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MODULE 1

Lesson 1 HISTORY OF CORDILLERA

Lesson 2 CORDILLERAN WEAVING

Lesson 3 TRADITIONAL CLOTHING IN

CORDILLERA

Lesson 4 CULTURAL PRACTICES IN

CORDILLERA

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MODULE I
CULTURE AND ARTS EDUCATION IN PLURAL SOCIETIES

 INTRODUCTION
This module presents the rich culture of the Cordillera Region. Topics such
as history, weaving, clothing, and cultural practices will be discussed in this
module. It also aims to explore the distinct culture that they practice in the
highlands. As a culture and arts student, this will help you to appreciate more
the beautiful culture and community practices in Cordillera.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. discover the history, tangible and intangible culture of Cordillera;
2. distinguish the difference of practices in highlands and lowlands;
3. demonstrate creative skills in crafting the different traditional weavings
in Cordillera;
4. teach and evaluate the cultural performances depicting Cordilleran
culture;
5. comprehend, theorized and document facts in Cordillera; and
6. appreciate culture as art for life.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from
it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor.
In case you encounter some difficulty with the lessons, inform your
subject teacher online. God bless and enjoy!

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Lesson 1

 HISTORY OF CORDILLERA

Geographically, the word cordillera refers to a mountain range that serves

as a backbone to an island; thus the Grand Cordillera Central serves as a
backbone to the main island of Luzon. The peoples of the Cordillera could be
grouped to the following major ethnolinguistic groups: Kankanaey (Kankanai),
Ibaloi, Bontoc, Kalinga, Isneg, Itneg, Ifugao, Kalanguya, iwak, Ga’dang.

The Cordillera during the Spanish Colonial Regime. It was the lure of
Igorot gold, which drew the Spanish conquistadores to the Gran Cordillera
Central as early as 1572. A series of expeditions were launched to locate the

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mineral wealth of the Cordillera. But these efforts were

met with the indigenes’ staunch defense of their
domain. More systematic pacification attempts were
made to subvert the Cordillera peoples. The policy
of reduccion served as an all-encompassing program of
not only relocating the otherwise dispersed and
inaccessible settlements of the highlanders to more
nucleated groups that would facilitate conversion to the
Christian order and the imposition of colonial policies
like tribute collection. Through their proselytization
activities, the Dominicans who were then in the Cagayan
region, and the Augustinians who were in the Ilocos,
Map of Cordillera helped the Spanish administration in reducing the
Administrative Region (CAR)
Cordilleras to the so-called la vida civil y politica. The
first Spanish missions that were established in the highlands of the Cordillera
are: Pudtol (1604 and re-established in 1691); Capinatan (1691) in the eastern
section of the region; and Tonglo (1755) in Benguet along the southwestern
section of the Cordillera. There was a long time resistance lapse before other
missions could be established due to the sustained indigenous resistance. The
missions in Ifugao and Mountain Province were established in the mid if not late
1800s.
There were also attempts at proscribing Igorot-highland/lowland relations
with the objective of annihilating the highlanders and make them realize the
need to move downhill and submit to the colonial order. But all these proved
futile. While lowland-upland relations were eventually strained as a result of
colonial policies, e.g., conscription of lowlanders for pacification campaigns
against the Cordillera peoples*, trade relations continued. At the time when the
tobacco monopoly required lowland communities to meet their bandlas (quotas),
tobacco was smuggled from the Cordillera.

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More direct contact between the Spanish conquistadores and the

Cordillera peoples came only in the mid-1826, the Comandancia del Pais de
Igorrotes was formed putting the unpacified Cordillera under a special
administration under the command of Guillermo Galvey. The region was
eventually subdivided to several comandancias. The first Spanish mining claim
was approved in 1856 with the establishment of the Sociedad Minero-Metalurgica
Cantabro-Filipina de Mancayan. In summary, all these efforts to conquer the
Cordillera peoples were in vain. By the time the time Spanish colonialism came
to an end, indigenous institutions were still very much intact making the late
historian William Henry Scott describe the status of the Cordillera people’s tribus
independientes.
The staunch defense of their domain and their social institutions is the
theme of Cordillera history since the onset of colonialism. In the 1600s, the
Cordillera peoples warded off the conquistadores during the expeditions to the
mines. By the 1700s, the highlanders resisted proselytization activities, which
were perceived as mechanisms for their eventual submission to the new order.
The highlanders launched attacks on lowland Christian communities particularly
in the Nueva Vizcaya area, which had to be eventually fortified. The increase in
the number of remontados who sought sanctuary in the highlands by the 1700s
and the 1800s made the Spanish conquistadores declare the Cordillera a “haven
of thieves and criminals“. In the 1800s, Cordillera resistance, sustained though
has not reached supra-community level of unity, was directed at colonial policies
like vassalage taxes.

