ACTIVITY #2

THEORIES RELATED TO THE LEARNERS’DEVELOPMENT

1. Sigmund Freud
3 Components of Personality

Perhaps Freud's single most enduring The id operates on the pleasure principle
and important idea was that the human (Freud, 1920) which is the idea that
psyche (personality) has more than one every wishful impulse should be
aspect. satisfied immediately, regardless of the
Freud's personality theory (1923) saw consequences. When the id achieves its
the psyche structured into three parts demands, we experience pleasure when
(i.e., tripartite), the id, ego and superego, it is denied we experience ‘unpleasure’
all developing at different stages in our or tension.
lives. These are systems, not parts of the The id engages in primary process
brain, or in any way physical. thinking, which is primitive, illogical,
What is the id? irrational, and fantasy oriented. This
form of process thinking has no
The id is the primitive and instinctive comprehension of objective reality, and
component of personality. It consists of is selfish and wishful in nature.
all the inherited (i.e., biological)
components of personality present at What is the Ego?
birth, including the sex (life) instinct – The ego is 'that part of the id which has
Eros (which contains the libido), and the been modified by the direct influence of
aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos. the external world.'
The id is the impulsive The ego develops to mediate between
(and unconscious) part of our psyche the unrealistic id and the external real
which responds directly and immediately world. It is the decision-making
to basic urges, needs, and desires. The component of personality. Ideally, the
personality of the newborn child is all id ego works by reason, whereas the id is
and only later does it develop an ego and chaotic and unreasonable.
super-ego.
The ego operates according to the reality
The id remains infantile in its function principle, working out realistic ways of
throughout a person's life and does not satisfying the id’s demands, often
change with time or experience, as it is compromising or postponing satisfaction
not in touch with the external world. The to avoid negative consequences of
id is not affected by reality, logic or the society. The ego considers social
everyday world, as it operates within the realities and norms, etiquette and rules in
unconscious part of the mind. deciding how to behave.
 aggression. It also has the function of
persuading the ego to turn to moralistic
goals rather than simply realistic ones
and to strive for perfection.

Like the id, the ego seeks pleasure (i.e.,

tension reduction) and avoids pain, but
unlike the id, the ego is concerned with
devising a realistic strategy to obtain
pleasure. The ego has no concept of right
or wrong; something is good simply if it
achieves its end of satisfying without
causing harm to itself or the id.
The superego consists of two systems:
Often the ego is weak relative to the The conscience and the ideal self. The
headstrong id, and the best the ego can conscience can punish the ego through
do is stay on, pointing the id in the right causing feelings of guilt. For example, if
direction and claiming some credit at the the ego gives in to the id's demands, the
end as if the action were its own. superego may make the person feel bad
If the ego fails in its attempt to use the through guilt.
reality principle, and anxiety is The ideal self (or ego-ideal) is an
experienced, unconscious defense imaginary picture of how you ought to
mechanisms are employed, to help ward be, and represents career aspirations,
off unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety) or how to treat other people, and how to
make good things feel better for the behave as a member of society.
individual.
Behavior which falls short of the ideal
The ego engages in secondary process self may be punished by the superego
thinking, which is rational, realistic, and through guilt. The super-ego can also
orientated towards problem-solving. If a reward us through the ideal self when we
plan of action does not work, then it is behave ‘properly’ by making us feel
thought through again until a solution is proud.
found. This is known as reality testing
and enables the person to control their If a person’s ideal self is too high a
impulses and demonstrate self-control, standard, then whatever the person does
via mastery of the ego. will represent failure. The ideal self and
conscience are largely determined
An important feature of clinical and in childhood from parental values and
social work is to enhance ego how you were brought up.
functioning and help the client test
reality through assisting the client to
think through their options.
5 Psychosexual Stages of Development

What is the superego?

