M3 Electrical Fundamentals Cat B1 B2 V502 Cut

Aviation Technical Training
Training Fundamentals
Module 3. Electrical Fundamentals
Category B1 & B2 V5.0.2
Release Date: 16/04/2019
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For training purposes and internal use only.

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3.1 Electron Theory
3.1.1 Structure and distribution of electrical charges
3.1 Electron Theory Each electron is negatively charged and each proton is positively charged.
Both particles carry the smallest charge.
3.1.1 Structure and distribution of electrical charges The charge of a single electron is:
e = - 0.1602 x 10-18 C (Coulombs)
3.1.1.1 Atoms
and the charge of a single proton is:
In nature, each body of matter is electrically neutral. Friction can change the
e = + 0.1602 x 10-18 C
neutral state of a body without changing its appearance. The state of charge
can be explained by the composition of matter: Protons and neutrons make up the mass of an atom, whereas electrons have
practically no mass.
There are different particles in an atom:

• Protons
Protons are positively charged particles in the nucleus.
• Neutrons
Neutrons are neutral particles in the nucleus. They ensure that the positively
charged protons do not repel.
• Electrons
Electrons are negatively charged particles travelling on various orbits (shells)
around the atom’s nucleus. To prevent the electrons from moving away
from the nucleus through centrifugal force, they are attracted towards the
positively charged protons.
© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group Page: 1 expert solutions, adding value
3.1 Electron Theory
3.1.1 Structure and distribution of electrical charges
An atom is electrically neutral if the number of protons in the nucleus is equal If there are fewer electrons, the atom’s charge is positive. They are therefore
to the number of electrons orbiting it. The atom then has no electrical charge. positively or negatively charged atoms and are called ions. A charged atom is
said to be ionised.
If there are more electrons orbiting the nucleus than there are protons in the
nucleus, the atom’s charge is negative.
3.1.1.2 Molecules
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together
by chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of
electrical charge.
3.1.1.3 Ions
An ion is an atom or molecule that has a non-zero net electrical charge (its
total number of electrons is not equal to its total number of protons). A cation
is a positively-charged ion, while an anion is negatively charged. Because of
their opposite electric charges, cations and anions attract each other and
readily form ionic compounds, such as salts.
Ions can be created by chemical means, such as the dissolution of a salt
into water, or by physical means, such as passing a direct current through a
conducting solution, which will dissolve the anode via ionization.
3.1 Electron Theory
3.1.2 Molecular structure
3.1.1.4 Compounds
A chemical compound is a chemical substance composed of many identical
molecules (or molecular entities) composed of atoms from more than one
element held together by chemical bonds.
There are four types of compounds, depending on how the constituent atoms
are held together:
• molecules held together by covalent bonds
• ionic compounds held together by ionic bonds
• intermetallic compounds held together by metallic bonds
• certain complexes held together by coordinate covalent bonds
Examples: Copper, aluminium and carbon
3.1.2.1 Conductors
Metals act as a good example to explain the structure of conductors.
In a metallic bond the atoms are close packed and have a crystal lattice.
This high density allows the electrons on the outer layer to separate from their
atoms and to move freely within the atomic structure, i.e. electrons jump from
one (fixed) atom to the next.
The reason for the good conductivity of metal is the high mobility of its
electrons.
Generally, good conductors have less than four electrons in the outer or
valence orbit.
3.1 Electron Theory
3.1.2.2 Semiconductors 3.1.2.3 Insulators

In the molecular structure of semiconductors, several atoms share the Insulators are also known as non-conductors.
electrons on the outer layer in such a way that each atom is provided with In the molecular structure of insulators, electrons are tightly connected to the
eight electrons. This arrangement of atoms with four electrons in the valence atoms/molecules which prevent them from breaking away.
orbit is chemically very stable.
They have more than four electrons in the valence orbit and as there are no
This sharing principle applies only if there are exactly eight electrons in the free electrons, current cannot be conducted.
outer layer, i.e. only atoms of group 14 (e.g. silicon, germanium) can combine
among themselves or atoms of group 13 (gallium) and group 15 (arsenic). Examples: Mica, porcelain
Conductivity is produced by adding other foreign atoms (doping), by heat (in-
crease mobility of electrons) or by light.
Examples: Silicon, germanium
3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction
3.2.1 Static electricity and distribution of electrostatic charges

