Maintenance and general servicing of automobiles

Maintenance means keeping all the system and feature’s functioning as much as possible to the
manufactures original design intension. Maintenance helps the vehicle to start, run and stop as the
manufacturer intended. So that maximum amount of performance, reliability and service life are
achieved.

Why Vehicle Maintenance

 To keep the vehicle in good running condition.

 To keep the operation cost less.

 To provide safety on vehicle operation.

 To give feedback to manufacturers to improve development.

 To adhere to the legal requirement of vehicle operation.

Importance of Vehicle Maintenance

 To extend the life of the vehicle.

 To boost the performance of the vehicle.

 To improve fuel economy.

 To improve safety.

 To have higher reset value.

 To maintain the vehicle in good condition.

 To reduce the wear and tear of components.

 To reduce the risk of serious problem.

 To improve the driving quality of the vehicle

Types of Vehicle Maintenance

There are four types of vehicle maintenance namely

1. Preventive maintenance

2. Breakdown maintenance

3. Periodic maintenance (or) schedule maintenance

4. Operation maintenance
1. Preventive maintenance: Prevention without breakdown or without giving trouble on road some
attention or maintenance taken to the vehicle is called as preventive maintenance. It intends to reduce
or totally eliminate breakdowns and accidents due to mechanical failures and reduces repair cost.

Any good preventive maintenance program leads to following advantages.  Reduce the breakdown of
vehicle  Increased safety due to reduced breakdown  Less expenses on repair  Good control on
inventory of spare parts  Lesser number of equipments are required

2. Breakdown maintenance: Break down maintenance is the attention which is to be provided when a
motor vehicle becomes immobilized due to faults created during running. These faults are started
difficulties, puncture, electrical faults, carburetors and fuel supply faults, overheating, fan beltings,
breakage and accidents etc.

3. Periodic maintenance: Periodic maintenance or operative maintenance is the attention provided to

motor vehicle after in operation for a specified time or covered distance. These maintenances may be
done daily, weekly, quarterly, yearly or after covering every 500 km, 1000 km, 2000 km, 4000 km, 8000
km of running. In garages this work is done on the basis of pre-set schedules so as to avoid road failures
and to minimize break down during use.

4. Operation maintenance: Daily maintenance by the operator for proper running of the vehicle is
known as operation maintenance. It is needed to keep the vehicle in proper working condition. Tire
inflation, battery, brakes, clutch, smoke color, staring system, ignition system and lights are checked in
this maintenance daily.

Types of Periodic Maintenance a) Daily Maintenance b) Weekly Maintenance c) Monthly Maintenance

d) Quarterly Maintenance e) Half yearly maintenance or frequency certificate work. f) Yearly
maintenance or fitness work

Daily Maintenance  Clean the vehicle.  Check engine oil level top up it necessary.  Check radiator
water level and water top up.  Inspect tire for normal pressure.  Check for fuel in tank.  Check of
whether light and electrical accessories.  Checkup brake for normal functioning.  Start engine and
checkup performance.

Weekly Maintenance  Check electrolyte level in battery and add distilled water if necessary.  Clean
battery terminals and apply vestine to avoid corrosion.  Check tire pressure and inflate if necessary to
correct pressure.  Check tires per abnormal wear if abnormal wear is noticed correct wheel alignment.
 Check brake fluid level and top up if necessary.  Wash vehicle with water mixed with detergent with
soap water

Monthly Maintenance  Service vehicle at appropriate date.  Checkup and adjust for play of brake. 
Checkup and adjust for play of clutch.  Checkup engine oil at appropriate mileage.  Checkup tune up
vehicle (Petrol driven)  Tighten engine gear box and body mounting bolt.  Remove all the wheels check
brake drum brake linings etc.

Quarterly  Higher body bolts and checking if necessary (rubber packing)  Blow and adjust break. 
Carry out engine timing of period prevent vehicle.  Check out pedal side play and reset it.  Check up
and renew mounting blades.  During service over and clean scale pin if necessary (leaf spring)
Half yearly Maintenance/fitness Certificate  Remove gearbox and check the components  Check
differential  Overhaul all four wheels, breaks and the universal joints.  Overhaul engine and do the de-
carbonization  In diesel overhaul injection and pumps  Overhaul water pump  Overhaul dynamo and
self-starter.  Overhaul exhaust and air compressor.  Check oil wiring and switches.  Carryout body
repairs, do denting if necessary.  Repair valves if trucks or vans.

Vehicle insurance  Motor insurance gives protection to the vehicle owner against damages to his/her
vehicle.  Pays for third party liability to determine as per law against owner of the vehicle

Service Procedure: For servicing a vehicle, it should be mounted on a lift or hoist or on the ramp. A four
post lift which enables a car to be lifted and also allows a car to be lifted with its wheels free, is the best
for all working conditions as it enables the inspection and repair of wheel hubs and the brakes and
drives to be worked on quite easily. In the case of hoist, all four wheels are stripped off to enable
servicing to be done at the time of fitting them back. The position of the wheels is interchanged
diagonally. The service procedure may be carried out in the following steps:

Step 1: The under-frame of the vehicle is cleaned with water and dried with air. A mixture of mobile oil
and kerosene is then sprayed on the under-frame under pressure. The under-frame is then rubbed with
cloth soaked in the above mixture of oils and later washed with water again and dried with compressed
air.

Step 2: To clean engine of dirt, grease, etc. spray method with compressed air is used. A kerosene spray
under pressure is sprayed on the engine, wheels, spindles, springs, steering knuckles etc. After
sometime, it is sponged off with soap suds (linseed oil soap) followed by rising with cold water and then
sponged off dry.

Step 3: For cleaning engine the exhaust system, the exhaust manifold pipe and muffler are taken apart
and soaked in kerosene oil overnight. Alternately, a long wire packed with kerosene soaked waste, may
be drawn through it for cleaning the pipe and manifold.

Step 4: Grease all points with a grease gun. Open the front wheel axle cups and grease.

Step 5: Check the mobile oil of the engine differential gear box oil, steering column oil and hydraulic
brake oil.

Step 6: For proper maintenance of 12 V battery carry out the following: (a) Wash and dry the top of the
battery. (b) Wash the corrosion product from the hold-down frame. (c) Dry it thoroughly and apply black
acid resistant paint, if necessary. Use cell testers for checking individual cells and also check for gravity.
Overhauling Procedure The over hauling of any assembly consist of the following steps. (i) Evaluation (ii)
Pre checks To decide to locate the defect at initial stages. (iii) Dismantling It is to be done is perfect
order as per instructions given by the manufacturer

(v) Cleaning By each component is theory clean by using cleaning against and dying. (vi) Replacements
The defective components are removed in place of these component correct component are replaced.
(vii) Assembly The assembly of the component is done in accordance with the guide line provided by the
manufacturer.  The correct positioning is also check at each stage.
Log Book of a Vehicle The log book of a vehicle gives the details of the vehicle, which will be useful not
only for the owner of the vehicle but also to the Mechanic who might take the job of the vehicle
Maintenance.