The superego incorporates the values
and morals of society which are learned
from one's parents and others. It
develops around the age of 3 – 5 years
during the phallic stage of psychosexual
development.
The superego's function is to control the
id's impulses, especially those which
society forbids, such as sex and
Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year) In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the
person who wants to share things with
In the first stage of psychosexual
you.  They like giving things away.  In
development, the libido is centered in a
essence, they are 'sharing their
baby's mouth. During the oral stages, the
s**t’!’ An anal-expulsive personality is
baby gets much satisfaction from putting
also messy, disorganized and rebellious.
all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy
the libido, and thus its id demands.  Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
Which at this stage in life are oral, or
The phallic stage is the third stage of
mouth orientated, such as sucking,
psychosexual development, spanning the
biting, and breastfeeding. 
ages of three to six years, wherein the
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to infant's libido (desire) centers upon their
an oral fixation in later life.  We see oral genitalia as the erogenous zone.
personalities all around us such as
The child becomes aware of anatomical
smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and
sex differences, which sets in motion the
thumb suckers.  Oral personalities
conflict between erotic attraction,
engage in such oral behaviors,
resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear
particularly when under stress.
which Freud called the Oedipus
complex (in boys) and the Electra
complex (in girls). 
Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)
This is resolved through the process of
During the anal stage of psychosexual
identification, which involves the child
development, the libido becomes
adopting the characteristics of the same
focused on the anus, and the child
sex parent.
derives great pleasure from defecating. 
The child is now fully aware that they Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)
are a person in their own right and that
The latency stage is the fourth stage of
their wishes can bring them into conflict
psychosexual development, spanning the
with the demands of the outside world
period of six years to puberty. During
(i.e., their ego has developed). 
this stage the libido is dormant and no
Freud believed that this type of conflict further psychosexual development takes
tends to come to a head in potty training, place (latent means hidden). 
in which adults impose restrictions on
Freud thought that most sexual impulses
when and where the child can defecate. 
are repressed during the latent stage, and
The nature of this first conflict with
sexual energy can be sublimated towards
authority can determine the child's future
school work, hobbies, and friendships. 
relationship with all forms of authority.
Much of the child's energy is channeled
Early or harsh potty training can lead to
into developing new skills and acquiring
the child becoming an anal-retentive
new knowledge, and play becomes
personality who hates mess, is
largely confined to other children of the
obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful
same gender.
of authority.  They can be stubborn and
tight-fisted with their cash and
possessions.
Genital Stage (puberty to adult)
This is all related to pleasure got from
The genital stage is the last stage of
holding on to their faeces when toddlers,
Freud's psychosexual theory of
and their mum's then insisting that they
personality development, and begins in
get rid of it by placing them on the potty
puberty.  It is a time of adolescent sexual
until they perform!
experimentation, the successful
Not as daft as it sounds.  The anal resolution of which is settling down in a
expulsive, on the other hand, underwent loving one-to-one relationship with
a liberal toilet-training regime during the another person in our 20's.
anal stage.
Sexual instinct is directed to belief that the world is inconsistent and
heterosexual pleasure, rather than self- unpredictable.
pleasure like during the phallic stage. 
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual Doubt
instinct in adults was through
The second stage of Erikson's theory of
heterosexual intercourse.  Fixation and
psychosocial development takes place
conflict may prevent this with the
during early childhood and is focused on
consequence that sexual perversions may
children developing a greater sense of
develop. 
personal control.
For example, fixation at the oral stage
Outcomes
may result in a person gaining sexual
pleasure primarily from kissing and oral Children who struggle and who are
sex, rather than sexual intercourse. shamed for their accidents may be left
without a sense of personal control.
Success during this stage of psychosocial
2. Erik Erikson development leads to feelings of
autonomy; failure results in feelings of
8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
shame and doubt.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of psychosocial
development takes place during the
preschool years. At this point in
psychosocial development, children
begin to assert their power and control
over the world through directing play
and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage
feel capable and able to lead others.
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust Those who fail to acquire these skills are
The first stage of Erikson's theory of left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and
psychosocial development occurs lack of initiative.
between birth and 1 year of age and is Outcomes
the most fundamental stage in life.
Because an infant is utterly dependent, The major theme of the third stage of
developing trust is based on the psychosocial development is that
dependability and quality of the child's children need to begin asserting control