3.2.1 Static electricity and distribution of electrostatic
charges
Static electricity can be produced by contact, friction or induction. As an
example, a glass rod rubbed with fur becomes negatively charged, but if
rubbed with silk, it becomes positively charged.
When two materials are rubbed together, some electrons from one of the
materials are handed over to the other material. The electrons transferred are
those in the outer layer. They are called free electrons.
When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the glass rod gives up electrons and
becomes positively charged. The source of this charge is friction. The charged
glass rod may be used to charge other substances, such as an uncharged bar.
If used as shown below, some of the rod’s charge can be transferred to the
bar by touching it with the rod. The bar is charged by contact.
The method of charging a metal bar by induction is shown in the image. A

positively charged rod is brought near to the iron bar without touching it. The
electrons of the iron bar are attracted towards the charged rod. Thus, one end
of the bar is charged positively and the other end is charged negatively. The
distribution of charges is not the same in the bar.
3.2.1 Static electricity and distribution of electrostatic charges
When touching the bar with a finger as shown, electrons are drawn off the
finger and into the bar. After removing the finger from the bar and then
removing the rod, the bar is charged negatively due to the excess of electrons.
The bar is charged by induction.
3.2.2 Electrostatic laws of attraction and repulsion
3.2.2 Electrostatic laws of attraction and repulsion

Opposite charges attract (pull towards each other). Like charges repel (push
away from each other). This means that two positively charged things will
repel each other and two negatively charged things will repel each other. One
positively charged thing and one negatively charged thing will attract each
other.
A force field exists around every charged body. The force can be made visible
when charging two pith balls with a rod, as shown below. Like bodies repel
while unlike bodies attract.
3.2.3 Units of charge, Coulomb’s Law
The lines of force extend in all directions from the charged body and force is measured in newtons, charge in coulombs, and distance in metres.
terminate where there is an opposite charge.
3.2.4 Conduction of electricity in solids, liquids, gases and a
vacuum
3.2.4.1 Conduction of electricity in solids

Among solids, metals are good conductors of electricity. There are a vast
number of free electrons available for conduction in metals:
By applying a force, these electrons flow from the negative to the positive
pole.
As the metal is riddled with electrons, the conductor does not need an
initial charge. When an electron enters a conductor, another electron at the
3.2.3 Units of charge, Coulomb’s Law opposite end of the conductor is pushed out. This movement of electrons is
called current, a more detailed explanation of which will be given later in this
Coulomb’s law states that: module.
The magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between The current flowing through an electric light bulb brings the thin helical
two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes filament to white heat, but hardly heats the thicker leads.
of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. If the current remains constant, the same number of electrons per second
flows through a conductor regardless of its cross-sectional area.
The force is along the straight line joining them. If the two charges have the
same sign, the electrostatic force between them is repulsive; if they have
different signs, the force between them is attractive.
When the electromagnetic theory is expressed using the standard SI units,
3.2.4 Conduction of electricity in solids, liquids, gases and a vacuum
In a conductor with a small cross sectional area, the electrons are more closely 3.2.4.2 Conduction of electricity in liquids
packed than in a conductor with a larger cross-sectional area. Therefore,
Chemically, pure water is not a conductor. Tap water consists of hydrogen and
the heating in the small cross-section is higher. If the current is increasingly
oxygen with other substances that may be added or occur naturally in some
compressed in the conductor, electron-ion collisions occur more often and
areas. For example, fluoride, chlorine, nitrates, phosphorus, and calcium.
with higher intensity, hence the heating increases.
A current decomposes water through its components hydrogen and oxygen.
The current per mm2 conductor cross-section is called current density J.
If DC is applied, hydrogen is generated at the negative pole and oxygen at
the positive pole. The hydrogen accounts for two thirds of the gas (high
development of gas) and the oxygen for one third (low development of gas).
The greater the current density, the more heat is produced in a wire or
conductor. The permitted current density in a wire depends on the material
(i.e. copper or aluminium) on its cross-sectional area and on the possible
method of cooling.
In order to prevent a fire hazard, the current density in wiring, in the windings
of coils, transformers and motors must not exceed certain maximum values
for extended periods of time.
Cables must not be heated over 60°C. Therefore, a maximum permitted load
is specified for each given cable cross-section at an ambient temperature of
25°C.
However, by adding acids, bases or salts water becomes a conductor and the
solution decomposes. The decomposition of chemical compounds by passing
an electric current through a liquid is called electrolysis.
The conducting substance is called an electrolyte. Apart from the electrolysis,
this chemical effect of current is also used in electroplating and when charging
batteries.
Chemical Effect of Current: of freely moving bodies, which appear massive and spherical from the
outside.
Anode Cathode
Due to heat, these molecules or atoms (in noble gases) move to and from in
random layers without combining with each other. Under normal conditions,
the major part of the gas atoms enclosed in the bulb are electrically neutral.
The electrons of a few atoms, however, are split up by means of external
energy supply (heat, light, and radioactivity). During this process, freely
moving charge carriers (electrons and positive gas ions) are generated.
The current increases in such a way that it has to be limited with a series
resistance.
Hence, during the process of gas discharge the current arises from electrons
and positive ions.
H2O
= Na-cations = CI-anions
3.2.4.3 Conduction of electricity in gases

