IBN TOFAIL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF LETTERS AND HUMAN SCIENCES

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

STUDY SKILLS

2020/2021
 Contents

1- Learning activities at university, what to expect?

2- Making effective notes

3- Receptive skills

3.1. the art of listening

3.2. reading techniques

4. thinking

5. Constructing an argument

6. Productive skills

6.1. improving your spoken language

6.2. written language classes

7. Discussion

8. Managing time

9. Examinations
 Study skills
Introduction
The problem with first year was I didn't know what I didn't know, and even when I
thought there was something I was supposed to know I didn't know what to do
about it'. University can seem confusing; you are expected to learn independently
rather than being taught, but there is limited information about how to learn.

University is part of life-long learning; you start to control what and how you learn.
There is a departmental teaching agenda to follow, and time to explore other
avenues. If, in the process, these equip you for later life, that is a bonus. You have
multiple skills already in your LI (native language) and have decided to study another,
L2, (foreign or target language). For a Languages degree, like any other, you need to
exploit your current skills and add more. Recognize that a languages degree has two
elements:

• The knowledge element, including all the vocabulary and grammatical knowledge
necessary to enable you to communicate at or near the level of an educated native
speaker over an extensive range of topics and in a wide variety of registers, but also
a knowledge and understanding of the culture and people who actually speak the
language.

Learning your L2 is a lifelong process, as languages evolve and change over time.
The sheer statistics about languages are pretty daunting with perhaps 6000 different
languages being spoken around the globe. Yet in the twenty-first century
communication is recognized to be the single most vital factor in conducting
business and professional activities of all kinds around the world, and an ability to
function in the language of your colleagues abroad, or even more importantly, your
competitors, is a truly valuable asset. As Willy Brandt allegedly said: 'I sell to you in
English but I buy from you in German'. The scope for learning languages is global
because, of course, 'linguists do it world-wide'.

• The skills element. Often called transferable skills, these enable linguists to be
efficient researchers, which will be of long-term benefit in the workplace. Most language
students acquire practical experience of the skills and attributes shown in Figure 1.1.
Some are absorbed by osmosis whilst others are taught at varying levels of detail.

In the last years of the twentieth century, UK student numbers expanded and the
emphasis switched from lecturers teaching to students learning. Self-motivated
learning is vital in life, enabling you to keep abreast of developments and
initiatives. Employment is unpredictable. Job market and company requirements change
rapidly. An employer needs individuals who are flexible about their careers.

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An effective graduate is someone who sees their career as a process of work and
learning, mixing them to extend skills and experience. This is the essence of lifelong
learning.

In the jargon of career management and personal development, the phrase

'transferable skills' is readily quoted. To add value to your degree, you need to
recognize and reflect on what you do every day in your course, and understand where
these skills have market value.

Employers claim to be happy with the academic skills students acquire, such as
researching, collating and synthesizing new material, but they also want graduates with
skills like listening, negotiating and presenting. Any strengthening of your skills and
experience of skill-based activities should add to your self-confidence and improve
your performance as a linguist and as a potential employee.

In addition to traditional language skills, your degree will give you the opportunity
to experience the latest developments in information technology including surfing
the world wide web (www), electronic journals, video-conferencing, e-mail, and
digital video. University encourages you to get wired, get trained and build your
own electronic resource base. The technology may seem daunting but it is fun too.