The Cordillera during the Revolution

There has been much discourse on how Cordillera participation during the
events of 1896 should be perceived. While there were contacts between
the Katipuneros (Aguinaldo period) and some Ibaloy oligarchs, who provided
sanctuary and assistance to the fleeing revolutionary forces (Laruan, Carantes,
Carino to name a few), there was no organized alliance between the Cordillera
peoples and the Katipunan. The contribution of the Cordillera to the 1896

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revolution is their long record of sustained resistance, a resistance that was

ideologically confined to defense of tribal sovereignty rather than a resistance
to establish a Filipino independent state.

The Cordillera during the American Period

While Spain failed in subduing the Igorots highlanders, the American
colonizers drew a more systematic design for pacification. At the time when the
U.S. government conducted its census in 1903, the Filipinos were categorized to
two, namely, the wild population and the civilized; the Cordillera peoples who
were unChristianized and uncolonized were classified as wild. Reconnaissance
trips were conducted which resulted in the identification of culture zones in the
Cordillera (these culture zones would approximate the existing ethnolinguistic
subgrouping). The Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes created on 2 October 1901 with
David Barrows as its first director was tasked to conduct a survey on the
character of the different culture zones. These were complemented by efforts
of Albert Jenks, Roy Franklin Barton, Fay Cooper Cole to name a few, who
produced ethnographies of the Cordillera peoples. These systematic efforts
were aimed at better understanding the culture of the unconquered areas so
that more effective policies for pacification could be implemented.
On 18 August 1908, the Americans created the Mountain Province, which
consisted of Benguet, Amburayan, Bontoc, Apayao, Ifugao, Kalinga and
Lepanto. The Philippines Constabulary was also established in the
highlands. Most of the Americans who were sent to the Cordillera were
designated the rank of lieutenant governor and were in charge of governance in
the sub-provinces of the Mountain Province. The more familiar ones are: John C.
Early (Amburayan), Norman Conner (Apayao), Elmer Eckman (Bontoc), J.H. Evans
(Benguet) and Walter Hale (Kalinga), Charles Nathorst and William Dosser. Many
tactics, on several occasions the application of the divide-and-rule strategy
through practice of intertribal war was used.

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Our Lady of Atonement Cathedral Anglican Cathedral of Resurrection

(Catholic Church) (Protestant Church)

Both the Catholic and the Protestant (particularly the Episcopal

denomination) Churches became instruments of change in the region. They filled
the void left by the early Spanish missions that collapsed along with the end of
the Spanish colonial regime. In 1907, the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart
of Mary (CICM) established its first mission station in Bontoc; others followed all
over the Cordillera. On the other hand, the Episcopal Church, which was the
most influential religious institution during the early American administration,
established its stations in Bontoc and Sagada. In 1902, Reverend Charles H. Brent
sent Reverend John Staunton for an inspection of the Cordillera.
What actually proved to have long-term impact on the peoples of the
Cordillera were the land laws and mining acts that were implemented. Land
registration which was the feature of the Public Lands Act of 1902 and 1905 set
the Cordillera peoples’ loss of control over their ancestral land, claims. In 1909,
Baguio was established as a colonial hill station. The establishment of schools all
over the Cordillera drew out the people from the insulated village to the colonial
mainstream.
All these colonial policies did not remain unchallenged by the people who
were able to sustain resistance during the previous colonial regime. But the
challenges came in new forms. Out-migration was a common response.
Ambuscades were frequently reported in The Manila Times, but were dismissed
by the Americans as mere display of barbarism. Direct armed confrontations
continued until 1915.Then, the Cordillerans wrote petitions to the American

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government protesting the environmental degradation of roads; Samaki opposed

the destruction caused by mining activities.
Asserting that Elusive Cordillera Self-determination. Since Philippine
political independence in 1946, several attempts have been made by the Filipino
government to integrate the Cordillera into the mainstream. The Commission on
National Integration (CNI) was created in 1957. In 1964, the Mountain Province
Development Authority was (patterned after the Tennessee Valley Authority) was
established to facilitate development efforts in the region. By the 1970s, the
Cordillera was the haven of many foreign-funded infrastructure programs
foremost of which were dams. The Cordillera people who continued to
experience not only geographic but also social dislocation opposed all these
efforts. Intensified militarization tried to suppress the local resistance. The 1987
Philippine constitution recognized the need for the establishment of autonomous
regions in Mindanao and the Cordillera. To this date, the Cordillera peoples still
have to define the substance of that autonomy which would fully put to practice
the Cordillera people’s vision of having control over their institutions, their
economy and their affairs.