The application of gases in the field of electrical engineering can already be
found in filament bulbs with a higher electrical output (> 60 W). In order to
effectively protect the filament from burning, oxidising or vaporising, the glass
bulb is filled with inert gases like nitrogen, argon or krypton. In the case of
high-capacity lamps such as halogen bulbs, halogens like iodine or bromine
are inserted additionally to the other gas fillings in the bulb. The extra fillings
have the effect that vaporised tungsten returns to the hot metal filament,
which ensures a longer lifespan.
The electrical continuity in gases or metal vapour results in the production of
light. This process is designated as a gas discharge and occurs in gas discharge
tubes such as fluorescent tubes. Gases such as neon and helium are used.
Looking at the atom model of a gas, its structure resembles an accumulation
3.2.4.4 Conduction of electricity in a vacuum Such effects are:

Oscilloscopes (oscillographs) provide a visualisation of rapidly varying processes
in electrical engineering, electronics and other sciences.
With the oscillograph, rapidly varying electrical processes can be permanently
recorded. Using an oscilloscope these processes can be visualised but not
recorded.
The electron beam oscilloscope is mainly used today because it is easy to
operate, versatile and shock-resistant.
The technology originates from an invention of K. F. Braun, a German
physicist, (1850-1918), the electron beam tube, also called the Braun tube.
A simple model of such a tube is an evacuated glass bulb with a cathode
(negatively charged) on one side and an anode (positively charged) on the
opposite side. If the cathode is heated, electrons will be released from it and
emitted from the cathode. They are attracted to and accelerate towards the
anode which is positive in nature (opposites attract) (charge equilibrium).
The German physicist A. R. Wehnelt (1871-1944) developed the technology
further by bundling the electrons and creating an electron gun. Today the
benefits can be seen in a variety of applications based on this technique e.g. a
television tube.
As you already know, electricity itself is invisible and only its effects are
perceptible.
3.3 Electrical Terminology
3.3.1 The following terms, their units and factors affecting them:

3.3.1 The following terms, their units and factors affecting
them:
3.3.1.1 Potential difference

A potential difference always arises between two differently charged points.
An electrical voltage occurs, as soon as there is a deficiency of electrons at one
point and an excess of electrons in another point.
Separating positive and negative charges will generate voltage.
A device which separates charges is called a generator. It draws electrons

from the positive pole and transports them to the negative pole in such a
way that a potential difference is maintained. Generators produce electrical
voltage.
However, this is not the only method of generating voltage. A voltage also
arises, for example, between two points having an excess of electrons, if the
number of surplus electrons in each point is different. In this case, only the
potential values have changed.
3.3.1.2 Electromotive force