The importance of graduates acquiring skills as well as knowledge was reinforced

by the Dearing Report (NCIHE, 1997), which defined the key graduate skills,

• Communication skills: written and oral, and the ability to listen to others.
• Interpersonal or social skills: the capacity to establish good, professional working
relationships with clients and colleagues.
• Organizational skills: planning ahead, meeting deadlines, managing yourself and co-
ordinating others.
• Problem analysis and solution: the ability to identify key issues, reconcile conflicts,
devise workable solutions, be clear and logical in thinking, prioritize and work under
pressure.
• Intellect: judged by how effectively you translate your ideas into action.
• Leadership: many graduates eventually reach senior positions managing and leading
people.
• Teamwork: working effectively in formal and informal teams.
• Adaptability: being able to initiate and respond to changing circumstances, and to
continue to develop one's knowledge, interests and attitudes to adapt to changing
demands.
• Technical capability: the capacity to acquire appropriate technical skills including
scheduling, IT, statistics, computing, data analysis and to update these as appropriate.
• Achievement: the ability to set and achieve goals for oneself and for others, to keep an
organization developing.
By graduation you should feel confident in listing these skills on a curriculum vitae
(CV), and be able to explain where in the degree these abilities were practiced and
demonstrated

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 1- LEARNING ACTIVITIES AT UNIVERSITY; WHAT TO EXPECT.

Modern Language degrees are usually taught over three years called either Years 1, 2
and 3, or Levels 1, 2 and 3, and most incorporate a fourth year working or studying
abroad. The university year is typically divided into 10 or 12 teaching blocks called
modules or units, each addressing an aspect of language or some other topic related to
the student's particular programme. Language degrees are usually progressive, which
means that the standards and difficulty increase each year, and modules in later years
build on experience and learning in earlier years.

This section outlines the main activities at university and some of the skills
practised during them.

Lectures

Believing any of the following statements will seriously damage your learning from
lectures:

• In good lectures the lecturer speaks, the audience takes very rapid notes and silence
reigns.
• The success of a lecture is all down to the lecturer.
• A great lecturer speaks slowly so students can take beautifully written, verbatim
notes.
• Everything you need to know to get a first class degree will be mentioned in a lecture.
• Lectures are attended by students who work alone.
Lectures are the traditional teaching method, usually about 50 minutes long, with one
lecturer and loads of students. If your lectures involve 100+ students they may seem
impersonal and asking questions is difficult.

Top tips for managing lectures include:

^ Get there early and find a seat where you can see and hear.

^ Get your brain in gear by thinking, 'I know I will enjoy this lecture, it will be good. I
really want to know about ...'; 'Last week s/he discussed ...., now I want to find out
about../.

^ Before the lecture, read the notes from the last session, and maybe some library
material too. Even 5-10 minutes will get the brain in gear.

^ Think critically about the material presented.

^ Revise and summarize notes soon after a lecture; it will help you recall material
later. Decide what follow up reading is required.

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 Ask questions.

Skills acquired during lectures include understanding language, historical or cultural

issues, recognizing research frontiers and subject limitations. They also include,
crucially, knowing how to listen, knowing how and when to take notes, and knowing
when NOT just to follow the flow of the argument. WITHOUT taking notes.

Assessment

• Within-module assessment of progress (sometimes called 'monitoring'), where the

marks do not count (formative), and usually involve some feedback.

• Assessments where the marks do count (summative). Feedback may or may not
happen, depending on the test and system. The results eventually appear on your
degree result notification for the edification of your first employer who wants
written confirmation of your university prowess.

There is a slight tendency for the average student to pay less attention to
formative, within-module assessments, where the marks do not count. Staff design
formative tests because they know 99 per cent of students need an opportunity to 'have
a go', to get an insight into procedures and expected standards, when marks are not an
issue.

The Research Process

By the time you graduate you should have (besides high-level language skills) an
enhanced knowledge of, and/or ability to identify and analyse critically, the historical
and cultural background of the country in question, its current political, economic and
ecological makeup and concerns, and the systems and administrative frameworks
(educational, legal, etc.) which underpin its society.

Some exposure to its literature, music and art is also a feature of the educated linguist.
You should also have learned to recognize what you as an individual know and do not
know; and (perhaps this is paramount for today's society) you should understand how
and where to find the information you need. Recognizing the boundaries of one's own
expertise is a relevant life skill. University learning is not about recalling a full set of
lecture notes. It is about understanding issues and being able to relate and apply them in
different contexts.