Details of Log Book  Distance covered  Fuel consumption  Average fuel consumption  Best worst
mileage  Total maintenance cost  Running cost  Faults in the vehicle  Likes dislikes  Date of the
previous maintenance report.

Check List A check list is a type of informational job at use to reduce to failure by compensating for
potential unit for laymen memory and attention. It helps to protect consistency.

Repair Order  Repair order is used for legal tax and general record keeping purposes.  Technician copy
gives the listing of the repairs needed and he is used for making rotation of repairs completed and items
needing attention.  Costumer copy includes the cost estimate.  Copy for the shop records. Importance
of Repair Order  It fully identifies the costumer and the vehicle.  It gives the technician an idea of the
reason of the car is in the shop for repair.  It tells the shop hourly needed.  It gives the costumer and
estimate cost of the repair.  It gives the time the vehicle will be ready for costumer.  The signature of
the costumer gives approval for the repair and agree to pay for the shop service when the job is
completed.  It is a legal document.

ENGINE MAINTENANCE

Troubles, Causes and Remedies in Engine:

Cooling System:
 Check the radiator for any damage and blocks.
 Check the hoses that connect radiator and engine.
 Check for any leakage.
 Check the fan belt.
 Use clean water in the radiation.
Troubles, Causes and Remedies In Lubrication System:
Lubrication System:
 Check the level of lubrication oil in the crankcase.
 Check the lubrication oil filter, if clogged replace it with new one.
 If the oil is bad, remove that oil and introduce new oil of the correct grade.
Troubles, Causes and Remedies In MPFI Engine:
Checking and Servicing of Following Engine Components:
I. Cylinder head:
Checking cylinder heads for cracks
Cracks in the cylinder-heads are hard to find by visual inspection. They often occur in or around
the combustion chamber and the valve port areas. Often, cracks can only be located by special
crack-detection methods. There are two methods used in automotive workshops-one uses
magnetism and the other user’s dye.
Magnetic method
The magnetic method of crack detection is suitable for all of ferrous metals that is used on cast
iron cylinder heads. The detector magnetizes the area being tested and, if a crack exists, one side
of the crack will become a north magnetic pole and other side a south magnetic pole. Metal
powder or metallic fluid is applied to the area. The fine particles of the metal will be attracted to
the poles and will form a line that follows the crack, making it visible as a fine grey line.
Dye penetrant method
The dye penetrant method is suitable for most materials, including nonferrous metals, that is can
be used for both Aluminum alloy and cast iron Cylinder-heads. It can be used around the valve
ports where magnetic attraction is difficult.
The suspected area of the part is cleaned with a special solvent to remove all the dirt, Grease and
this also cleans any cracks. A red dye penetrant is then sprayed over the surface and this
penetrates any cracks.
After allowing the dye penetrant, the surplus dye is removed and a developer is sprayed over the
area any cracks will then be seen as fine red lines.

