UNIT 1 FUNCTIONS, LIMIT AND

CONTINUITY
Structure

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Review of the Basic Concepts
1.3 Functions
1.3.1 Graph of a Function
1.3.2 Bounded Functions and Their Bounds
1.3.3 Monotone Function
1.3.4 Inverse Function
1.3.5 Types of Function
1.4 Concept of Limit
1.5 Continuity
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Some Useful Books
1.9 Answer or Hints to Check Your Progress

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to understand the notions of:
• function, limit and continuity;
• familiarise yourself with their forms of simple derivation; and
presentation.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Addressing problems of economics with the aid of mathematical language and
techniques have proved quite useful. Therefore, the present discussion is
devoted to introduce you to some of basic concepts, which are adopted widely
in the formulation of problems and analysing the results. We will discuss the
ideas of function, limit and continuity confining ourselves to the system of
real numbers (i.e., zero, integers, rational and irrational numbers (positive or
negative)). We do not intend to enter the sophisticated technicalities of
language as well as derivation of these. To present these themes, therefore, we
take the help of examples.

1.2 REVIEW OF THE BASIC CONCEPTS

• Set: A Set is a collection of objects that are distinct and well defined.
These objects are termed as elements of the set.
Example: The set of integers that are less than or equal to 3. The set is written
as –
S = {x x is an integer „ 3}.
The elements of such a set are = {3, 2, 1, –1, –2, –3}
5
Introduction to The set of all possible values of a variable x is called the domain of x.
Differential Calculus
Example: In the equation x2 – 3 = 0, the domain of x is = {– 3, 3}.
• Variable: It is a representation of a number, which may take different
numerical values during a mathematical operation. Variables are
represented by such as letters of the alphabet, n, j, s, u, v, w, , , etc.
• Continuous variable: If x takes all possible real values from a given
number a to another given number b, then x is called a continuous
variable. The domain of x (or the interval of x in this case is denoted by
a „ x „ b or x [a, b]).
The symbol ‘ ’ means ‘belongs to’.
• Range: This is the set of values which f(x) can assume.
Thus, range of the function f(x) = sin x is [–1, 1]
Range of the function f(x) = x2 + 2x + 3 is entire real line and so on.
Note that [] is called closed interval as it includes both the terminal values a
and b.
If x does not take either of the two terminal values or both, then we say the
interval is open, notationally –
a < x < b or, x (a, b)
a „ x < b or, x [a, b)
a < x „ b or, x (a, b]
Example:
i) In the expression cos–1x, the interval of x is [–1, 1] or, –1 „ x „ 1.
ii) In the expression (x − 3) ( x + 5) , the interval of x is –5 „ x „ 3 or,
x [–5, 3].
1
iii) In the expression, , the interval of x is –1 < x <1 or, x
( x − 1)( x + 1)
(–1, 1).
Exercise
Try to find mathematical expression involving the variable x such that the
interval of x is of the form i) [a, b) or ii) (a, b].
x+1
i) ⎯⎯
→ Interval of x is –1 „ x < 1.
x −1

x −1
ii) ⎯⎯
→ Interval of x is –1 „ x < 1.
x +1

• Constant: A representation, which retains the same numerical value

throughout a mathematical operation other than numerical constants (like
1, –2, , e). Constants are denoted by the earlier letters of the alphabet,
such as a, b, , , etc.
• Absolute value: It is represented by the notation |x| and is defined as
|x| = x if n … 0
6
 = –x if x < 0 Functions, Limit and
Continuity
Thus, |–3| = 3, and |3| = 3 and so on.
Note: ‘Algebric value’ is different from the ‘numerical value’.
Two results that follow are
i) |a ± b ± c ± d ± … | „ |a| + |b| + |c| + |d| + …
Try to check with different numerical values.
ii) |a ± b| … |a| : |b|
where |a| : |b| = | |a| – |b| |
Try to check with different numerical values.
• Think of the meaning of the symbol |x – a| „ k. Check that the symbol
|x – a| „ k means, a – k „ x „ a + k or x [a – k, a + k].