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 2- MAKING EFFECTIVE NOTES

There is a mass of language information whizzing around in radio, video and TV reports,
specialist documentaries, lectures, tutorials, discussion groups and all that written
material including books, journals and newspapers. BUT, just because an article is in an
academic journal, in the library, or on a reading list, does not make it a 'Note-Worthy'
event. Making notes is time consuming, and ineffective if done on auto-pilot with the
brain half-engaged. Note-making which lets you learn, requires your brain to be fully
involved in asking questions and commenting on the ideas. Noting is not just about
getting the facts down, it is also about identifying links between different pieces of
information, contradictions and examples. Notes should record information in your own
words, evaluate different points of view, and encourage the development of your own
ideas and opinions.

Many people start reading and making notes without any sort of preview. A BAD IDEA.
They make pages of notes from the opening section and few, if any, from later in the
document. The first pages of a book usually set the scene. Notes may only be needed
from conclusion and discussion sections. Sometimes detailed notes are required, but
sometimes keywords, definitions and brief summaries are fine.

Evaluate Your Present Note-Taking System:

Ask yourself:

1. Do I use complete sentences? They are generally a waste of time.

2. Do I use any form at all? Are my notes clear or confusing?

3. Do I capture main points and all subpoints?

4. Do I streamline using abbreviations and shortcuts?

Five Important Reasons to Take Notes

1. Notes trigger memories of lecture/reading

2. Your notes are often a source of valuable clues for what information the instructor thinks
most important (i.e., what will show up on the next test).

3. Notes inscribe information kinesthetically

4. Taking notes helps you to concentrate in class

5. Notes create a resource for test preparation

6. Your notes often contain information that cannot be found elsewhere (i.e., in your textbook).

Guidelines for Note-Taking

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 1. Concentrate on the lecture or on the reading material.
2. Take notes consistently.
3. Take notes selectively. Do NOT try to write down every word. Remember that the
average lecturer speaks approximately 125-140 words per minute, and the average
note-taker writes at a rate of about 25 words per minute.
4. Translate ideas into your own words.
5. Organize notes into some sort of logical form.
6. Be brief. Write down only the major points and important information.
7. Write legibly. Notes are useless if you cannot read them later!
8. Don't be concerned with spelling and grammar.Tips for Finding Major Points in
Lectures:
The speaker is usually making an important point if he or she:

1. Pauses before or after an idea.

2. Uses repetition to emphasize a point.
3. Uses introductory phrases to precede an important idea.
4. Writes an idea on the board.
Ways to Reduce and Streamline Notes

A. Eliminate small connecting words such as: is, are, was, were, a, an, the, would,
this, of.
B. Eliminate pronouns such as: they, these, his, that, them. However, be careful NOT
to eliminate these three words: and, in, on.
1. Common Abbreviations
Symbols for note-taking are as follows:
Many are derived from Latin. = equals/is equal to/is the same as
c.f. (confer) = compare ≠ is not equal to/is not the same as
i.e. (id est) = that is ≡ is equivalent to
e.g (exempla grate) = for example ∴ therefore, thus, so
∴ because
NB (nota benne) =note well
+ and, more, plus
no. (numero) = number
> more than, greater than
etc. (et cetera)= and so on < less than
2. Use Concept Maps and Diagrams — less, minus
You can set down information in a concept map or diagram. → gives, causes, leads to, results in,
This presents the information in a visual form and is unlike is given by, is produced by, results from
the traditional linear form of note taking. Information can rises, increases by
→

be added to the concept map in any sequence. falls, decreases by

→

Concept maps can easily become cluttered, so we α proportional to

recommend you use both facing pages of an open A4 note α not proportional to
book. This will give you an A3 size page to set out your
concept map and allow plenty of space for adding ideas Und erwater Cameras
and symbols.
• Begin in the middle of the page and add ideas on
branches that radiate from the central idea or from r egular amphi bi ous
previous branches.
• Arrows and words can be used to show links between
parts of the concept map. need special Ni konos snapshot
ho using
• Colour and symbols are important parts of concept maps,
helping illustrate ideas and triggering your own thoughts. 6
l enses

