Le informazioni riportate non sono consigli
medici e potrebbero non essere accurate. I
Avvert contenuti hanno solo fine illustrativo e non
enza sostituiscono il parere medico: leggi le
avvertenze.
La definizione di Rotterdam permette di porre diagnosi anche nelle pazienti che non soffrono di iperandrogenismo. Alcuni
gruppi di studiosi sostengono che non è possibile utilizzare i risultati delle ricerche condotte su pazienti iperandrogeniche su
coloro che non presentano segni di iperandrogenismo.
Sintomi ed indizi
Alcuni sintomi e segni comuni della sindrome sono:
Rischi
Le donne che soffrono di questa sindrome corrono il rischio di:
Diagnosi
Non tutte le donne affette da PCOS presentano ovaie policistiche, ed è altrettanto vero che non tutte le donne con cisti
ovariche sono affette da PCOS. Sebbene l'ecografia pelvica sia uno strumento diagnostico fondamentale, non è il solo. La
diagnosi può essere difficoltosa, soprattutto per la notevole variabilità di sintomi (e questo conferma il perché si parla di
sindrome e non di malattia).
Studi clinici hanno mostrato che i seguenti quattro quesiti (http://www.cfp.ca/cgi/content/full/53/6/1041/T50531041) possono
consentire di diagnosticare la PCOS con una sensibilità del 77,1% (95% CI 62,7%–88,0%) ed una specificità del 93,8% (95%
CI 82,8%–98,7%).
Procedure diagnostiche standard:
Ecografia pelvica alla ricerca di cisti ovariche. Queste sono il risultato della mancata ovulazione, e
riflettono i disordini mestruali tipici di tale condizione. Nella mestruazione fisiologica un follicolo dominante viene
selezionato ad ogni ciclo mestruale e dopo l'ovulazione, esso collassa e scompare. Nella PCOS, la mancata ovulazione
porta il follicolo a rimanere nelle ovaie per molti mesi. Si possono trovare 10 o più follicoli per ovaio che possono
assumere l'aspetto ecografico di una "collana di perle". Anche le dimensioni dei follicoli sono da 1,5 a 3 volte più grandi
rispetto a quelli normali.
Elevati livelli sierici di androgeni incluso il DHEAS ed il testosterone: il dosaggio del testosterone libero è
una metodica più specifica (cioè riduce il numero dei falsi positivi) rispetto a quello del testosterone totale; il free androgen
index è spesso utilizzato come sostituto.
Altre analisi ematiche sono molto utili nella PCOS. Il rapporto LH/FSH è maggiore di 1, al 3º giorno del
ciclo mestruale. Tale pattern non è però molto specifico ed è presente in meno del 50% in uno studio. Spesso vi sono bassi
livelli di globulina che lega gli ormoni sessuali (SHBG).
Procedure diagnostiche aggiuntive (da applicare in casi selezionati):
Chirurgia laparoscopica: rivela un ovaio translucido, liscio, di volume aumentato (questa procedura serve
ad eseguire dei prelievi bioptici del tessuto ovarico, cosa che non si effettua di routine nella PCOS).
Procedure diagnostiche per le condizioni associate di rischio:
test di tolleranza del glucosio a 2 ore dalla somministrazione orale di glucosio (OGTT) nelle pazienti con
fattori di rischio (obesità, storia familiare, storia di diabete gestazionale): questi possono mostrare un'alterata tolleranza
glucidica (insulinoresistenza) nel 15-30% delle donne con PCOS. Un diabete franco può essere riscontrato nel 65–68%
delle donne affette da questa sindrome.
Esclusione di altre endocrinopatie mediante dosaggi ormonali:
Prolattina per escludere iperprolattinemia
TSH per escludere un ipotiroidismo
17-idrossiprogesterone per escludere il deficit di 21-alfa idrossilasi.
Diagnosi differenziale
È importante condurre una diagnostica differenziale per la CAH (iperplasia cortico surrenalica congenita), iperprolattinemia
ed altri disfunzioni pituitarie/ipotalamiche e surrenali.