caregivers. and power over the environment.
Success in this stage leads to a sense of
At this point in development, the child is purpose. Children who try to exert too
utterly dependent upon adult caregivers much power experience disapproval,
for everything they need to survive resulting in a sense of guilt.
including food, love, warmth, safety, and
nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
adequate care and love, the child will The fourth psychosocial stage takes
come to feel that they cannot trust or place during the early school years from
depend upon the adults in their life. approximately ages 5 to 11. Through
Outcomes social interactions, children begin to
develop a sense of pride in their
If a child successfully develops trust, the accomplishments and abilities.
child will feel safe and secure in the
world.2 Caregivers who are inconsistent, Children need to cope with new social
emotionally unavailable, or rejecting and academic demands. Success leads to
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the a sense of competence, while failure
children under their care. Failure to results in feelings of inferiority.
develop trust will result in fear and a
Outcomes accomplishment, while failure results in
shallow involvement in the world.
Children who are encouraged and
commended by parents and teachers During adulthood, we continue to build
develop a feeling of competence and our lives, focusing on our career and
belief in their skills. Those who receive family. Those who are successful during
little or no encouragement from parents, this phase will feel that they are
teachers, or peers will doubt their contributing to the world by being active
abilities to be successful. in their home and community. Those
who fail to attain this skill will feel
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
unproductive and uninvolved in the
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place world.
during the often-turbulent teenage years.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
This stage plays an essential role in
developing a sense of personal identity The final psychosocial stage occurs
which will continue to influence during old age and is focused on
behavior and development for the rest of reflecting back on life. At this point in
a person's life. Teens need to develop a development, people look back on the
sense of self and personal identity. events of their lives and determine if
Success leads to an ability to stay true to they are happy with the life that they
yourself, while failure leads to role lived or if they regret the things they did
confusion and a weak sense of self. or didn't do.
During adolescence, children explore Erikson's theory differed from many
their independence and develop a sense others because it addressed development
of self. throughout the entire lifespan, including
old age. Older adults need to look back
Those who receive proper
on life and feel a sense of fulfillment.
encouragement and reinforcement
Success at this stage leads to feelings of
through personal exploration will
wisdom, while failure results in regret,
emerge from this stage with a strong
bitterness, and despair.
sense of self and feelings of
independence and control. Those who At this stage, people reflect back on the
remain unsure of their beliefs and desires events of their lives and take stock.
will feel insecure and confused about Those who look back on a life they feel
themselves and the future. was well-lived will feel satisfied and
ready to face the end of their lives with a
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
sense of peace. Those who look back
Young adults need to form intimate, and only feel regret will instead feel
loving relationships with other people. fearful that their lives will end without
Success leads to strong relationships, accomplishing the things they feel they
while failure results in loneliness and should have.
isolation. This stage covers the period of
Outcomes
early adulthood when people are
exploring personal relationships.2 Those who are unsuccessful during this
stage will feel that their life has been
Erikson believed it was vital that people
wasted and may experience many
develop close, committed relationships
regrets. The person will be left with
with other people. Those who are
feelings of bitterness and despair.
successful at this step will form
relationships that are enduring and
secure.
3. Jean Piaget
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
4 Stages of Cognitive Development
Adults need to create or nurture things
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive
that will outlast them, often by having
development suggests that children
children or creating a positive change
move through four different stages of
that benefits other people. Success leads
mental development. His theory focuses
to feelings of usefulness and
not only on understanding how children
acquire knowledge, but also on The foundations of language
understanding the nature of intelligence. development may have been laid during
the previous stage, but it is the
The Stages
emergence of language that is one of the
Through his observations of his major hallmarks of the preoperational
children, Piaget developed a stage theory stage of development.
of intellectual development that included
The Concrete Operational Stage
four distinct stages:
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
The Sensorimotor Stage
Major Characteristics and
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Developmental Changes
Major Characteristics and
 During this stage, children begin to
Developmental Changes:
thinking logically about concrete
 The infant knows the world through events
their movements and sensations
 They begin to understand the concept
 Children learn about the world of conservation; that the amount of
through basic actions such as liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to
sucking, grasping, looking, and that in a tall, skinny glass, for
listening example