in air + wate r only under wate r

 3- RECEPTIVE SKILLS

3.1. THE ART OF LISTENING

Can you get addicted to foreign soaps? These may be accessible via satellite or cable, or
in your language centre. The same set of characters appear in every episode using bang
up-to-the-minute colloquial language, and repetitive and constrained lexis (technical
term for the vocabulary of a language) on limited topics; this aids comprehension and
helps to reinforce vocabulary (within this limited range). The same is true to a certain
extent of news broadcasts – EU refugees, local politics . . . each have their own
rhetorical language and structure, and re-appear nightly.

To understand or to follow?

In conversations bear in mind that understanding and following are not quite the same
thing. When you're listening to someone talking, you need to understand as much as
you can of the individual points and follow the thread of the conversation and make
your own contribution to it.

Unless you are in a bureaucratic or legal situation (when you would take notes) it is a
big mistake to try to remember a conversation verbatim. Your brain processes
information by sifting out the significant elements, recasting or filing them alongside
connected information, and throwing the rest away. Let your brain do this for you; if
you concentrate on remembering everything your brain will overload and you will be
left hopelessly behind. Relax, listen for the key words and don't let the detail get you
down. If you think you've missed something really crucial in a conversation, you can
always ask for it to be repeated. Aim to focus hard on the framework, the theme, or the
general thrust of the conversation - you will still be able to follow what is going on even
if you miss odd bits.

It should be easier to keep up with a lecture or a themed programme where the topic is
announced in advance, and you can prepare for it by looking up some of the relevant
vocabulary or reading around the subject. An informal conversation is unstructured
and can go off at alarming tangents. Even so, there are plenty of ways in which you can
help yourself. Here are just a few:

• Unfamiliar words? Knowing the basic principles of word-formation in your L2 helps

you work out their meaning. How are verbs formed from adjectives, for instance? How
do particular prefixes or suffixes modify the meaning of the word-stem they are
attached to? How can you tell the difference between an adjective and an adverb?

• Little words make a difference. In English, conversations are dosed liberally with
expressions like 'you know', 'admittedly', 'actually', 'nevertheless'. Check out the
equivalents in your L2. Words like these modify meanings and help the speaker to

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persuade, concede, create distance, etc. Get your own list ready - understanding and
using them properly is essential for authentic language.

• Grammar matters! The sounder your grammar is, the better you will grasp what is
going on.

• Regular phrases and constructions. Everyday spoken language is in large measure

rhetorical and repetitive. Unless you are aiming to be witty or otherwise impress,
you generally use stock phrases, - 'good morning', 'happy birthday', 'it's been a great
day', 'lousy weather for the time of year', and so on. We all recycle phrases, even
within a single dialogue, and build up a stock of conversational phrases and
responses. Using them will make you sound more authentic and enable you to look
ahead in a conversation and anticipate what is coming next.

Listening (At University)

Listening In Lectures

Arriving at a lecture with information about last night's activities or juicy scandal is
normal, but the brain is not prepared for advanced information on the phonetics of
Cantonese or Hegel's dialectics. Some lecturers understand that the average student
audience needs 5 minutes background briefing to get the majority of brains engaged
and on track. Others leap in with vital information in the first five minutes because
'everyone is fresh!' Whatever the lecture style, but especially with the latter, you will
get more from the session having thought 'I know this will be an interesting lecture
about ...' and scanned notes from the last session or library. Assuming from the start
that a lecture will be dull usually ensures that it will seem dull.

• A lecturer's words, no matter how wise, enter your short-term memory, and unless
you play around with them and process the information into ideas, making personal
connections, the words will drop out of short-term memory into a black hole. Think
about the content and implications as the lecture progresses.