MUST WATCH

Watch the video and know the lifestyle of the

Cordilleran. Just click the link below.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Z6lVJJevMM

I hope you enjoy the video! What did you learn from the
video?

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THINK!

What do you think is the importance of learning the

culture of Cordillera?

List down 10 things or symbols that will remind you about the
culture of Cordillera.

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Lesson 2

 CORDILLERAN WEAVING

In the Cordillera Region, the use of cloth is involved in life from birth to
death, in sickness and health. A baby is cocooned in cloth. The sick are wrapped
and healed in it. Couples are clasped in it and in death, one is buried in it.
Identity is defined when the members of a group make and wear clothing that
distinguishes them from others. Dressing styles indicate different ethnic origins.
As an art form, textiles are embedded in all aspects of life from day-to-day
situations to the performance of rituals.

At the age of ten or earlier, daughters learn the craft from their mothers,
and when they pass on their skills, they transfer technology that involves
expertise about materials and ways of learning. The legacy of weaving is not just
cloth or a product. Weaving, as it passes from mother to daughter, is a social
practice that assures continuity. Acknowledged as having specialized skills,
expert weavers obtain prestige and economic benefits from weaving.

The beaten bark cloth is most likely the earliest cloth application in the
Philippines. Chinese traders introduced cotton during the late Sung dynasty.
When the Spanish colonizers first encountered the coastal Ilocanos, white cotton

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textiles were in everyday use. In the Cordilleras, many believe that the Itneg and
Gaddang were among the first to take up weaving although the exact date has
not been established. The Ifugao, Bontoc, Kalinga, and Kankana-ey, according to
some research, may have started weaving only in the 18th century.

The handwoven textiles of the Cordillera tell stories of identity,

economics, and social change. When a weaver creates a textile that is a work of
art, she becomes an agent of change setting off trains of social phenomena. Her
work is an expression of creative genius, and her art is fully invested with the
intention to change the world all the while that it remains the same.

Ifugao Ikat weaving is a style of weaving that uses a resist dyeing process
on either the warp or weft before the threads are woven to create a pattern or
design. The result of this process is a motif which is fuzzy in appearance. This
blurry look comes from the slight bleeding of the dyes into the resist areas. Ifugao
Ikat is characterized by diamond stripes of white and red stripes. It is known for
its colors and striking design patterns.

There are several types of Ikat weaving: warp ikat, weft ikat, and double
ikat. Warp Ikat is when only the vertical yarn, the warp, is tie-dyed for weaving.
It’s used when regular patterns are to be woven. It’s difficult to weave because
the weft colors are to be thrown precisely against the warp patterns. Weft Ikat
on the other hand, is when only the horizontal yarn, the weft, is tie-dyed for
weaving. This results in a more irregular and organic fabric design. When both
the warp and the weft are tie-dyed, that’s the double Ikat. This requires utmost
precision skills in counting and mounting the warp yarns and in throwing the weft
shuttle against the warp patterns in actual weaving.

Kalinga hand woven fabrics are characterized by dominant red stripes and
motifs of geometric patterns with nature symbols interlaced with white yellow
and black fibers. Originally woven in Lubuagan, the “ka-in” (wrap around skirt)
is now more known as the Kalinga. The different types of “ka-in” are gilamat,
silugwid, pilakpak, gililing, lilaktob and ilaglis. For men’s g-strings, there are the

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pilagpagen, kilayao and sillayuti. These are traditionally on rituals and special
occasions like weddings, festivals, and other important occasions. In Kalinga
weaving symbolism, the sky and ground are represented by the colours indigo
and red respectively. Mountains are represented in yellow and are embroidered
in the fabric. Yellow symbolizes wealth and refer to growth and fertility. Beading
is another distinct characteristic of the Kalinga apparel.