1.3 FUNCTIONS
By a function of x, defined for a given domain is a quantity y, which has a
single and definite value for every value of x in its domain.
The variable x, to which we may arbitrarily assign different values in the
given domain, is called the independent variable (or argument) and y is
called the dependent variable (or function).
A function may be undefined for some particular value or values of x in a
given interval. The forms a/0 or 0/0 are meaningless. In other words, we
cannot define division by zero.
If y = ƒ(x) is a function of x, then in case ƒ(x) is a mathematical expression
involving x, ƒ(a), i.e., the value of the function for x = a in general be obtained
by putting a for x in the expression for ƒ(x).
Example:
i) ƒ(x) = sin2x – cos x, ƒ(0) = –1.
x −1
ii) ƒ(x) = , ƒ (1) = 0.
x+1
However, note that, ƒ (–1) is undefined.
• Sometimes functions may be given in an implicit form.
For example, x3 – Iy2 = 0. From this we can write y as a function of x
1
like y = x 3/2 or, x as a function of y, i.e., x = (Iy2)1/3.
3
1.3.1 Graph of a Function
In drawing the graph, it is sufficient if we know the definite value of y
corresponding to every value of x in the defined domain. The graph shows the
way in which the function is related to and changes with the argument.
Exercise
Draw the graph for the following functions:
i) ƒ(x) = x ii) ƒ(x) = x, x … 0 iii) ƒ(x) = x2/x

7
Introduction to y= f x
Differential Calculus

45°
O

i) Domain entire real line

ii) Domain positive values of x and x=0

8
 y= f x Functions, Limit and
Continuity

iii) Domain, entire real line except x=0.

The function is undefined when x = 0.

1.3.2 Bounded Functions and Their Bounds

Let ƒ(x) be a function defined in the interval (a, b). If a finite number k is
there such that ƒ(x) „ k for every x, then ƒ(x) is bounded above in the
interval and k is an upper bound of the function ƒ(x).
Similarly, if a finite number m is there such that ƒ(x) … m for every x, then
ƒ(x) is bounded below in the interval and m is a lower bound of the function
ƒ(x). If ƒ(x) is both bounded above and bounded below, then f(x) is said to
be simply bounded.
It may be useful to note that a function need not have an upper bound or a
lower bound.
Example:
ƒ(x) = x + 1; x (–1, 1)
Thus, upper bound = 0
lower bound = 2
and the function is bounded.
Exercise
Think of a function, which is not bounded above or bounded below.
The above function when x can take any real value.

1.3.3 Monotone Function

9
Introduction to Broadly speaking, a function which always increases or decreases can be
Differential Calculus called monotonically increasing (or decreasing) function. Let x1, x2 be two
numbers such that x1 < x2. ƒ(x) is monotonically increasing if ƒ(x1) „ ƒ(x2),
for a1| (x1, x2) domain of x.
Example: ƒ(x) = x + 1 is monotonically increasing.
Exercise: Think of a monotonically decreasing function.
1
ƒ(x) =
x

In the above definition, if the functions are such that f(x1) < f(x2) and f(x1) >
f(x2) for every (x1, x2) domain of x, then we call them strictly increasing
and strictly decreasing functions, respectively.

Example: The last example and exercise actually showed the strictly
increasing and strictly decreasing functions.

Exercise: Give example of simple (not strict) increasing function.

f(x) = 1 (or any constant)

1.3.4 Inverse Function

The inverse of the function y = f(x) is defined as x = f–1(y).
Example: i) y = x3; f–1(y) = y1/3 ; ii) y = sin x; x = f–1(y) = sin–1y and so on.