• You may feel a lecturer is wildly off beam, making statements you disagree with, but
do not decide he or she is automatically wrong, check it out. There might be dissertation
possibilities.

• Keep a record of a speaker's main points.

• Be prepared for the unpredictable. Some speakers indicate what they intend to cover
in a lecture, others whiz off in different directions. This unpredictability can keep
you alert! But if you get thoroughly lost, then ask a clarifying question (mentally or
physically), rather than 'dropping out' for the rest of the session.

• If you feel your brain drifting off ask yourself questions like - 'what is s/he trying to
say?' and 'where does this fit with what I know?'

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 • Treat listening as a challenging mental task.

• Don't imagine you can remember every point of a lecture in your head.

Develop a technique of making notes whilst still following the lecture.

Listening in discussions and language classes

No one listens until you make a mistake.

Discussion is the time to harvest the ideas of others, improve your accent and build
self-confidence. In most modules there is such a diversity of style, delivery, points of
view and interpretation, of literature, that open discussion is vital.

Endeavour to be open-minded in looking for and evaluating statements which may

express very different views and beliefs from your own. Because ideas fly around
fast, make sure you note the main points and supporting evidence (arguments)
where possible. Post-discussion note collation is crucial, mostly involving ordering
thoughts and checking arguments that support or confute the points.

Main Tips

- Come prepared, think about the topic of the class in advance - bear in mind that the subject-
matter under discussion is generally secondary to the discussion itself.
- Conversations are messy things, like rugby scrums - be prepared for the unexpected.
- Come prepared to listen.
- Come prepared to talk, and don't worry too much about accuracy - it's important, but less so
than actually speaking.
- Build your confidence by planning ahead. Reading around the next topic will help but better
still, listen to a radio or TV programme about it. Note the expressions that might come in
handy.
- If you are nervous about speaking at length, concentrate on the flow of conversation and
ask a question. This gets you into the discussion without having to know the answer.
- Live a little dangerously! Resolve to make at least one off-the-cuff remark in every lesson,
regardless of mistakes. Before you know it, you'll be butting in with the best of them. Or as one
student said, 'It actually works this language lark, I get a real buzz off it!' Here I am speaking in a
language other than my own, being understood!' Stay casual now! The biggest
incentive/motivation is success. There's nothing worse than arriving unprepared to a lesson. You
feel a fool and will miss out on the buzz.

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3.2. READING TECHNIQUES
Everyone uses a range of reading techniques - speed reading of novels, skip- reading
headlines etc - the style depending on purpose. As you look through this section reflect
on where you use each technique already. For effective study adopt the 'deep study'
approach.

Deep study reading

Deep study reading is vital when you want to make connections, understand
meanings, consider implications, and evaluate arguments. Reading deeply needs a
strategic approach and time to cogitate.

Rowntree (1988) describes an active reading method known as SQ3R, which promotes
deeper, more thoughtful reading. SQ3R is an acronym for Survey-Question-Read-Recall-
Review. It may seem long-winded at first, but is worth pursuing because it links
thinking with reading in a flexible manner. It stops you rushing into unproductive note
making. You can use SQ3R with books and articles, and for summarizing notes during
revision. You are likely to recall more by using this questioning and 'mental
discussion.

Scanning

Scan when you want a specific item of information. Scan the contents page or index,
letting your eyes rove around to spot key words and phrases. Chase up the
references and then, carefully, (deep) read the points that are relevant for
EFFECTIVE READING

$Q3R is a template for reading and thinking. Try it on the next book you pick up.

Survey: Look at the whole text before you get into parts in detail. Start with the
cover, is this a respected author? When was it written? Is it dated?

Use the Contents and Chapter headings and subheadings to get an idea of the whole
book and to locate the sections that are of interest to you. First and last paragraphs
should highlight arguments and key points.