 Infants learn that things continue to  Their thinking becomes more logical
exist even though they cannot be and organized, but still very concrete
seen (object permanence)
 Children begin using inductive logic,
 They are separate beings from the or reasoning from specific
people and objects around them information to a general principle

 They realize that their actions can While children are still very concrete
cause things to happen in the world and literal in their thinking at this point
around them in development, they become much
more adept at using logic.2 The
During this earliest stage of cognitive egocentrism of the previous stage begins
development, infants and toddlers to disappear as kids become better at
acquire knowledge through sensory thinking about how other people might
experiences and manipulating objects. A view a situation.
child's entire experience at the earliest
period of this stage occurs through basic The Formal Operational Stage
reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
Ages: 12 and Up
The Preoperational Stage
Major Characteristics and
Ages: 2 to 7 Years Developmental Changes:

Major Characteristics and  At this stage, the adolescent or young

Developmental Changes: adult begins to think abstractly and
reason about hypothetical problems
 Children begin to think symbolically
and learn to use words and pictures  Abstract thought emerges
to represent objects.
 Teens begin to think more about
 Children at this stage tend to be moral, philosophical, ethical, social,
egocentric and struggle to see things and political issues that require
from the perspective of others. theoretical and abstract reasoning

 While they are getting better with  Begin to use deductive logic, or
language and thinking, they still tend reasoning from a general principle to
to think about things in very concrete specific information
terms.
The final stage of Piaget's theory
involves an increase in logic, the ability
to use deductive reasoning, and an me?” and the parents offer the child
understanding of abstract ideas. At this an incentive by giving him an
point, people become capable of seeing allowance.
multiple potential solutions to problems
Level 2: Conventional
and think more scientifically about the
world around them. Throughout the conventional level, a
child’s sense of morality is tied to
personal and societal relationships.
4. Lawrence Kohlberg Children continue to accept the rules of
authority figures, but this is now due to
Kohlberg’s stages of moral
their belief that this is necessary to
development
ensure positive relationships and societal
Kohlberg identified three levels of moral order. Adherence to rules and
reasoning: pre-conventional, conventions is somewhat rigid during
conventional, and post-conventional. these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness
Each level is associated with or fairness is seldom questioned.
increasingly complex stages of moral
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl
development.
Orientation
Level 1: Preconventional
In stage 3, children want the approval of
Throughout the preconventional level, a others and act in ways to avoid
child’s sense of morality is externally disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good
controlled. Children accept and believe behavior and people being “nice” to
the rules of authority figures, such as others.
parents and teachers.  A child with pre-
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
conventional morality has not yet
adopted or internalized society’s In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules
conventions regarding what is right or and convention because of their
wrong, but instead focuses largely on importance in maintaining a functioning
external consequences that certain society. Rules are seen as being the same
actions may bring. for everyone, and obeying rules by doing
what one is “supposed” to do is seen as
Stage 1: Obedience-and-
valuable and important. Moral reasoning
Punishment Orientation
in stage four is beyond the need for
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to individual approval exhibited in stage
obey rules and avoid being punished. For three. If one person violates a law,
example, an action is perceived as perhaps everyone would—thus there is
morally wrong because the perpetrator is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws
punished; the worse the punishment for and rules. Most active members of
the act is, the more “bad” the act is society remain at stage four, where
perceived to be. morality is still predominantly dictated
by an outside force.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
Level 3: Postconventional
Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for
me?” position, in which right behavior is Throughout the postconventional level, a
defined by whatever the individual person’s sense of morality is defined in
believes to be in their best interest. Stage terms of more abstract principles and
two reasoning shows a limited interest in values. People now believe that some
the needs of others, only to the point laws are unjust and should be changed or
where it might further the individual’s eliminated. This level is marked by a
own interests. As a result, concern for growing realization that individuals are
others is not based on loyalty separate entities from society and that
or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you individuals may disobey rules
scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours” inconsistent with their own principles.
mentality. An example would be when a Post-conventional moralists live by their
child is asked by his parents to do a own ethical principles—principles that
chore. The child asks “what’s in it for typically include such basic human
rights as life, liberty, and justice—and Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal
view rules as useful but changeable Development 
mechanisms, rather than absolute
Vygotsky created the concept of the
dictates that must be obeyed without
zone of proximal development, often
question. Because post-conventional
abbreviated as ZPD, which came to be a
individuals elevate their own moral
central part of his theory. Language is
evaluation of a situation over social
the way that a child communicates with
conventions, their behavior, especially at