1.3.5 Types of Function

The expression y = f(x) is actually a rule. Now we specify several types of
function, each representing a different rule.
i) Algebric function
a) Constant function: A function whose range consists of only one
element is called a constant function, e.g., y = 1.
b) Polynomial function: The above function is a specific case of a
more general function, known as polynomial function. The function
is of the form –
y = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + … + anxn
ai = coefficient of the term x i
i = 0, 1, 2, …, n
n = a positive real number
Depending on the value of n, we get several types of functions:
when n = 0, y = a0 (constant function)
when n = 1, y = a0 + a1n (linear function)
when n = 2, y = a0 + a1x + a2x2 (quadratic function)
… and so on.
Plotted in a coordinate plane, a linear function will appear as a straight line,
a0 is the y intercept (or the vertical intercept) of the function. The term a1
10
measures the slope (or the steepness) of the function. When a1 > 0, the line Functions, Limit and
will be upward sloping and when a1 < 0, the line will be downward sloping. Continuity

Remember that a quadratic function is a parabola.

c) Rational function: This is an expression of ratio of two polynomial
functions. Thus, polynomial function is also a rational function,
x+1 1
e.g., y = 3
, and y = 4
are rational functions.
x + 2x + 1 4x + 7
a
The function y = or, xy = a is an interesting rational function, which is
x
plotted as a rectangular hyperbola. This is shown in the following figure. It
is extended indefinitely upward and to the right.

> >0
aa 0

Ο
The curve approaches both the axis as x or y value is large, but never touches
either axis.

ii) Non-algebric functions: Any function expressed in terms of

polynomials and/or roots of polynomials is an algebric function.

We will state some functions, which are not expressible as above. Broadly,
they may be called non-algebric functions or transcendal functions.
a) Exponential function: y = abx
b) Logarithmic function: y = f (log a x)
c) Trigonometric function: It involves expressions like sin x, cos x, tan x or
their inverse.
Example: If the successive values of x are 5.9, 5.9, 5.999, we say,
x ⎯⎯ → 6 − 0 and if the successive values of x are 6.1, 6.01, 6.001, we say
that x ⎯⎯
→ 6 +0.
Check Your Progress 1
1) Distinguish between variable and constants giving examples. 11
Introduction to ……………………………………………………………………………
Differential Calculus
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2) Point out the domain of definition of the following functions:
cos x + sin x
i) = f (x)
cos x − sin x

ii) x 2 − 5x + 6x = f (x)

iii) f(x) = sin–1x

iv) log(3x – 1) = f(x)

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1
3) q = f(p) =
p
Draw the graph of the above function. Show that this is a monotonically
decreasing function. Also, show that the function has a lower bound
(zero).

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f (x+x) − f (x)
4) f(x) = x3 + 2x. Find
h

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1.4 CONCEPT OF LIMIT

12
By the phrase ‘x tends to the value a’, we mean |x – a| is gradually smaller and Functions, Limit and
smaller. (The successive values of x may either be greater or less than the Continuity
value ‘a’). Then we can write this as x → a .

If the successive values of a are always greater than a, then we say ‘x tends to
a from right’ and write this as x → a + 0 or x → a + . Similarly, if the
successive values of a are always less than a, then we say ‘x tends to a from
left’ and write it as x → a − 0 or x → a − .

a) Limit of a Function
Lim f (x) means the following:
x →a

When x approaches a constant quantity a from either side, there exists a

definite finite number t towards which f(x) tends. Such a numerical difference
of f(x) and t can be made as small as we can think by taking x sufficiently
close to a. Then t is defined as the limit of f(x) as x tends to a. This is written
as lim f (x) = t
x →a

Analytically, lim f (x) = t means, given any pre-assigned positive quantity

x →∞

(as small as we like), we can find another positive quantity δ such that |f(x) – t|
< ∀ x such that 0 < |x – a| „ δ.
[ ∀ means ‘for all’]
Example:
x2 −1
i) lim = 2.
x →1 x −1
x2 −1
If x = 1 + δ (δ £ 0) =2+δ
x −1
x2 − 1
Taking δ small enough, the difference between and 2 can be made
x −1
as small as we like. Hence, limit of the function is 2.
However, when x = 1, the function is non-existent.
ii) lim (2x − 1) = 1
x →1

|f(x) – 1| = |2x – 2|. Let be a very small positive quantity.