Installing Cylinder-Heads
Installing a Cylinder-head is, generally, the reverse procedure to removal. Following are related
points:
1. Before installing Cylinder-head, the surfaces of both the Cylinder-head and cylinder-block
must be clean. The bolts and threads into cylinder-block must also be clean.
2. A new Cylinder-head gasket must be used. The gaskets are ready and sealer is not usually
used. Aligning studs can be installed in two diagonally opposite holes to keep the gasket in place.
3. Cylinder-one bolts must be tightened in the correct sequence and the correct torque. Incorrect
tightening can cause head and block distortion, gasket leakage or bolt failure.
II. Cylinder Block:
The cylinder block is typically made up of several cylinders, according to the type and size of the
engine. The outer section is solid metal and seals off everything inside of it. It is the engine’s
central frame that houses the main parts that help vehicles operating on internal combustion
continue to run. In older vehicles, it was made from a cast iron metal construction. Automobile
manufacturers mainly install cylinder blocks made from aluminum alloy.
Cracks are the most common issues found within engine blocks. These can be caused by heat,
frozen coolant, and stress levels that exceed the block’s strength level. When coolant freezes, it
can cause cracks to the outer surface near the core plugs of the block. Often, cracks in the
cylinder bores, lifter valley, and near the main-bearing webs are the result of too much stress.
Whether the engine ran without coolant or if a water pump has failed, the expansion and flexing
can result in a crack or series of cracks. Other problems include stripped threaded holes,
blockages, and blown cylinder head gasket. A hose might even have holes in it, leaking water
under the engine. Many problems can be seen by the naked eye.
However, it’s critical to have a professional check it out with specialized equipment to rule the
possibilities out. Flexible automotive bore scopes can be used for nondestructive, visual
inspections of the cylinder block and other hard to see places without having to dismantle the
entire vehicle. Automotive technicians frequently use automotive borescopes to check the
molding and interior sections, which reduces the likelihood of a defective engine. These medical
grade optics tools contain an articulating camera situated on the tip of a slender probe.
III. Cylinder Liners:
When doing the liner inspection, following points should be checked:
 Cracks on the surface and near scavenge port openings.
 Sharp edgy surface of scavenge ports.
 Ridge formation at TDC position.
 Mechanical friction wear marks and abrasive wear on the liner surface.
 Dark areas of liner surface - Acidic and cold corrosion.
 Scuffing and scoring marks of liner surface.
 Clover leafing-corrosive wear between the lubricator ports if he cylinder oil cannot neutralize
the acid products of combustion.
 Cracks and damage at lubrication openings.
 Glazing of liner surface (mirror finish)
 Flow of oil from lubrication ports.
 Linear calibration to check the linear ovality and wear.
Cylinder liner has to be gauged at regular intervals as specified in the maintenance manual. The
records of gauging are kept for each cylinder and wear rate is calculated.
The liner has to be cleaned and inspected before the gauging. Generally, while taking the
measurements, the temperature of the liner and micrometer should be same. If the temperature
exceeds then that of the liner or vice versa, then the readings have to be corrected by multiplying
the value with the correction factor and deducting the value obtained from the readings taken.
The reading obtained at the end will be the correct reading.
IV. PISTON AND RINGS:
After removing the piston and rod assembly from the engine, separate the piston and rod. Then
remove the rings from the piston by a special ring tool. Remove the carbon from the piston
surfaces and clean the ring grooves with a clean out tool. Also, clean the oil ring slots or holes.
Inspect carefully the piston for worn, scuffed or scored skirts; and for cracks at the ring lands,
skirts, ring bosses and heads. Check the piston pin bushings for wear. Also, check fit of piston
rings in grooves.
Check the diameter of the piston by taking measurements perpendicular to the piston pin bore at
the sizing point and parallel to the piston pin bore. Compare the sizing point reading with the
measurement of the cylinder diameter. If the cylinder wall is excessively worn, it will require
refinishing, which means that an oversize piston will be required. As a rule, engine
manufacturers supply oversize pistons of the same weight as the standard pistons.
Piston rings are to be checked for tension, scratches and wear. Sometimes, all that is required is
to free up the rings in the ring grooves by cleaning out carbon. New rings are to be installed
depending upon the condition of the cylinder walls. If the walls have some taper but not enough
for re boring, special severe or drastic rings should be used. These rings have greater tension and
more flexible. This enables them to expand and contract as they move up and down in the
cylinder.
The pistons of some engines have an extra piston groove cut at the lower end. When walls wear
tapered, an extra oil control ring can be fitted into this groove to improve oil control.
Piston rings must be fitted to the cylinder and the ring grooves in the piston. The ring should be
first pushed down into the cylinder with a piston; and the ring gap should be checked with a
feeler gauge. If the ring gap is correct, the outside surface of the ring should be inserted into the
proper ring groove in the piston and the ring rolled around in the groove to make sure that the
ring has a free fit around the entire piston circumference. After the rings are installed in the
grooves, fit should again be tested.
This test is made by inserting a feeler gauge between the rings and the side of the groove.
To install the piston in the cylinder, compress as the rings in their grooves so that they will enter
the cylinder. It is done by a piston ring compressor. The compressor clamps around the rings,
compressing them into the groove so that the piston can be pushed into the cylinder. Care should
be taken to install the piston facing in the right direction. Many pistons have a notch or other
marking that must face to the front of the engine.
V. Crankshaft:
The crankshaft is one of the most highly stressed engine components. The stress increases four
times as the engine speed doubles. The crankshaft is rejected if there is any sign of a crack,
because a cracked crankshaft may break if continues in service.
Crankshaft cracks in high production passenger car engines can be detected with a close visual
inspection. High-rpm racing crankshafts should be checked with Magna flux to detect any
minute crack that may lead to failure.
A crankshaft-bearing journal
Bearing journal scoring, one of the most common crankshaft defects appears as scratches
around the journal circumference, generally near the center of the journal. Dirt and grit
carried in the oil enter between the journal and bearing. If these particles are large enough to get
through the oil clearance, they partially embed in the bearing and scratch the journal. Dirt can
also be left on the journal during assembly. The most important factor for the maximum journal
life is the continuous supply of clean lubricating oil.
Crankshaft journals can have nicks or pits in them. Nicks are formed by carelessness when the
journal is bumped with another part while exposed or while being assembled.
Pits can be caused by corrosion.
A bent crankshaft can be detected by a dial gauge by supporting the end main bearing journals in
V-blocks. A dial gauge installed on the middle-bearing journal shows run-out as the crankshaft is
turned. In the absence of V-blocks, the crankshaft can be supported by the two upper half end
bearings in the block and the other bearing shells are removed.
A dial gauge is used in the same manner to indicate the shaft bend or run-out. Journals wear out-
of-round and become tapered. Out-of-round and taper are measured using micrometer by taking
measurements at a number of different locations on each journal. Rough journals and slight
bends can be rectified by grinding the journals on true centers. Forged shafts with excess bend
should be straightened before grinding.
VI. Connecting rod:
Connecting Rod Side Clearance Measurement
The side clearance of the connecting rod is measured with a feeler gauge. If the side clearance
exceeds the manufacturer’s specifications, the journal width should be measured to find out the
cause of the excessive clearance. The Plastic gauge method of measurement can be used and the
procedure is the similar to the measurement of connecting rod bearing clearance. Connecting rod
reconditioning involves the following two steps:
(i) Reduce the rod bore size to slightly below its standard size.
(ii) Remove just enough material from the rod bore to bring it back to the original standard size.
Connecting rod reconditioning restores the bore to its original shape with the specified accuracy
of roughness, straightness, surface finish, ad bore size. Precision grinding of the rod and cap at
the parting lines reduces the rod bore slightly.
The micrometer dial control on the rod-and –cap grinder is used to accurately control. metal
removal. Equal amounts of metal are removed from both sides of the parting surfaces. The
amount of metal removed from the cap and the rod is usually about 0.0508 mm. The grinding
operation does not increase the center-to-center distance between the rod pin hold and the bore,
and also it does not cause interference between the top of the piston and the valves.
Once the grinding operation is over, the cap should be assembled on the rod and the bolts are
torqued to the specified values holding the rod is an assembly fixture. The rod bore is honed back
to its original size on a precision honing machine, which automatically centers the rod bore. The
honing machine only removes metal from the smaller diameter of the bore, so that very little or
no metal is removed in the parting line area.
Connecting Rod Alignment
Connecting rod alignment is checked by a rod aligner. Rod alignment may be checked with the
piston assembled to the connecting rod. When the connecting rod installed on the aligner, the
aligner V-block edges should make complete contact with the aligner precision ground surface as
the piston is moved back and forth. If the rod is bent or twisted, the V-block edges do not make
complete contact with the prevision ground surface. A slightly bent or twisted rod can be
straightened with the bending bar supplied with the aligner.
VII. Valves:
Valve service includes the following functions:
1. Adjusting valve-tappet clearances (called adjusting valve lash).
2. Grinding valves and valve seats.
3. Installing new set inserts.
4. Cleaning or replacing guides.
5. Timing the valve.
6. Servicing the camshaft bearing.
7. Checking valve springs.
8. Turning the engine.

The valve-tappet clearance is measured by a feeler gauge. A two-step “go, no-go” feeler gauge
of the specified thickness can be used. If the ‘go’ step fits the clearance, the adjustment is
correct. If it is not correct, turn the adjusting screw in or out as necessary to correct it. On some
engines, the measurement is made with the engine cold and not running. The engine is turned
over until the valve lifter is on the low point of the cam; and the clearance is then checked. On
others, the engine is warmed up on idling.
Valves and valve seats are ground to correct size and shape so that the valve may seat properly
on the seat. For effective valve seating and sealing, the valve face must be concentric with the
valve stem; and the valve guide must be concentric with the valve face. Also, the valve face
angle must match the valve seat angle.
The valve seat insert is replaced if it is badly worn, or has been ground down previously so that
there is no sufficient metal for another grind.
Check the valve guides for wear. Clean, replace or ream for large guides as necessary. A wire
brush or adjustable blade cleaner can be used to clean the guide. If the guide is worn, it should be
replaced.
The timing gears or sprocket and chain are marked to establish the proper positions and correct
valve timing. Some engines have another marking system for checking valve timing. This
marking is on the flywheel or vibration damper, near the ignition timing markings.
Valve springs are tested for proper tension and for squareness. Spring tension is tested by
special fixture. The pressure required to compress the spring to the proper length is measured in
this test.
For testing the squareness of the spring, stand the spring, closed coil end down, next to a surface
plate. It should be rotated to see if the top coil moves away from the square more than 2 mm. If
the spring is more than 2 mm out of square, of if it does not have the proper tension at the
specified length, it should be replaced.
Servicing Valves
After removing the valve from the engine, clean the carbon deposits from it with a wir
brush or buffing wheel. Valve stem should be cleaned with a fine abrasive cloth. To d
this, clamp the valve in the soft jaws of a vise, wrap the abrasive cloth around the stem
and pull it back and forth. This can also be done on a lathe. Rotate the valve in a lath
hold the abrasive cloth wrapped partly around the stem. While cleaning the valve
examine it. If it is badly fitted, cracked, burned, worn or bent, replace it. After the valve
is cleaned, inspect the specific parts of the valve, as shown in.
Tuning of Engine:
Definition of tune up: Tune-up is the process of making checks and minor adjustment to
improve the operation of the engine.
Tune up is also preventive maintenance. Troubles can be caught early and prevented by checking
out the engine before it actually fails.
Tune-up procedure
The tune-up procedure restores drivability, power, performance and economy that have been lost
through wear, corrosion and deterioration of engine parts. These changes take place gradually in
many parts during normal car operation. A typical tuning procedure given below.
 Air intake and exhaust system
(i)Clean out pre cleaner
(ii) Remove and clean air cleaner
(iii) Swab out inlet pipe in air cleaner body
(iv) Inspect exhaust system and muffler
(v) Check crankcase ventilating system for restrictions.
 Basic engine
(i)Recheck air intake for restrictions.
(ii)Check radiator for air bubbles or oil indicating compression or oil leaks.
(iii)Cylinder head gasket leakage.
(iv)Retighten cylinder head cap screws
(v) Adjust valve clearance.
(vi) Check compression pressure in each cylinder.