Trattamenti
La terapia deve tendere a rompere il circolo vizioso dell'anovulazione cronica. Si basa pertanto su:
correzione dello stile di vita mediante dieta e attività fisica. La conseguente perdita di peso e la riduzione della massa
adiposa comporta un miglioramento dell'insulinoresistenza, una minor produzione periferica di androgeni e una minore
trasformazione di questi ultimi in estrogeni. Spesso la sola attività fisica, associata ad adeguate misure dietetiche, stimola la
crescita dei follicoli e il ripristino spontaneo dell'ovulazione.
diminuzione della secrezione androgenica ovarica (resezione ovarica cuneiforme o contraccezione orale)
aumento della produzione di FSH (p.e. terapia con clomifene)
miglioramento del microambiente periovarico (miglioramento della condizione di resistenza
insulinica tramite metformina)
supplementazione vitaminica con acido folico come adiuvante in associazione a metformina e non
Birth control
Main article: Hormonal contraception
Half-used blister pack of a combined oral contraceptive. The white pills are placebos, mainly for the purpose of
reminding the woman to continue taking the pills.
While some forms of birth control do not affect the menstrual cycle, hormonal contraceptives work by disrupting it.
Progestogen negative feedback decreases the pulse frequency of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release by
the hypothalamus, which decreases the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) by
the anterior pituitary. Decreased levels of FSH inhibit follicular development, preventing an increase in estradiol levels.
Progestogen negative feedback and the lack of estrogen positive feedback on LH release prevent a mid-cycle LH surge.
Inhibition of follicular development and the absence of a LH surge prevent ovulation.
The degree of ovulation suppression in progestogen-only contraceptives depends on the progestogen activity and dose. Low
dose progestogen-only contraceptives—traditional progestogen only pills, subdermal implantsNorplant and Jadelle,
and intrauterine system Mirena—inhibit ovulation in about 50% of cycles and rely mainly on other effects, such as thickening
of cervical mucus, for their contraceptive effectiveness. Intermediate dose progestogen-only contraceptives—the progestogen-
only pill Cerazette and the subdermal implant Nexplanon—allow some follicular development but more consistently inhibit
ovulation in 97–99% of cycles. The same cervical mucus changes occur as with very low-dose progestogens. High-dose,
progestogen-only contraceptives—the injectables Depo-Provera and Noristerat—completely inhibit follicular development
and ovulation.
Combined hormonal contraceptives include both an estrogen and a progestogen. Estrogen negative feedback on the anterior
pituitary greatly decreases the release of FSH, which makes combined hormonal contraceptives more effective at inhibiting
follicular development and preventing ovulation. Estrogen also reduces the incidence of irregular breakthrough
bleeding. Several combined hormonal contraceptives—the pill, NuvaRing, and the contraceptive patch—are usually used in a
way that causes regular withdrawal bleeding. In a normal cycle, menstruation occurs when estrogen and progesterone levels
drop rapidly. Temporarily discontinuing use of combined hormonal contraceptives (a placebo week, not using patch or ring
for a week) has a similar effect of causing the uterine lining to shed. If withdrawal bleeding is not desired, combined hormonal
contraceptives may be taken continuously, although this increases the risk of breakthrough bleeding.
Breastfeeding
Main article: Lactational amenorrhea method
Breastfeeding causes negative feedback to occur on pulse secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH). Depending on the strength of the negative feedback, breastfeeding women may experience
complete suppression of follicular development, but no ovulation, or normal menstrual cycle may resume. Suppression of
ovulation is more likely when suckling occurs more frequently. The production of prolactin in response to suckling is
important to maintaining lactational amenorrhea. On average, women who are fully breastfeeding whose infants suckle
frequently experience a return of menstruation at fourteen and a half months postpartum. There is a wide range of response
among individual breastfeeding women, however, with some experiencing return of menstruation at two months and others
remaining amenorrheic for up to 42 months postpartum.