ε
Then |f(x) – 1| < if 0 < |x – 1| <
2
ε
Take = δ > 0. Then
2
|f(x) – 1| < if 0 < |x – 1| < δ

Thus, lim (2x − 1) = 1

x→1

Check Your Progress 2

Evaluate the following limits:
a+x− a−x
i) lim
x→0 x 13
Introduction to ii) lim sin x = 0
Differential Calculus x→0

iii) lim sin x = sin θ

x →θ

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b) Right Hand Limit of a Function

lim f (x) = t1 means the following:
x →a+0

Given any pre-fixed positive quantity (however small), we can determine a

positive quantity δ such that |f(x) – t1| < whenever 0 < x – a „ δ, i.e., a < x „ δ.
This right hand limit is also denoted by the symbol f(a + 0).
The above limit is so called because as x approaches the value a from the right
(i.e., from bigger values), the numerical difference between f(x) and t1 can be
made as small as we please by taking x closer to a, keeping x always greater
than a.

c) Left Hand Limit of a Function

Analogously, we may define left-hand limit of a function as lim f (x) = t 2

x →a − 0

When a quantity t2 can be obtained such that given any pre-assigned quantity
, however small, we can determine a positive quantity δ, so that |f(x) – t2| <
whenever 0 < a – x „ δ, i.e., a– δ „ x < a.
The left hand limit is also denoted by the symbol f(a–0).
When lim f (x) = lim f (x) , each of these is equal to lim f (x) , i.e., for
x →a+0 x →a − 0 x →a

lim f (x) to exist, each of lim f (x) and to exist, each of lim f (x) and
x →a x → a+0 x →a+0

lim f (x) must exist and must be equal.

x →a − 0

x
Example: Does lim x exist?
x →0

x x
lim = lim x = 1 This is not equal to
x →0 + 0 x x → 0+0

x x
lim x = lim = −1
x →0 − 0 x →0− 0 x

x
Thus, lim x does not exist.
x →0

Note: f(0) does not exist.

14
Check Your Progress 3 Functions, Limit and
Continuity
i) f(x) = 10 x>1
= 1 x=1
= –10 x<1
Find lim f (x)
x →1

ii) f(x) = 1 x≠1

= –1 x=1
Find lim f (x)
x →0

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d) Functions Tending to Infinity

If corresponding to any pre-assigned quantity N, however large, we can

determine a positive quantity δ, such that f(x) > N, whenever 0 < |x – a| „ δ,
we say lim f (x) = ∞ .
x →a

Similarly, we can define:

lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = ∞
x →a+0 x →a − 0

lim f (x) = − ∞, lim f (x) = − ∞

x →a + 0 x →a − 0

Example:
1 1
i) lim 3
= ∞, lim 3 = − ∞
x →0 + 0 x x →0− 0 x

1
Hence, lim does not exist.
x→0 + 0 x3
• Limit of a function as the variable tends to infinity
lim f (x) = t , provided, given any pre-assigned positive quantity , however
x →∞

small, we can determine a positive quantity M, such that |f(x) – t| < for all
values of x > M.
Similarly, lim f (x) = t , provided, given any pre-assigned positive quantity ,
x →∞

however small, we can determine a positive quantity M, such that |f(x) – t| <
whenever –x > M. In a similar way, we may define
lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = - ∞
x →∞ x →- ∞

lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = - ∞

x →- ∞ x →- ∞
15
Introduction to Example:
Differential Calculus
1 1
lim = 0, lim =0
x →∞ x x →- ∞ x

lim e x = ∞, lim x 3 = - ∞
x →∞ x →- ∞

1.4.5 Fundamental Theorems on Limit

Let lim f (x) = t1 and lim ф(x) = t 2 where t1 and t2 are finite quantities. Then,
x →a x →a

i) lim{ f (x) ± ∅(x)} = t1 ± t 2

x →a

ii) lim{ f (x).∅(x)} = t1.t 2

x →a

⎧ f (x) ⎫ t1
iii) lim ⎨ ⎬= (t 2 ≠ 0)
x → a ∅ (x)
⎩ ⎭ t2
iv) lim F[f (x)] = F[ lim f (x)]
x →a x →a