Question: You will recall more if you know why you are reading, so ask yourself
some questions. Review your present knowledge, and then ask what else you
want/need to know. Questions like: What is new in this reading? What can I learn
from this book? Where does it fit in this course, other modules? Is this a
supporting/refuting/contradictory piece of information?

Having previewed the book and developed your reasons for reading, you can also
decide whether deep reading and note making is required, or whether scanning and
some additions to previous notes, will suffice.

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Read: This is the stage to start reading, but not necessarily from page I; read the
sections that are relevant for you and your present assignment. Read attentively but
also critically. The first time you read you cannot get hold of all points and ideas.

On first reading: locate the main ideas. Get the general structure and subject content in
your head. Do not make notes during this first reading, the detail gets in the way.

On second reading: chase up the detailed bits that you need for essays. Highlight or
make notes of all essential points.

Recall: Do you understand what you have read? Give yourself a break, and then
have a think about what you remember, and what you understand. This process
makes you an active, learning reader. Ask yourself questions like: Can I explain this
idea in my own words? Can I recall the key points without re-reading the original text?

Review: Now go back to the text and check the accuracy of your recall.

Reviewing should tell you how much you have really absorbed. Review your steps
and check main points: Are the headings and summaries first noted the right ones
or do they need revising? Do new questions about the material arise now that you
have gone through in detail? Have you missed anything important? Do you need
more detail or examples? Fill in gaps and correct errors in your notes. Ask where
your views fit with those of the authors. Do you agree/disagree? The last question is
'Am I happy to give this book back to the library?'

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 4- THINKING

For most people the effective stimulus to thinking is conversation and discussion.
Being asked: 'What is your position on semiotics?' or 'How do you view Britain’s
decision to leave the EU?' can stimulate thoughts you didn't know you had.

Language students are expected to apply their already well-developed thinking skills to
a series of academic tasks and activities, to make reasoned judgements and arrive at
conclusions about language-related issues. It is possible to pursue a languages degree
at a rather superficial level, learning and re-presenting information. This is called
surface learning.

The aim of a university education is to practise the skills that move beyond this level to
deeper learning, to being active in questioning, relating ideas and opinions to other
parts of your degree and to other subjects, and developing one's ability to inter-relate
evidence and draw valid conclusions. This links to the ideas of deep reading. Your
intellectual sophistication should mature during a degree course, but it is sometimes
difficult to know what this might mean in practice.

4-1- Why Do You Think?

Cogito ergo sum: I think, therefore I am (Descartes)

Thinking is used to acquire understanding and answers. Adjectives used to describe

quality thinking include reasoned, clear, logical, precise, relevant, broad, rational, sound,
sensible and creative. Steps in quality thinking involve:

• Deciding on the objective (understanding a concept, recognizing the issues).

• Acquiring information and evidence of a suitable standard to build up a reasoned

argument.

• Reasoning or inferring from the available information to draw logical conclusions.

• Considering the consequences of the results.

How good you are at thinking is a matter for personal development and self-
assessment. When tackling multi-dimensional language problems, make notes while
thinking, plot your thoughts on spider diagrams, and record connections and links as
they occur to you. Ideas float away all too easily.

4-1- Critical Thinking:

Critical thinking involves working through for oneself, afresh, a problem. This means
starting by thinking about the nature of the problem, thinking through the issues and
striving for a reasoned, logical outcome. During the process you need to be aware of
other factors that impinge, where bias may be entering an argument, the evidence for
and against the issues involved, and to search for links to other parts of your language

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course. Essentially, critically evaluating the material throughout the process. Mind maps
can be a helpful way of putting ideas on paper and finding the links between them.

Being critical entails making judgements on the information you have at the time. It is
important to remember that being critical does not necessarily imply being negative
and derogatory. It also means being positive and supportive, commenting in a
thoughtful way. A balanced critique looks at the positive and negative aspects. Some
students feel they cannot make such judgements because they are unqualified to do so.
Recognize that neither you, nor your professors, will ever know everything - you are
making a judgement based on what you know now. In a year's time, with more
information and experience, your views and values may alter, but that will be a
subsequent judgement made in the light of different information.