Bontoc hand woven fabrics are characterized by motifs that include

geometric shapes of things around them such as man, lizard, mountain, rains and
flower. Siniwsiwan is Bontoc’s blanket and clothing. This fabric is used for wanes
or men’s G-string (Bahag) and getup or Lufid (Tapis) among women. Married
women of Bontoc and Kankanaey wears a type of belt called ginaspala wanes
with inawin which is a continuous zigzag pattern

THINK!

Which is your favorite Cordilleran weaving? Explain why?

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Lesson 3

 TRADITIONAL CLOTHING IN
CORDILLERA

Just like any other indigenous group, the Cordillerans wore leaves, fiber,
or nothing at all before they learned the art of weaving. It is believed that they
would only wear cured barks of native trees as well as broad leaves. They would
wrap these on their private parts and use banana fiber to knit them together.
But with the introduction of weaving, the people of Cordillera slowly
transitioned to woven textiles. These are now the costumes used during their
cultural events such as the Panagbenga Festival, Lang-ay Festival, Fortan
Festival, and many more.

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The colours and designs vary from one

community to another. In other municipalities,
the costume of one village is different from
another village. Usually, the ancestral origin or
the neighbouring communities of a village
influence the design and colour of the locals’
costume.
As Cordilleran costumes grow in
popularity, some local organizations are coming
up with modern versions reflecting its traditional
A Cordilleran man wearing Ifugao
clothing attire designs.
Generally, the term used to refer the
Cordilleran Costume (lower garment) for Males is called Bahag or G-String. It is
a long woven fabric that can be 10 to 15 inches in width (with a length of 3 to 5
feet). The size of the bahag depends on the person using it. So if you want to
have your own bahag, you can always request the weaver to weave one that is
fit for your waist and your height.
The primary purpose of the bahag is to cover the male’s private parts.
After covering the male organs, it is then wrapped around the waist to prevent
it from falling off. That is the reason why it does not easily loose when a
cordilleran male joins traditional dances or perform with the gongs.
Traditionally, the males don’t have any upper attires. For some tribes in
Kalinga and Bontoc, tattoos are evident. It is believed that having more tattoo
for a males in Cordillera, the greater his authority in the village is. In the olden
days, a cordilleran having many tattoos signify that he killed more tribal
adversaries using his spear or bolo.
In contrast, the Cordilleran Costume for females features large
rectangular woven clothing that measures 3-4 feet long and 3-5 feet wide.
Generally, it is called “wanes” or “wanis,” but in some areas it is also called
“tapis”. It is simply wrapped around the waist. Often, a thread / belt is used to
secure it from falling off.

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In the past, women from

Cordillera wear no upper garments.
Surprisingly, there were no incidents
of malice or sexual abuse. In fact, the
males highly regarded women with
respect. It’s only now that women
have to wear upper clothing as a
result of modern pressures.
Cordilleran women,
particularly those in Kalinga, also
wear colorful beads, some of which
date back to the Spanish times. Many
beads or traditional necklaces
manifest the early trade between the
A Cordilleran woman wearing a Kalinga clothing attire
Chinese and the Igorots long before the
Spaniards conquered the Philippines.

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Name the following Cordilleran products, accessories or art by looking at

the images. Choose from the box for the correct answer. Write your answer on
the space provided below each picture.

Necklace made of animal teeth Male Vest

Male Bahag Kalinga Wanes
Tattoo Headdress
Kalinga Blouse Female Necklace

---------------------- ------------------ ---------------------- ----------------------

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Lesson 4

 CULTURAL PRACTICES IN
CORDILLERA

In Cordillera, traditions are still visible in the community. Generally,

water buffalo horns are used as a gift for weddings and some special events. As
part of tradition, century-old necklace and is passed down from generation to
generation. It can be made of wild bore tusks and crocodile teeth.

Traditional loom weaving provides livelihoods for a number of different

communities within the Cordilleras. Normally, a Cordilleran woman spends her
days making different patterns on her wooden loom. The finished products may
be sold locally or sent to Baguio City.

One of the unique aspects of life in the Cordilleras is that people are
essentially a self-contained society, running all aspects of life from businesses to

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politics. Unlike many of the other tribes or indigenous communities in the

country who have been extremely marginalized and pushed to small pieces of
their original land, the Cordilleran people generally have maintained much of
their land.