= F(t). F(u) is a function of u continuous for u = t (we will define

continuity of a function in the next section).
v) If (x) < f(x) < (x) in a certain neighbourhood of point ‘a’ and
lim ∅(x) = t and lim ψ(x) = t then lim f (x) = t .
x →a x →a x →a

vi) If lim ∅(x) = t1 and lim ψ(x) = t 2 and if (x) < ψ (x) in a certain
x →a x →a

neighbourhood of a except a, then t1 „ t2.

The first three theorems may be extended for any finite number of functions.
• Some important limits
(Statement without proof)
sin x
i) lim = 1 , x is expressed in radian
x →0 x
x
⎛ 1⎞
ii) a) lim ⎜ 1 + ⎟ = e
x →±∞
⎝ x⎠
1
b) lim (1 + x ) x = e
x →0

1
iii) lim log (1 + x ) = 1
x →0 x
ex - 1
iv) lim =1
x →0 x
xn - an
v) lim = na n- 1 ,
x →a n- a
for all rational values of n, provided a > 0.
(1+x) n - 1
vi) lim =n
x →0 x
16
 xn Functions, Limit and
vii) lim =0 Continuity
x →∞ n
Example:
a 0 x n + a1x n- 1 + ... + a n
i) lim
x →0 b 0 x n + b1x n- 1 + ... + b n

lim (a 0 x n + a1x n- 1 + ... + a n )

x →0
=
lim (b 0 x n + b1x n- 1 + ... + b n )
x →0

lim a 0 x n + lim a1x n- 1 + ... + lim a n

x →0 x →0 x →0
=
lim b0 x n + lim b1x n- 1 + ... + lim b n
x →0 x →0 x →0

n
= an/bn [since lim x = 0 , n… 0)
x→0

sin x
ii) lim
x→ π x- π
Put x – π = z as x → π, z → 0
sin(z + π) sin z cos π - cos z sin π
lim = lim
z →0 z z → 0 z
sin z
= lim ( - 1) = - 1
z →0 z
1 + x2
iii) lim
z →∞ 1 + x3
1 1 1 1
3
+ lim 3 + lim
= lim x x = x →∞ x x →∞ x
z →∞ 1 1
+1 lim 3 + 1
x3 x →∞ x

0+0
= =0
0+1
⎛ 1 2 n ⎞
iv) lim ⎜ 2 + 2 + ... + 2 ⎟
x→∞
⎝n n n ⎠

⎛ 1 + 2 + ... + n ⎞
= lim ⎜ ⎟
x→∞
⎝ n2 ⎠
n(n + 1) 1⎛ 1⎞
= lim 2
= lim ⎜ 1 + ⎟
x →∞ 2n x →∞ 2
⎝ n⎠
1⎛ 1⎞ 1 1
= ⎜1 + lim ⎟ = (1 + 0 ) =
2⎝ x →∞ n⎠ 2 2

v) lim x−2
x →2

Here lim x − 2 does not exist. Hence, the limit does not exist.
x → 2- 0

17
Introduction to Check Your Progress 4
Differential Calculus
sin x 2
i) lim
x →0 x
cosec x - cot x
ii) lim
x →0 x
sin x
iii) lim
x →∞ x
iv) f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
⎧ f (x + n) - f (x) ⎫
show that lim ⎨ ⎬
n →0
⎩ n ⎭
= 2ax + b
12 + 22 + ... + n 2
v) lim
n →∞ n3
tan - 1x
vi) lim
n →0 x