others after they are born and they
stage six, can sometimes be confused
continue to learn by interacting with
with that of those at the pre-conventional
those around them. Building on his idea
level. Some theorists have speculated
of social interaction as the basis for
that many people may never reach this
learning, he broached the value of a
level of abstract moral reasoning.
mentor or teacher in the life of a student.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
In stage 5, the world is viewed as
holding different opinions, rights, and
values. Such perspectives should be
mutually respected as unique to each
person or community. Laws are regarded
as social contracts rather than rigid
edicts. Those that do not promote the
general welfare should be changed when
necessary to meet the greatest good for
the greatest number of people. This is
achieved through majority decision and Vygotsky declared some controversial
inevitable compromise. Democratic statements that went against prominent
government is theoretically based on educational research at the time. He
stage five reasoning. dismissed the idea that there was no
ideal age for learning and instead
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal introduced ideal stages for learning, a
Orientation similar opinion as Piaget. He also
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on explained that the cognitive growth
abstract reasoning using universal ethical increased less for students with a higher
principles. Generally, the chosen intelligence than a lower intelligence
principles are abstract rather than when they entered school. He coined this
concrete and focus on ideas such as term relative achievement, a method that
equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are highlights the departure point of student
valid only insofar as they are grounded learning and not just the end result. This
in justice, and a commitment to justice led Vygotsky into the idea of the ‘zone
carries with it an obligation to disobey of proximal development,’ as it assessed
unjust laws. People choose the ethical the change in cognitive development of
principles they want to follow, and if students and not just the final outcome.
they violate those principles, they feel Students benefit directly from the social
guilty. In this way, the individual acts interactions in class, and ideally, reach
because it is morally right to do so (and their learning potential with the help of
not because he or she wants to avoid their teacher.
punishment), it is in their best interest, it Vygotsky consistently defines the zone
is expected, it is legal, or it is previously of proximal development as the
agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted difference between the current level of
that stage six exists, he found it difficult cognitive development and the potential
to identify individuals who consistently level of cognitive development. He
operated at that level. maintains that a student is able to reach
their learning goal by completing
problem-solving tasks with their teacher
5. Vygotsky or engaging with more competent peers.
Vygotsky believed that a student would
not be able to reach the same level of
learning by working alone. As a student
2. The Mesosystem
leaves his zone of current development,
he travels through the zone of proximal The mesosystem involves the
development towards his learning goal. relationships between the microsystems
in one's life. This means that your family
The zone of proximal development
experience may be related to your school
consists of two important components:
experience. For example, if a child is
the student’s potential development and
neglected by his parents, he may have a
the role of interaction with others.
low chance of developing positive
Learning occurs in the zone of proximal
attitude towards his teachers. Also, this
development after the identification of
child may feel awkward in the presence
current knowledge. The potential
of peers and may resort to withdrawal
development is simply what the student
from a group of classmates.
is capable of learning.
3. The Exosystem
6. Urie Bronfenbrenner
The exosystem is the setting in which
there is a link between the context where
in the person does not have any active
role, and the context where in is actively
participating. Suppose a child is more
attached to his father than his mother. If
the father goes abroad to work for
several months, there may be a conflict
between the mother and the child's social
relationship, or on the other hand, this
event may result to a tighter bond
between the mother and the child.

The Five Environmental Systems 4. The Macrosystem

The ecological systems theory holds that The macrosystem setting is the actual
we encounter different environments culture of an individual. The cultural
throughout our lifespan that may contexts involve the socioeconomic
influence our behavior in varying status of the person and/or his family, his
degrees. These systems include the ethnicity or race and living in a still
micro system, the mesosystem, the developing or a third world country. For
exosystem, the macro system, and the example, being born to a poor family
chronosystem. makes a person work harder every day.

1. The Micro System 5. The Chronosystem

The micro system's setting is the direct The chronosystem includes the
environment we have in our lives. Your transitions and shifts in one's lifespan.
family, friends, classmates, teachers, This may also involve the socio-
neighbors and other people who have a historical contexts that may influence a
direct contact with you are included in person. One classic example of this is
your micro system. The micro system is how divorce, as a major life transition,
the setting in which we have direct social may affect not only the couple's
interactions with these social agents. The relationship but also their children's
theory states that we are not mere behavior. According to a majority of
recipients of the experiences we have research, children are negatively affected
when socializing with these people in the on the first year after the divorce. The
micro system environment, but we are next years after it would reveal that the
contributing to the construction of such interaction within the family becomes
environment. more stable and agreeable.