People from Sagada, Mountain Province are also known for beehives honey
production. He harvests the mountain honey and sells his product primarily to
visitors staying at his lodging house or passing through his restaurant. All
businesses in Sagada are locally owned and run by Cordilleran people.

With the increase of tourism in the Cordilleras, some local and foreign
tourists are looking to find more adventurous hiking treks in the extremely
beautiful mountains. Sagada in the Mountain Province in particular is often
overwhelmed with people visiting that there are not enough rooms for visitors,
especially during holidays. Most visitors only stay for a couple of days exploring
the caves and other attractions closer to Sagada. Local guides and porters rely
on tourism. It also serves as their source of income for some locales.

Pottery is also a famous product in Cordillera that is passed from different

generations. Local tourists are fascinated by the process of how clay jars are
created. All the clay used are local and workers are very passionate about their
artwork. Pottery is one of many businesses / products that people visits. Away
from the city centers life is a little more slow pace with a big portion of time
spent farming, preparing food, and tending to the house and family.

In Cordillera, pigs are important in the life of the Cordillerans. These are
used a food source and also used for a number of different rituals as well. In
some communities, there were more pigs walking around than people.

Eating and socializing is an important time each day for people to talk and
build relationships. After eating, the men will generally have a few drinks
together. Most of their meals were cooked over an open fire and pitch pine (an
oily part of the pine tree) is used for light at night instead of kerosene lamps.

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When going into the mountains, you can see a lot of food for survival such as of
wild mushroom, fresh green ferns, avocados, green mangoes, and mongo beans.

Much of the culture and life in the Cordilleras revolves around rice. From
planting to harvest each period represents a time that is honoured and sacred in
its own way. My trip happened to be during a growing period and I was not able
to see a lot of people planting or harvesting rice. There is always some activity
though as weeding, keeping birds away, drying harvested rice and other tasks
are ongoing. Rice is the staple crop for the Igorots and they have built some of
the biggest and most advance rice terraces in the world. Traveling through the
Cordilleras you will see some amazing terraces that have been around for
millennium. To this day, many of the tribes still practice thanksgiving rituals
before planting and at harvest time. The Begnas ritual for the Kankanaey and
the Bumayah for the Ifugao people are two examples of this. These rituals are
usually put together very fast and are never scheduled, so witnessing one takes
some patience and timing. Perhaps on my next visit I will be able to witness one.

Stoned rice terraces are very common in the Cordilleras and represent an
ancient and sustainable system for communal rice production. Drying rice in the
sun is the most traditional method for reducing moisture content and the only
method available in most remote locations. During their break time, coffee with
their families during a mid-day break from working in the rice field is one of their
practices.

Aside from rice cultivation there are numerous agricultural products

grown in the Cordilleras because of the altitude and cool temperature. Coffee is
a popular product and most households drink a good amount of the stuff. It
wasn’t uncommon to have about 10 cups of coffee a day for them and it sure
beats the instant coffee when out in the field. Vegetables and other products
are grown in abundance and many of them are brought to the lowlands to be
sold. Likewise, the forest and mountains themselves are also an important

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resource for the Cordilleran people. Hunting and fishing are also an important
culture in the Cordilleras and is often learned at the early age.

The forest still provides an abundant source of wild meat for many
families. Wild pigs, deer and birds are still commonly caught by hunters. Hunting
dogs are an important part of getting wild pig, deer and birds. Without a trained
dog it would be very difficult to find anything. Children start to learn how to fish
and hunt at an early age. They use a small spear style gun to catch the river fish
which are fairly small.

Wedding season really means there are a lot of weddings to attend. Most
of the traditional wedding celebrations in the Cordilleras now integrate a
Christian church ceremony as well as the tribal ceremony and rituals done at
home or in the reception. Most traditional weddings last for two to three days
and everyone in the community is invited to attend and eat. Bunch of pigs are
slaughtered all at one time in preparation for an event. Women are usually
responsible in cutting and preparing vegetables for a traditional wedding. The
whole community is invited to the three day celebration which means a lot of
food must be prepared.

Men distribute the meat to all of the people who helped cook and prepare
the wedding food. As a token for their help, different size chunks of meat are
given out depending on what the persons’ role was during the preparation (in
addition to being fed). More than 20 pigs and some carabaos (water buffalo) are
used for the wedding.