Tuning procedure: A typical tuning or tune up procedure is given below, which includes visual
and mechanical checks and also checks with instruments. Some of the checks are not related to
the engine but should be done for the safety purpose.
1. Loose spark plugs, start engine to blowout carbon and dirt, shut off engine and remove plugs.
2. Test engine compression.
3. If the compression ratio is not up to specifications, perform engine services that will eliminate
the trouble. If the compression is all right, re-install the spark plugs.
4. Remove distributor cap, clean it, and visually check it for carbon tracks, chips and corroded
terminals. Replace it if it is not in good condition.
5. Clean and inspect rotor and replace it if it is not in good condition.
6. Inspect the high tension leads, and if they have cracked, or frayed insulation or wires or
damaged, replace them.
7. Check distributor centrifugal advance.
8. Test the vacuum advance.
9. Check distributor contact points and clean them. Read just the point opening.
10. Re-install distributor cap and replace wiring.
11. Check battery state of change, water and hold down clamps.
12. Check battery cables for damage, corrosion and loose connections and make necessary
corrections.
13. If the battery has been overcharged or undercharged, check the alternator and regulator.
14. Check drive belts and tighten or replace them as required.
15. Check the condition of the manifold heat control valve, making sure that it is free to operate.
16. Check the intake manifold bolts for tightness to proper specifications. Even a slight leak will
reduce engine performance.
17. Check fuel lines for tight connections and kinks, beads or leaks.
18. Check the cooling system for leaks, weak or collapsed hoses, correct coolant level and anti-
freeze protection.
19. Check and adjust the accelerator linkage, if necessary.
20. Check crankcase ventilation system.
21. Check intake manifold and air injection system.
22. Remove carburetor, air cleaner, and check choke valve to make sure “Choke is working
normally”. Clean or replace air filter element, if necessary.
23. Check and adjust contact point dwell and ignition timing.
24. Adjust idle speed and mixture to specifications.
25. Check the doorjamb sticker to see if lubrication is required.
26. Check the working of lights and horn. Check headlight adjustment.
27. Check steering system for looseness and ease of action.
28. Check suspension system and shock absorbers for looseness, excessive play and wear.
29. Check front wheels and ball joints for excessive wear or loose bearings.
30. Other tests that can be done included cylinder balance test to find a weak cylinder, cranking
motor operation, conditions of ignition coil and condenser, tightness of mounting bolts, oil level
in the engine, air pressure in tires, condition of tires and efficiency of the brakes.

Fuel Feed System:

1. Check fuel lines for leaks or restrictions.
2. Clean fuel pump sediments bowl
3. Test fuel pump pressure
4. Clean and check carburetor
5. Service diesel fuel filters
6. Check diesel injection pump
7. Check and clean injector
8. Bleed diesel fuel system
9. Check diesel injection pump timing.
Carburetor:
Carburetor is the most important item in the fuel feed system of spark ignition engines. It
is connected between the fuel filter and the induction manifold. It supplies the air-fuel
mixture of varying proportions to suit engine operating conditions. The fuel enters the
float chamber of the carburetor. The air enters the air horn of the carburetor. Mixing of
the fuel and air take place when both pass through the venture in the mixing chamber of
the carburetor. This air-fuel mixture then goes to the intake manifold.
Maintenance of Carburetor
The carburetor should be cleaned time to time in order to avoid blocking of the jests and
passages. For this purpose, it is preferable to use compressed air. Never use wire for
cleaning the jets. Also check periodically for tightness of flange securing nuts, starter
fixing screws, main jet, starter jet and pilot jet. Make sure that there is no side play in the
taaahrottle spindle.
Service Points:
Make sure that:
1. Gasket between the fixing flanges is not damaged.
2. Spraying nozzle is not pulled out, it is press fitted.
3. Float toggle is not in an inverted position.
4. Pilot air bleed is not blocked.
5. The float is not damaged.
6. Volume control screw taper is not damaged.
7. The petrol level is not changed.
8. Jets and passages are not leaking, sticking or worn.
9. Needle valve is not leaking, sticking or worn.
10. Float chamber vent is not blocked.
11. Acceleration pump diaphragm is not porous or assembled incorrectly.
12. The loose glass ball positioned under the pump injector is not sticking or lost.
13. Injector tube is not pulled out of the injector assembly.
14. Injector is blocked.
15. Pilot jet seating fully.
16. All jets and needle valve are screwed tightly.
17. All gaskets and washers are placed properly. They are not leaking.
18. Filter is cleaned properly every 800 km.
19. Acceleration pump is adjusted and cleaned.
20. Gaskets are changed while opening the carburetor.
Nozzle Cleaning:
Remove the injector from the cylinder and clean the carbon deposits, if any, by washing them
thoroughly in petrol. Remove the nozzle and dip it in the clean fuel of and the nozzle needle too.
After cleaning the needle, insert into the nozzle body.
Note: Nozzle needle and body are lapped together and must not be exchanged.
Initial Test:
1. Visual test (Only on used nozzle): After cleaning, used nozzle should be visually inspected.
Look on nozzle needle for damaged or rough needle seat, for worn or damaged or carboned seat
and for out of round of needle hole.
2. Slide test: After visual test all nozzle should be given slides test.
Fist dip the nozzle needle in clean fuel oil and insert into the nozzle body. Holding the body
almost vertically, pull up the needle by one third of its engaged length. When released, the
needle should slide down by its own weight.
Testing with Nozzle tester:
The following is tested on the nozzle tester:
(a) Opening pressure.
(b) Leakage.
(c) Chattering characteristics and spray pattern.
Use clean test oil for testing. It is very important that the oil is clean. The nozzles are adjusted
by their respective nozzle holders.
When clamping the nozzle into nozzle holder take care that the sealing surface is clean and
undamaged. Place nozzle on sealing surface of nozzle holder, tighten cap nut first by hand and
then with a well-fitting wrench to torque 6-8 kg-m.
Connects nozzle holder with its respective delivery pipe to the outfit. To test for nozzle jamming,
press the hand lever of the nozzle tester down vigorously a few times (approximately 6-8
downward movements per second) with pressure gauge bypass. With nozzle moving properly,
with nozzle should chatter with shrill whistling buzz.
Opening pressure: The opening pressure is specified under description and operation for
individual engine and should be adjusted correspondingly. With the pressure gauge open to
pressure slowly depress hand lever until the nozzle ejects with slight chattering. Take reading on
the pressure gauge, if this pressure differs from the specified opening pressure, it is necessary to
change total shim thickness.
Caution: When the pressure gauge is open to pressure, increase and decrease pressure slowly
otherwise the gauge may be damaged.
Leakage test: Operate hand lever of the nozzle tester until pointer on the pressure gauge
indicates 20 kg/cm2 (285 p.s.i.) below the specified opening pressure.
The nozzle considered leak-proof if no drop of fuel emerges out at the end of the nozzle within
10 seconds.
Chatter test and spray pattern. For these tests, it is absolutely necessary that the pressure
gauge be by passed.
Testing speed range: 1stroke is in approx.. 0.2 to 2 sec (5 to ½ downward movements per sec.)
Chatter test: These types of nozzles chatter in the entire range of attainable lever
velocity (lowest test velocity: One downward movement per second). Single non chattering in
intermediate range is of no significance.
Spray pattern: At low test velocity, atomization is course. In the non-chattering ranges, non-
atomized streams are formed.
Phase angle test:
The object of this test to check interval between successive injections, so that for a six cylinder
pump the intervals will be 60 and for a four-cylinder pump 90
1. The rack is set to a position stated by manufactures, using a pump rack setting device, the
delivery valve and spring are removed from number one element and the test pipe connected to
this element.
2. If necessary the tappet adjusting screw, tappet pads, or phasing shims should be altered to
provide a small clearance usually 0.6-1 mm between the top face of the plunger and the base of
the delivery valve seat. This is clearance may be measured with a dial gauge or by a special tool.
3. The pump camshaft is rotated by hand until number one element is at the bottom of its stoke, a
valve on the test bench is opened to allow fuel to flow out of the test pipe, this is long spill.
4. Continued rotation of the camshaft will eventually cause the flow from the rest pipe to cease,
indicating the point at which both inlet and spill ports are closed and delivery is about to
commence i.e. end of long spill.
5. The position of the camshaft when this occurs can be read from a pointer and 360 scale on the
test machine.
6. This process should be repeated several times to verify the reading. Care must be taken not to
confuse end of long spill and end of short spill. Which occurs when the plunger is moving down
from T.D. position?
7. Number one valve and spring should be replaced and the above procedure repeated in the
firing sequence of the engine.
8. It is necessary the tapped adjusting screw, tapped pads, or phasing shims should be corrected
until the timing of injection to each cylinder is within the prescribed tolerance typical value
being ±½ of camshaft rotation. If adjustment has to be made, recheck the clearance of the
plungers at the top of their respective strokes.
It is essential, therefore, during adjustment of the pump, to ensure that the subsequent pumping
elements commence to inject at exactly the correct interval in the
camshaft degree after No.1 element. Assuming that the injection sequence of a 6-cyliner
pump is 1, 5, 3, 6, 2, 4, and then No.5 element must commence injection 60o after No.
(the pump work at half engine speed) and No. 3 at the same interval after No. 5 and so on. The
interval on all types of pump is 360o camshaft angle divided by the number of elements in the
pump. This adjustment for correct timing interval is known as “phasing” or adjusting the phase
angle of the pump.
Calibration:
Calibration of the pump should be carried after the phase angle test. This consists of adjusting
each element to deliver an equal quantity of fuel to the cylinders. The quantity delivered per
stroke depends upon the manufacturer’s requirement. As the elements of the fuel pump deliver
the fuel at various speeds and for different control-rod position. Fuel injection pump calibrated is
as under.
1. Mount and couple the injection pump with the pump calibrating machine.
2. Set the control rod to the mid position or stay at 5 mm rack position.
3. Make all the connections of fuel pipes at inlet and outlet of pump elements, ensuring them
leak-proof.
4. Operate the machine and run the pump at 600 rpm and bleed the system by opening the air
vent cock.
5. The trip plate is arranged in its position; allow the fuel to enter the glass tubes at 600 rpm and
for 200 stocks. Then take the readings of fuel delivered into the glass tubes.
6. Compare these readings with the manufacturer’s chart values for the 5 mm rack position.
7. If there are variation in these readings, then adjust the pump elements to bring the reading as
close as possible to the given chart. This adjustment can be done by slacking the clamping screw
and moving the control sleeve in desired direction and then again tightening the clamping screw.
This adjustment should be corrected up to ±2.5% if fuel delivery.
8. Repeat the experiment at other speeds within the maximum range and check the collection of
fuel at each speed. If there is any variation, the pump has to be serviced to put in normal working
condition.
Injector Testing:
 Coil Test-Specific current supplied measures voltage drop.
 Injector Balance- Inj. Energized for a precise time frame, record fuel pressure drop.
 Noid lights.
 Simple test light that plugs into injector connector.
 Light flashes with each electrical pulse.
Injector Cleaning:
 Periodic cleaning removes varnish & other deposits.
 Pressurized canister dispenses cleaning solution.
 Must disconnect fuel pump!
Sensors Used In Multipoint Fuel System:
Typical sensors for multi-point FUEL system include:
a. An exhaust gas or oxygen sensor (Lambda sensor)
Oxygen sensor measure the oxygen level in engine as a means of checking combustion
efficiency. Oxygen sensor voltage output vary with change in the content of the exhaust. Increase
in oxygen makes the sensor output voltage to decrease and a decrease oxygen content causes
increased sensor output. Sensor then sends data to the computer. The computer then alters the
opening and closing of injector to maintain a correct air-fuel ratio for maximum efficiency.
b. A crankshaft position sensor and distributor rpm sensor
Crankshaft position sensor or distribution rpm sensor is used to detect the engine speed and
cylinder identification. The sensor consists of magnet and coil. It is mounted on oil pan with
specified air gap between the sensor core end and crankshaft timing belt pulley tooth. This sensor
allows the computer to change injector opening with changes in engine rpm. Higher engine
speeds generally require more fuel. Lower engine speeds require less fuel. This data is used by
the computer to alter the fuel mixture.
c. Vehicle speed sensor
The vehicle speed sensor, located on the transmission gearbox or speedometer, generates a signal
in proportion to the vehicle speed. Receiving this signal, the speedometer uses it for operation of
its indicator and also converts it into to the ON/OFF signal by doubling the cycle. This signal is
sent to ECM where it is used as one of the signals to control various devices.
Lubrication System Service:
Engine Lubricating Troubles
It may be due to
 Failure of oil pump
 Clogged oil lines and oil passages
 Contaminated oil
Maintenance of Lubricating System
 Maintaining Proper oil level
 Choose proper grade of oil.
 By keeping the breather clean in the sump.
Oil Filter:
Oil filter is used in the engine lubricating system of most of the motor vehicles to filter out the
dirt or grit particles from the oil.
The oil filter systems are of the two types:
1. By-pass system
2. Full flow system
In by-pass system, the whole of the oil does not pass through the filter at the same time, but some
of the oil without being filtered goes to the bearings. Remaining oil passes through the filter and
then goes to bearings. When the engine is run continuously for a long period, the whole oil is,
however, filtered. In full flow system, the whole oil passes first through the filter and then goes
to the bearings. If the filter is clogged due to any reason, the system fails completely and
bearings would be starved.
The different types of oil filters used in automotive engines are as follows:
1. Cartridge type
2. Edge type
3. Centrifugal type
Oil Pump:
Oil pump is generally located inside the crankcase below the oil level. The function of the oil
pump is to supply oil under pressure to the various engine parts to be lubricated.
The different types of the oil pumps used for engine lubrication are as follows:
1. Gear pump
2. Rotor pump
3. Plunger pump
4. Vane pump
High Oil Consumption:
The oil consumption may be high due to the following reasons:
1. Loose bearing.
2. Tapered or out-of-round cylinders.
3. Excessive clearance in the intake valve guides.
4. Worm piston rings.
5. Broken or improperly installed oil pan, valve cover, timing gear over gaskets.
6. Worn oil seats at front or rear main bearings.
7. Loose connections in oil filter lines.
8. Worn rear camshaft oil seal.
9. Excessive oil pressure.
10. Clogged oil breather.
11. Clogged oil return from the distributor.
12. Stuck positive crankcase ventilation regulator valve.
13. Cylinder distortion due to improper tightening of the cylinder head nuts.
14. Leaky fuel pump vacuum booster diaphragm which sucks oil from the crankcase.
15. Excessive clearance in the intake valve guides.
16. High speed and high temperature, which reduce oil viscosity. More oil flows and more oil
leaks and more oil burns.
External oil leakage:
It is detected as darkened oil wet area on or around the engine. Oil may also be found in small
puddles under the vehicle. Leaking gaskets or seals are usually the source of external engine oil
leakage.
Internal oil leakage-shows up as blue smoke exiting the exhaust system of the vehicle. For
example, if the engine piston rings and cylinders are badly worn, oil can enter the combustion
chambers and will be burned during combustion.
Note: Do not confuse black smoke (excess fuel in the cylinder) and white smoke (water leakage
into the engine cylinder) with blue smoke caused by engine oil.