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1.5 CONTINUITY
Intuitively, a function f(x) is continuous provided its graph is continuous, i.e.,
a continuous function does not have any break at any point of its graph.
More formally, a function f(x) is said to be continuous for x = a, provided
lim f (x) exists, finite and is equal to a.
x →a

i.e., for f(x) to be continuous at x = a, we should have

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (a)
x →a x →a - 0

If f(x) is continuous for every value of x in its domain, it is said to be

continuous throughout the interval.
A function, which is not continuous at a point, is said to have a discontinuity
at that point.
Example:
In the examples of the graph of a function, the first function is continuous and
2nd and 3rd functions are discontinuous at x = 0. Otherwise, they are
continuous at other points of the domain. This is because the limit is non-
existent for both the function at x = 0.
Analytically, the function f(x) is continuous at x = a, provided f(a) exists and
18 given any pre-assigned positive quantity , however small, we can determine
a positive quantity δ such that |f(x) – f(a)| < for all values of x such that δ „ Functions, Limit and
x „ a + δ. Continuity

i) If f(a + 0) ≠ f(a – 0) then f(x) is said to have an ordinary discontinuity at

x = a.
Example: lim x- a
x →a

In this case, f(a) may or may not exist.

ii) If f(a + 0) = f(a – 0) ≠ f(a), or f(a) does not exist, f(x) is said to have a
removable discontinuity at x = a.
x2 - 1
Example: f (x) =
x- 1
lim f (x) = 2 , f(1) does not exist.
x →1

A function with removable discontinuity at a point x = a can be made

continuous by defining the function at the particular point, e.g., f(1) = 1.
i) and ii) are together called simple discontinuities.
iii) If one or both f(a + 0) or f(a – 0) tend to infinity, then f(a) is said to have
an infinite discontinuity at x = a. Here f(a) may or may not exist.
1
e.g., f (x) = , lim f (x) → ∞
x x →0+ 0
iv) There may be oscillatory discontinuity at a point where the function may
oscillate finitely or oscillate infinitely and does not tend to a limit or ± .
Example:
a) f(x) = (–1)x,
lim f (x) oscillates finitely,
x →∞

b) f(x) = (–2)x,
lim f (x) oscillates infinitely,
x →∞

Some properties of continuous functions

i) The sum or difference of two continuous function is a continuous
function. This result is valid for any finite number of functions.
ii) The product of two continuous functions is a continuous function. This
result is also valid for any finite number of functions.
iii) The quotient of two continuous functions is a continuous function,
provided the denominator is not zero anywhere for the range of values
considered.
iv) If f(x) is continuous at x = a and f(a) ≠ 0, then in the neighbourhood of x
= a, f(x) has the same sign as that of f(a), i.e., we can get a positive
quantity δ such that f(x) preserves the same sign as that of f(a) for every
value of f(x) in the interval a – δ < x < a + δ.
v) If f(x) is continuous throughout the interval (a, b), and f(a) and f(b) are
of opposite signs, then there is at least one value, say ξ of x within the
interval for which f(ξ) = 0.
19
Introduction to vi) Let f(x) is continuous throughout the interval (a, b) and f(a) ≠ f(b). Then
Differential Calculus f(x) assumes every value between f(a) and f(b) at least once in the
interval.
vii) A function, which is continuous throughout a closed interval, is bounded
therein.
viii) A continuous function in an interval actually attains its upper and lower
bounds, at least once each, in the interval.
ix) A function f(x), continuous in a closed interval [a, b], attains every
intermediate value between its upper and lower bounds in the interval, at
least once.
Example:
i) f(x) = xn, n is any rational number.
lim x n = a n for all n, except when a = 0 and n < 0.
x →a

Thus, xn is continuous for all x when n is positive and continuous for all
values of x except 0 when n is negative.
sin x
ii) f (x) = tan x =
cos x
lim sin x = sin a and lim cos x = cos a – both are continuous.
x →a x →a

tan x is also continuous except when

x
cos x = 0, i.e., x = (2n + 1) .
2
iii) f(x) = x for x > 0
0 or x = 0
–x for x < 0
Prove that f(x) is continuous at x = 0.
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (0) = 0
x →0 + 0 x →0- 0

Check Your Progress 5

1
i) f (x) = x sin for x ≠ 0
x
0 for x = 0
Examine the continuity of f(x) at x = 0.
ii) Find the point of discontinuity of the following function
x 2 - 2x + 4
f (x) =
x 2 - 5x + 6
x2 - 4
iii) f (x) = . What should the value of f(2) be, so that f(x) is
x- 2
continuous at x = 2.