Many couples in the region now also have a church ceremony. The
ceremony at the Episcopal Church was like any other church wedding with all of
the traditional tribal aspects happening before or after the event. Each
community has different traditional ways of making two people united which are
still practiced. Much of this has to do with uniting two families or clans together
over time and involves a variety of different food exchanges, animal sacrifices
and rituals. Others believed that in some communities, when a woman sleeps

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over at her mans’ family’s house and does the dishes in the morning it means the
couple is officially married.

People used to wait in a long line to visit the home of the bride during the
event. Everyone from the community is invited to come and get food at the
brides home for three days straight. Wedding gatherings are some of the bigger
social events held for the Cordilleran people. All of the food is cooked in large
woks over an open fire. This wedding had four woks which were always full of
different recipes being cooked. Part of the practice for the Kankanaey is that all
the guests who come and partake in the celebration and eat should give a small
amount of money to the couple. Once you give something your name is written
down in a notebook, your money placed in a large basket and you are given a
token of appreciation.

Playing of gongs (Gansa) and dancing is a fun and typical part of the
wedding celebration. Any group of people can pick up the gongs and get a dance
going and it is all very spontaneous. The elders all the way to the youth enjoy
playing the gongs and dancing.

In the village of Buscalan, Kalinga there are still remnants of the one
thousand year old ancient art of tattooing (batek) once commonly practiced in
Kalinga. Men traditionally got tattooed as a rite of being a warrior or taking a
head which was fairly common place up until the time of about WWII. Thus, it is
difficult to find men nowadays who still have tattoos and younger men don’t
especially feel right about getting one to show their identity (because of the
meaning it carries). Women on the other hand would get tattoos to beautify
themselves, but more so to signify acceptance and the different stages of their
life. There are a number of research articles online describing in-depth the
meaning of these tattoos and the purposes for getting them if you are interested
in learning more. Today, there are still numerous older women in Buscalan and
in other provinces of Cordillera that can be found with the tattoos.

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The art is slowly fading away, but Fang-od (Whang Od), the last remaining
traditional Kalinga tattoo artist has helped bring a lot of attention back to the
craft. At 93 years old Fang-od is a lively and very entertaining person who has
the energy level of about a 50 year old. In 2010 she was featured on the Discovery
Channel television show “Tattoo Hunter” which helped set the stage for other
shows and documentaries all bringing a lot of recognition to the art. This sparked
a huge amount of interest and today people from all over the Philippines and the
world come to visit her and get a tattoo. Fang-od does not have any children,
but one of her nieces is now starting to learn the craft. It’s hard to know what
will happen after Fang-od passes on, but hopefully the traditional tattooing will
somehow continue.

Two tattooed women from Buscalan, Kalinga. Ghan-nao, who is Fang-od’s

younger sister has one of the more elaborate tattoos that can be seen in the
village. Fang-od uses a thorn from a pomelo tree which is attached to a piece of
bamboo. The bamboo that the thorn is attached to is then hit with a piece of
wood to drive the ink into the skin. The ink she uses is the soot that collects on
the bottom of the cooking pans she uses at home.

THINK!

What are the common practices of the Cordilleran and the people
from the lowlands?

Give at least 5 similarities and difference of practices in

highlands and the lowlands.

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References:

Baguio crafts and folk arts. (2021). Retrieved from

http://creativebaguio.com/baguio-crafts-folk-arts/

Carling, J. (2001). The cordillera experience. Retrieved from

https://asiasociety.org/cordillera-experience

Clothing and accessories of cordillerans. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~lopez26a/classweb/World%20politics%20w
ebsite/clothing-1.html

Florendo, M.B. (n.d.). Ethnic history (Cordillera). Retrieved from

https://ncca.gov.ph/about-ncca-3/subcommissions/subcommission-on-
cultural-heritagesch/historical-research/ethnic-history-cordillera/

Hammer, K. (n.d.). Filipino culture: national costumes in the Philippines.

Retrieved from https://everything-filipino.com/filipino-culture-national-
costumes-in-the-philippines/

Maches, D. (2020). Igorot costume (for males and females): things you need to
know. Retrieved from https://danielsecotravels.com/igorot-costume/

Maentz, J. (2013). People of the mountains – igorots of the Cordillera.

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cordilleras

Narda’s handwoven arts and crafts. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.nardas.com/cordilleran-weaving-culture/

Module I - CAED 103: CULTURE AND ARTS EDUCATION IN PURAL SOCIETIES