Low Oil Pressure:

For proper lubrication of the engine parts, the oil pump should supply the oil at the required
pressure. If the oil pressure is too low, as indicated by the oil pressure gauge, the vehicle should
be stopped and fault should be found out, otherwise the lack of lubricating oil due to the too low
pressure will cause any serious damage. The oil pressure may be low due to any one of the
following reasons:
1. Less oil in the oil pan.
2. Loose connection in the oil lines.
3. Faulty pressure gauge giving incorrect reading.
4. Excessive clearance in the bearing causing rapid oil leakage from the bearing ends.
5. Too weak relief valve spring.

Clutch Maintenance:
The clutch must be properly maintained and correctly operated to obtain its normal life
and satisfactory performance. There are two conditions which shorten clutch life:
1. Continuous operation of the clutch release bearings.
2. Clutch slippage.
Cleaning and inspection
(i) Now clean the dismantled parts of the clutch with kerosene.
(ii) Inspect the clutch facing for wear. In case it is worn-out up to the rivets heads, replace with
new one.
(iii) Inspect the cushioning and torsion springs on the clutch plate. In case they are found to be
cracked or weak, complete plate has to be replaced.
(iv) Check the pressure springs for stiffness. If variation in case of a particular spring from the
original value is more than the allowable, the same should be replaced.
(v) Clean and grease the thrown out bearing. Now hold the inner race and try to rotate the outer
race keeping it under pressure. It the rotation is not uniform the bearing needs replacement.
(vi) Check he pressure plate; it should have a smooth plane surface. In case it is distorted by
more than 0.3 mm, or is badly scored, replace it.
Adjustment Of Clutch:
Although the clutch is fitted and set very accurately on the initial assembly of the vehicle,
however, it requires some adjustments after a considerable time of use due to the wear of the
fraction surfaces. Usually the following four adjustments are made on most of the clutches, three
of which can be made without removing the clutch from the care and the forth after the clutch
assembly has been removed:
1. Floor board clearance adjustment: This adjustment is required to prevent the pedal arm
from resting against the floor board when the clutch is engaged. This adjustment is made with
the help of a screw located near the lower end of the clutch pedal.
2. Clutch pedal travel adjustment: This adjustment is required to ensure complete clutch
disengagement when the clutch is thrown out. This adjustment is made by raising or lowering the
pedal assembly upper stop in the suspended clutch pedal.
3. Free adjustment play: This adjustment is required to keep a specified amount of free play in
the pedal after the clutch has been engaged. This adjustment is generally made by changing the
length of one rod located somewhere in the clutch linkage. It should be made only after the
correct floor board clearance or clutch pedal travel has been made.
4. Clutch release lever adjustment: This adjustment is made only after removing the clutch
from the vehicle. Also, this adjustment should be made every time the clutch is removed from
the vehicle. For making this adjustment to factory specification, a clutch rebuilding machine
equipped with a dial gauge or a gauge plate is used.
Troubles, Causes and Remedies Of Clutch:
Gearbox Maintenance:
Gearboxes are an essential part of so many pieces of machinery. If you want to keep
your gearbox functioning at its optimal performance, then regular maintenance should be
done. The beat way to maintain your gearbox is to check it regularly to determine
potential failures and fix them before they happen. This will keep you from those
surprise breakdowns at the most inconvenient times.
To keep your gearbox functioning at it best and for a longer time, here are some key
maintenance tips to consider.
 Drain gearbox fluid
 Inspect the fluid for evidence of sludge
 Fill the gearbox to the recommended level with new fluid of the correct type and
viscosity.
 Inspect fit of plug and drain plug