Normally, a force acts in such a way that a body is pushed, pulled or lifted.
In the natural environment we experience that bodies, in exerting force on
each other, have direct contact.
To lift a weight, you have to touch it. Before throwing a stone, you have to take
it in your hand. To push a heavy trolley, you brace your body against it.
Electrical charges will exert a push or pull force on each other without coming
into contact with one another.
Scientists wondered for a long time how the force of one charge was
transmitted to the other without them touching each other.
The physicist Coulomb imagined that the forces of one charge would jump to
the other. However, the reason for this jumping and why a force could jump at
all remained unknown.
Faraday, the English chemist and physicist (1791-1867), developed a theory
about the forces acting between electrical charges. His Electric Field Theory is
still valid today.
Electrical attraction and repulsion can be shown by means of electric flux
lines, which are invisible. Electric flux lines take the shortest means possible to
get from a positive to a negative charge.
The density of flux lines represents the quantity of the electrical excitation
between both charges. This is designated as electric field strength.
An electromotive force (EMF) will not arise unless two fields act on one
another, i.e. two charges are necessary.
If two charges come near each other, they create their own common field at a
certain distance.
3.3.1.3 Voltage
A voltage is the difference in energy between electrical charges or potentials.
Sometimes voltage is also called Electromotive Force (EMF).
The force which acts on the electrons causes them to move.
As you already know, the electrons travel in several layers around the nucleus.
The greater the distance between the electron and nucleus, the stronger the
potential energy of the electron.
If a voltage has the same polarity over time, it is called DC voltage even if the
The electrical attraction of the electrons on the outer layer (valence electrons) value changes.
towards their nucleus is relatively weak. This is because the distance between If, within this time, size and polarity of the voltage changes, it is defined as AC
these electrons and their nucleus is at its greatest. voltage. The voltage ranges between +3 V and -3 V (see image 2 above).
In a metallic bond (for instance copper), the outer electrons are not bound to
a specific nucleus. Metal atoms combine in such a way as to release all their
valence electrons.
The new structure formed is called an ion. As conductors, metals play a main
role in electrical engineering.
The unit Volt for the basic quantity of electrical voltage has been chosen in
honour of A. Volta, the Italian physicist (1745-1827).
The symbol of voltage is V.
Two kinds of electrical voltage can be distinguished:
DC voltage and AC voltage
Voltage Measurements Common Voltages:

A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the terminals of a power source Radio-Aerial: 0.1 µV .........5 mV
and/or a load. Telephone Circuit Voltage: 1 mV ...........800 mV
Care should be taken to ensure that the measuring range of the voltmeter Single-Cell Battery: 1.5 V
is adequate. If the choice is too small, the measuring device may become
overloaded or damaged. Supply Voltage: 230 V.........400 V
There are two different ways to indicate the measured voltage, either by using Overhead-Line: 6 kV ......... 380 kV (Kilo Volt)
a pointer deflection (analogue meter) or numerical read out (digital meter). Lightning: several MV (Mega Volt)
Instruments for these kinds of measurements have the highest possible Measuring Power Sources and Electrical Loads
resistance.
The unit of electrical voltage is the Volt (V).
1 V = 1000 mV, 1 mV = 0.001 V
3.3.1.4 Current
In an electric circuit all electrical charges (electrons) move or flow in one
direction. In the outer part of the circuit (conductive connection between
the terminals of a power supply) the electrons flow from the negative to the
positive pole.
In the inner part of the circuit (power supply) the electromotive force pushes
the electrons from the positive to the negative pole.
Electric current is the flow of electrical charges in a certain direction.
The number of moved charge carriers depends on the EMF. If the EMF in a
power supply is high, many electrons are displaced and in the outer part of
the circuit many electrons will flow from the negative to the positive pole.
If a large number of electrons flow, the current I per second is high, if it is a
small number, the current I per second is low.
An electrical current is not necessarily a flow of electrons. There are also other
charge carriers which can generate an electric current. In metals and generally
in all solid conductive bodies, only the so called free electrons are able to flow
whereas ions can move in liquids and gases.
Possible types of movement or flow of charge carriers:
1. In solid conductive bodies (mainly in metals): electron currents
2. In conductive liquids: ion currents
3. In conductive gases: electron and ion currents
4. In vacuum: electron currents
The speed of movement of charges (electrons) depends on:
1. Conductor material
2. Conductor cross section
3. Current
4. Temperature

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Aviation Technical Training

Category B1 & B2 V5.0.2

Release Date: 16/04/2019

An EASA Part-147 Approved Training Organisation Approval No UK.147.0046

For training purposes and internal use only.

Resource Group - Aviation Technical Training

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group expert solutions, adding value

Module 3. Electrical Fundamentals

© LRTT Ltd. Trading as Resource Group expert solutions, adding value

There are different particles in an atom:

3.1.2.2 Semiconductors 3.1.2.3 Insulators

Examples: Silicon, germanium

3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction

The method of charging a metal bar by induction is shown in the image. A

3.2.2 Electrostatic laws of attraction and repulsion

3.2.4.1 Conduction of electricity in solids

3.2.4.3 Conduction of electricity in gases

3.2.4.4 Conduction of electricity in a vacuum Such effects are:

3.3 Electrical Terminology

3.3.1.1 Potential difference

A device which separates charges is called a generator. It draws electrons

3.3.1.2 Electromotive force

Voltage Measurements Common Voltages:

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