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20 ……………………………………………………………………………
 …………………………………………………………………………… Functions, Limit and
Continuity
……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have summarised three important basic concept of calculus-
namely, function, limit and continuity. We discussed important types of
function, the limiting value of a function and its existence. Lastly, we have
discussed one important property of function, continuity and when the limit of
a function exists and when it is continuous.

1.7 KEY WORDS

Set: A collection of objects that are distinct and well defined. These objects
are termed as elements of the set.

Variable: Representation of a number, which may take different numerical

values during a mathematical operation.

Continuous Variable: If x takes all possible real values from a given number
a to another given number b, then x is called a continuous variable.

Constant: A representation, which retains the same numerical value

throughout a mathematical operation other than numerical constants (like 1, –
2, p, e).

Functions: Function of x, is defined for a given domain is a quantity y,

which has a single and definite value for every value of x in its domain.

Bounded Functions and their Bounds: Let ƒ(x) be a function defined in the
interval (a, b). If a finite number K is there such that ƒ(x) „ K for every x,
then ƒ(x) is bounded above in the interval and K is an upper bound of the
function ƒ(x).

Similarly, if a finite number m is there such that ƒ(x) … m for every x, then
ƒ(x) is bounded below in the interval and m is a lower bound of the function
ƒ(x). If ƒ(x) is both bounded above and bounded below, then f(x) is said to
be simply bounded.

Monotone Function: A function which always increases or decreases can be

called monotonically increasing (or decreasing) function.
Inverse Function: The inverse of the function y = f(x) is defined as
x = f–1(y).
Constant Function: A function whose range consists of only one element is
called a constant function
Polynomial Function: A function that is a sum of power functions, with
positive integer exponents, multiplied by constants, such as f(x) = x3 - 2x2 +
4x + 7 = 1x3 + -2x2 + 4x + 7x0 and a power function is given by an exponential
formula, where the independent variable is the base of the exponential, such as
x3, x-2, x1/2, xπ, etc.
21
Introduction to Rational Function: An expression of ratio of two polynomial functions.
Differential Calculus
Continuity: A function f(x) is continuous provided its graph is continuous,
i.e., a continuous function does not have any break at any point of its graph.
More formally, a function f(x) is said to be continuous for x = a, provided
lim f (x) exists, finite and is equal to a.
x →a

1.8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Allen, R.G.D.(1938), Mathematical Analysis for Economists, St. Martin;s
Press, New York.
Chiang A.C. (1974) Fundamental Methods of Mathematical Economics, 2nd
edition, McGrow-Hill Book Company, New York.
Henderson, James M. and Quandt, Richard E.(1980), Microeconomic Theory,
McGrow-Hill Book Company, New York.

1.10 ANSWER OR HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) A variable takes different numerical values during a mathematical
operation whereas a constant does not change. For example see
Section 1.2
π
2) i) Any real value (in degree, gradient or radian) of x except x = .
4
ii) Any real value of x except 2 < x < 3.
iii) –1 < x < 1
1
iv) x >
3

3) Do Yourself

4) [3x 2 + 2 + 3xh + h 2 ]

Check Your Progress 2

a+x− a−x
i) lim
x→0 x
a+x− a−x
= lim
x→0 x( a + x − a − x )
2x 2
= lim = lim
x →0 x( a + x − a − x) x →0 a+x + a−x
(Since x → 0 and x ≠ 0 we can cancel x in the ratio)
Now as x → 0 , a± x − a
(You may check it by applying (δ, ) definition of limit)