 Check for leaks and wear on seals

 Check shift lever bushes
 Check clutch operation
 Test to check working of serviced gearbox.
Troubles, Causes and Remedies Of Gearbox:
Measuring Ring Gear Runout:
1. Mount a dial indicator on the carrier assembly.
2. With the stem of the dial indicator on the ring gear, note the highest and lowest readings.
3. The difference between the two readings is the ring gear run out.
Checking Ring and Pinion Backlash:
 Mount the dial indicator base firmly on the axle housing
 Place the dial indicator against the face of a ring gear tooth
 Move the ring gear back and forth and read needle movement
 Take readings at several points around the gear.
Gear Tooth Pattern Nomenclature:
 “Drive” –The convex side of the tooth
 “Goat”-The concave side of the tooth.
Pinion Bearing Preload:
 Check the pinion bearing preload using an inch-pound torque wrench
 Tightening the pinion nut crushes the collapsible spacer to set the preload.
 Tighten the nut in small increments, checking preload after each phase
 Take care not to over tighten the nut
When noise and vibration occur regardless of road speed, the cause could be damaged or worn
universal or slip yokes, loose flange nuts, bent or distorted flanges or yokes which cause high
propeller shaft runout, and high bearing friction. The slip yoke or universal joint bearing may be
seized, the propeller shaft could be bent or damaged, or road tar may be sticking to the shaft. It is
also possible that the balance weight could have broken off the propeller shaft tube. Any of the
above could cause an unbalanced condition.
Propeller Shaft Trouble Diagnosis:
1. Turning Issue: The most obvious symptom of a bad driveshaft is when you have trouble
turning your vehicle. Your wheels won’t receive the proper amount of torque due to a U-joint
issue at the end of the driveshaft, so making turns will be very difficult due to the additional
resistance.
Once you confirm it’s the driveshaft at fault, you need to get it replaced quickly or risk an
accident due to not being able to control the vehicle.
2. Squeaking Noise: If there is a squeaking sound present that will just not to away, then you
may have problems with the driveshaft. This could be due to worn out internal components such
as bushings or bearings within the shaft or U-joint or possibly an imbalance in the shaft. Usually
the noise increases as you to faster
3. U-Joint Rotation Issues: Your driveshaft has a U-joint which rotates at a steady pace. If the
rotation fails or speeds up too quickly, then it will cause issues with your driveshaft. Perhaps you
have a bad U-joint or your bearings have rust on the cap seals. This may require you to replace
your entire driveshaft if the damage is too significant.
4. Clunking Sound: A failing driveshaft could cause clunking sounds to be heard as you step on
the gas pedal or drive in reverse. These may be in addition to the squeaking sounds that you
normally hear all the time. At this point, you should feel more than motivated to want to replace
your shaft before some real damage occurs.
5. Vibrations: When you have a worn ut driveshaft, it may cause vibrations to come from
underneath the vehicle which can be felt through the steering wheel or floor board. These
vibrations coupled with another symptom should be a clear sign that your shaft needs to be
replaced.
In most of these cases, the shaft may have bushings which are worn out. Remember that the shaft
is held in place by the bushings. If the bushings are loose, damaged, or worn out, then your shaft
will vibrate because of it. Then it could lean to your shaft getting damaged.
6. Shuddering while Accelerating: If you experience shuddering or shaking when attempting to
accelerate from a stop or low speed, you may have a worn U-joint or center bearing inside the
driveshaft. This will usually be accompanied by strange noises as well.
Differential Trouble Diagnosis:
The first sign of differential trouble is usually noise.
1. Humming:
 A humming noise is often due to incorrect internal adjustment of drive pinion or the ring gear.
 Incorrect adjustment causes rapid tooth wear or even failure of differential.
This humming noise will take on a growling noise as wear progresses.
2. Noise Or Acceleration:
 Noise from differential is louder when the care is accelerating since there is heavy contact on
the ends of the gear teeth.
 Noise is louder when the car is coasting since there is heavy toe contact and both these
conditions must be corrected.
3. Noise On Curves:
 If the noise is heard only when the car is going around a curve, the trouble is inside the
differential case.
 Pinion gears tight on the pinion shaft, damaged gears or pinions, too much backlash between
gears could be cause for this problem.
 When the care turns along a curve, the parts inside the differential case more relative to each
other.
4. Limited-Slip Differential:
 The limited slip differential requires a special type of lubricant. The wrong lubricant can cause
clutch surfaces to grab. This may produce chattering noise during a turn.
 The remedy is to drain the old lubricant and fill specified lubricant designed for limited-slip
differential. In such cases wheel spin can also occur. Even though differential is in good
condition.

Wheel Cylinder (Or Slave Cylinder):

Wheel cylinder is the second important component of the hydraulic brake system. A typical
double piston wheel cylinder consists of two pistons which can move in opposite directions by
the fluid pressure. It is rigidly mounted on the brake shield.
Brake Drums:
Brake drums are thin cylindrical members whose outside ends are closed and the inside
open to admit the brake shoes. All brake drums were made in the form of steel pressings.
However, this type of drum not only become scored but also gave rise to brake squeaks
due to vibrations of the metal.
Disc Brake:
The motor vehicles are now being fitted with disc brakes instead of the conventional type drum
brakes which are generally used on some American cars. A disc brake consists of a rotating disc
and two friction pads which are actuated by four hydraulic wheel pistons contained in two halves
of an assembly called a caliper.
The chief advantage of the disc brakes is their resistance to fading, since the disc remains cool
under repeated severe brake applications. Also, pad wear adjustment is automatic, renewal of the
pad is quick and easy. The condition of the pad wear can be checked without dismantling the
brake system.
Brake Linings:
The brake linings are either of solid woven type or molded type. The asbestos base nonmetallic
linings have an average co-efficient of friction of 0.4 up to about 260oC. Their maximum
temperature resistance is about 350oC. Zinc wire lining have better resistance to wear.
Adjustment Of Hydraulic Brakes:
Brake Clearance:
At the time of operation of brakes, wear and tear of the lining takes place. Hence, the clearance
provided between the lining and the drum in the initial stage increases, thus necessitating
adjustment. The adjustment is made at the toe and heel of the shoe. It is because of this reason
that when there is enough clearance at the toe and heel, there will be sufficient clearance at other
points. In the case of two shoe brakes, the clearance provided between the lining and the drum
lies between 0.250 mm and 0.375 mm. Even some of the manufacturers specify as low clearance
as 0.150 mm. The small clearance has the advantage of giving larger ratio of pedal movement to
brake-shoe radial movement, although it does increase the chance of making the brakes self-
locking.
Brake Pedal Travel:
The travel of the brake pedal during the process of braking can be divided into three parts. The
first part is represented by the distance of 3 to 6 mm which is required to take up the clearance
between the piston of master cylinder and the piston rod when in released position. The second
part is represented by the distance of 16 to 19 mm which is required to cover up the pass port of
the master cylinder. The third and final part is required to move the brake shoe from the released
position to the applied position. This is of the order of 25 mm. The total pedal travel this way
works out between 44 and 50mm. If the brake clearance is 0.250 mm, the ratio between pedal
travel and brake shoe radial travel will be100:1. Generally, the pedal is kept away from the floor
board by a distance of 15 cm which is the total pedal travel available. The difference between 15
cm and 44 mm to 50 mm is called the pedal reserve. This reserve is kept to take care of lining
wear and also temperature rise during operation.
Parking And Emergency Brake:
In most passenger cars, the mechanical brakes operated by hand or foot are used for parking and
emergency brakes. These brakes either act on the rear wheels or are attached to the transmission
or to propeller shaft. The brake lever is mounted under the instrument panel to the left of the
driver. When the brake is applied, the lever is locked in place by a ratchet. For releasing the
brakes, different methods are used. Some hand brakes are released by squeezing the level and
control finger together, others are released by tuning the lever and pushing it down. The foot
pedal types are released by special release levers. In rear wheel type parking brake, a cable or
pull rod usually connects the parking or emergency lever to an idler lever which is mounted on a
cross member of the frame. Theidler lever pulled forward against the action of the pullback
spring. The two cables engaging the rear wheel brakes are also pulled when the brake is applied.
Transmission or propeller shaft parking brakes are of three types:
1. External contracting type.
2. Internal expanding type.
3. Disc type.
All these types of brakes operate to lock the transmission main shaft or the propeller shaft when
the mechanical brake is applied. As the rear wheels are connected to the propeller shaft through
the axle shaft, differential and universal joint, the rear wheels are prevented from coming when
the propeller shaft is locked.
Adjustments Of Brakes:
There should be at least 12.7 mm, or as recommended by the company, free pedal travel before
the braking action takes place.
Brake adjustment procedure is as follows:
1. Raise the vehicle until the wheels are off the floor.
2. With a wrench loosen the lock nut for the forward brake shoe and hold it.
3. With another wrench turn the eccentric towards the front of the vehicle until the brake shoe
strike the drum.
4. While turning the wheel with one hand, release eccentric until the wheel turns freely.
5. Hold the eccentric in position and fasten the lock nut.
6. Repeat this operation to adjust the reverse shoe, but only turn the eccentric towards the back of
the vehicle.
7. Do this on all four brakes. Check the fluid level in the master cylinder.
Bleeding Of Hydraulic Brakes:
 The process of removing the brake fluid from the hydraulic pipe line and cylinder is known as
bleeding.
 It is necessary whenever any part of the system is disconnected (or) fluid n the supply tank
exceeds the limit.
 Whenever seats are worn out it is possible for air to enter into the wheel cylinder without any
sign of leakage causing spongy pedal and it is the usual indication of air in the system.
 Never, under any circumstances use the fluid which has been bled from the
system to top up the supply tank because it may be aerated, have too much moisture content (or)
be contaminated.
Bleeding Procedure:
Before starting to bleed, follow the essential steps:
 Before commencing bleeding at each bleed screw, remove the dust cover and clean thoroughly.
If the master cylinder is fitted with bleeding screw, bleed the master cylinder first.
 Attach the bleed tube to wheel cylinder and then from the master cylinder to the glass jar
containing brake fluid.
 Open the bleed screw to 3/4th of a turn sufficient to the brake fluid to flow freely.
Depress the foot pedal slowly throughout full stroke of the pedal and allow it to return to its
position slowly.
 There would be an interval of 3 to 4 seconds before making the next stroke.
 Repeat this action until the air bubbles seizes and then close the bleed screw immediately.
 While the pedal is thus held, securely tighten the bleed screw and remove the tube. Replace the
dust cover on the bleed screw. Repeat the same procedure on all the wheel cylinders.
 After the bleeding operation, top up the master cylinder reservoir with appropriate brake fluid
to a level of 3/4th the reservoir and replace the filler cap.
Troubles, Causes and Remedies In Brake System:
METAL JOINING PROCESSES
Metal Joining is defined as joining of two metal parts either temporarily or permanently with or without
the application of heat or pressure.
1.  WELDING- PERMANENT JOINT
2. BRAZING -PERMANENT JOINT
3. SOLDERING -PERMANENT JOINT
4. ADHESIVE BONDING -SEMI-PERMANENT
5. MECHANICAL ASSEMBLY
a)  BOLT & SCREW: NON-PERMANENT
b)  RIVETING: PERMANENT
c)  CLAMPING: NON-PERMANENT
Riveting
Riveting Its is metal joining Process in which the two metallic parts are joined by the use of rivets. In this
process, the
metallic parts to be joined do not undergo any change in their physical structure or atomic structure.
However Force is
required for riveting. Riveting is used widely in automobile and aerospace industry and in many other
applications
where we require permanent/semi-permanent bonding and where bolting and welding is not an option.
Mostly done for
low thickness sheet metals and Aluminium
BOLTING:
In this metal joining process, the metallic parts are joined together by means of Bolt/Screw (and/or nut).
This Process is
widely used in assembling of parts are to be joined temporarily or joints which require periodic
maintenance. Two main
types of loads on bolted joints: Tension & Shear Bolting.
WELDING
In this metal joining process the two parts that are to be welded are fused together by application of heat
and pressure
(sometimes).   Permanent Fusion happens between joining metals  . The welding processes depends on
many factors
depending on the type of welding process:   Oxy-acetylene welding  , SMAW   ,GMAW,   GTAW , 
FCAW; SAW;
ESW; ERW etc…. Welding
Welding is a process of permanently joining materials. Welding joins of different metals/alloys with a
number of
processes, in which heat is supplied either electrically or by means of a torch. Welding is done by
application of heat or
both heat and pressure. The most essential requirements is Heat. Pressure may be employed, but this is
not in many
processes essential. The welding process evolves applying heat to the work piece. The heat applied should
be such that
the work piece should melt, i.e. the temperature at which welding is done, should be more than the
melting point of the
work piece to be welded.
Classification Of Welding Processes

Welding process are classified as

1. Gas welding:-

-Air acetylene welding

-Oxy acetylene welding

-Oxy hydrogen welding

-Pressure gas welding

2. Arc welding:-

-Carbon arc welding

-Shielded metal work welding

-Flux cored arc welding

-Submerged arc welding

-TIG(GTAW) welding

-MIG(GMAW) welding

-Plasma arc welding

-Electro slag welding or electro gas welding

3. Resistance welding:-
 -Spot welding

-Seam welding

-Percussion welding

-Flash butt welding

-Resistance butt welding

4. Solid state welding:

-Cold welding

-Diffusion welding

-Explosive welding

-Friction welding

-Hot pressure welding

-Ultrasonic welding

5. Thermo chemical welding:

-Thermit welding

-Atomic hydrogen welding .

6.Radiant energy welding:

-Electron beam welding

-Laser beam welding

According to modern method the welding may be classified as

I. Pressure welding(plastic welding)

II. Non pressure welding(fusion welding)

Pressure welding:- In pressure welding the piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and
then force

together by external pressure. Ex:-Resistance welding, Hot pressure welding, Diffusion welding

Non pressure welding:- In non pressure welding the material at the joint is heated to the molten state
and allowed to solidify. Ex:-Gas welding, Arc welding

Basic Requirements of Welding Processes

1.  The Two Metal (work pieces) should be either in contact with each other or closely placed (concept
of root gap).

2.  The weld surfaces should be free from oxides, paint, oil, dirt, grease etc.
3.  Energy Source, Electrode and Filler Metal rod/ wire.

4.  Shielding: During Welding if the metal is exposed to air directly the Oxygen in air reacts with the
metal to form

oxide which results in poor welding. In order to avoid the shielding gas is used.