22
 2 1 Functions, Limit and
Thus, the limit = = Continuity
2 a a
ii) |sin x – 0| = |sin x| can be made arbitrarily small by making |x| arbitrarily
small.
Thus, lim sin x = 0
x→0

1 1
iii) sin x − sin θ = 2sin (x − θ) cos (x + θ)
2 2
1
As x → θ , sin (x − θ) → θ
2
1
Also cos (x + 0) „ 1
2
Thus, lim (sin x − sin θ) = 0
x→θ

i.e., lim sin x = sin θ

x→θ

Check Your Progress 3

i) lim f (x) = 10, lim f (x) = − 10
x →1+ 0 x →1− 0

Thus, lim f (x) = 10 does not exist

x →1

Whereas f(1) exists = 1.

ii) lim f (x) = 10, lim f (x) = 1
x →0 + 0 x →0− 0

which is not equal to f(0) = –1.

Check Your Progress 4
i) Put x2 = z as x → 0, z → 0

= lim
z →0
sin z
z
⎛
. z = ⎜ lim
⎝ z → 0
sin z ⎞
⎟ lim
z ⎠ x →∞
( z )
= 1.0 = 0.
x
2sin 2
1- cos x 2
ii) lim = lim
x →0 x sin x x →0 x x
x.2sin cos
2 2
x ⎛ x⎞
sin⎜ sin ⎟
= lim 2 = 1 lim 2 . 1
x ⎜x x ⎟
2 ⎜ →0 ⎟ ⎛ x⎞
x →0
x cos
2 ⎠ ⎜⎜ lim cos ⎟
2
2 ⎝ x 2⎟
⎝ 2 →0 ⎠
1 1 1
= .1. =
2 1 2
1 1
iii) Put = z as x → , z → 0, lim z sin
x z → 0 z
23
Introduction to 1
Differential Calculus Since z is not actually zero, value of sin is a finite quantity between [–1, 1].
z
1
Thus, by taking z as small as we like we can make z sin as small as we like,
z
1
i.e., z sin - 0 is less than any pre-assigned positive quantity. Thus, the
z
limit is zero.
f (x + h) - f (x)
iv) lim
h →0 h
a(x + h) 2 + b(x + h) + c - ax 2 - bx - c
= lim
h →0 h
a(x 2 + 2xh + h 2 ) + bh - ax 2
= lim
h →0 h
⎛ 2axh + h 2 ) + bh ⎞
= lim ⎜ ⎟
h →0
⎝ h ⎠
= lim (2ax + b) = 2ax + b [ Q h ≠ 0]
n →0

n(n+1)(2n+1)
v) lim
n →∞ 6n 3
1⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
= lim ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜ 2 + ⎟
n →∞ 6⎝ n⎠ ⎝ n⎠
1 1
= .1.2 =
6 3
vi) Put tan - 1 x = θ , i.e., tan θ = x
As x → 0, θ → 0 .

= lim
θ →0
θ
tan θ ⎝
⎛
= ⎜ lim
θ → 0
θ ⎞
(
⎟ . lim cosθ
sin θ ⎠ θ→∞
)
= 1.1 = 1.
Check Your Progress 5
i) lim f (x) = 0 (It has already been proved in the problem for limit). Thus,
x →0

lim f (x) = f (0) and f(x) is continuous at x = 0.

x →0

x 2 - 2x + 4
ii) f (x) = is the ratio of two continuous functions.
x 2 - 5x + 6
(Polynomials are continuous can be verified easily). Thereby the
property – III of the continuous function, f(x) will be continuous at all
values of x except when x2 – 5x + 6 equals zero, i.e., the point of
discontinuity of f(9x) are x = 2, 3.
(x+2)(x - 2)
iii) lim f (x) = lim =4
x →2 x →2 (x - 2)
Thus, f(2) = 4 is the requirement for f(x) to be continuous at x = 2.
24