Discussion is a major thinking aid, so talk about language and related issues. It can be
provocative and stimulating!

Where does intellectual curiosity fit into this picture? Research in language studies is
about being curious about concepts and ideas. You can be curious in a general way,
essentially pursuing ideas at random as they grab your imagination.

We all do this. More disciplined thinking aims to give a framework for pursuing ideas in
a logical manner and to back up ideas and statements with solid evidence in every case.

What to avoid. Uncritical, surface learning involves listening and noting from lectures
and documents, committing this information to memory and regurgitating it in
essays and examinations. The 'understanding' step is missing, and the rewards will be
missing too. Aim to be a deeper learner.

4-2- Questions Worth Asking!

Being a critical thinker involves asking questions at all stages of every research activity.
These questions could run in your head as you consider language issues:

• What are the main ideas here?

• Are the questions being asked the right ones or are there more meaningful or more
valid questions?
• What are the supporting ideas?
• What opposing evidence is available?
• Is the evidence strong enough to reach a conclusion?
• How do these ideas fit with those found elsewhere?
• What is assumed?
• Are the assumptions justified?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the arguments?
• Is a particular point of view or social or cultural perspective skewing the
interpretation?
• Are these seemingly 'objective' definitions truly objective?
• Is the information of an appropriate quality?

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• Are causes and effects clearly distinguished?
• Is this a personal opinion or an example of intuition?
• Have I really understood the evidence?
• Am I making woolly, over-general statements?
• Is the information relevant?

Keep thinking back to the original aims and argument. You can make statements that
are clear, accurate and precise but if they are irrelevant they do not help. Off the
point arguments or examples distract and confuse the reader, and may lose you marks.

• Is the argument superficial? Have all the complexities of an issue been

addressed?
• Is there a broad range of evidence? Does the answer take into account the range of
possible perspectives?
• Are the arguments presented in a logical sequence? Check that thoughts and ideas are
ordered into a sequence that tells the story in a logical way.
• Which examples will reinforce the idea?
• Can this idea be expressed in another, better way?
• What has been left out? Looking for 'gaps' is an important skill.
• Is this a definitive/true conclusion OR a probable/'on the balance of evidence'
conclusion?
• What are the exceptions?
Take a little time to think and reflect before jumping into a task with both feet.

Having completed a task or activity, take a few minutes to reflect on the results or
outcomes.

4-3- Can You Improve The Quality Of Your Thinking Alone?

Yes, but it takes practice. You will probably become more disciplined in your thinking by
discussing issues regularly. This is because the act of talking around an idea sparks off
other ideas in your own mind. When someone else voices their point of view, you get an
insight into other aspects of the problem, whereas thinking of arguments that run
against your own position is difficult. A discussion group might:

• Start by summarizing the problem.

• Sort out objectives to follow through.
• Share data and evidence - the knowledge element.
• Share views on the data, 'I think it means ... because .. /
• Work out and discuss the assumptions the data and evidence are making.
• Discuss possible implications; evaluate their strengths and weaknesses.
• Summarize the outcomes.
A good reasoner is like a good footballer; s/he becomes more adept by practising.

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 5- CONSTRUCTING AN ARGUMENT

At the centre of every quality language essay, report or presentation is a well-

structured argument. This is an argument in the sense of a fully supported and
referenced explanation or interpretation. In producing an argument you are not
looking to provide a mathematical proof, or evidence that is strong enough to support
a legal case. You are trying to integrate a series of facts, examples and the connections
that link them, so that your deductions and conclusions appear probable.

In different parts of your degree your arguments may follow different styles. In
discussions of literature the evidence comes primarily from your close reading of the
text, and is an interpretation and appreciation of the material, enhanced by your own
ideas and those of other critics. In cultural, historical or linguistic studies you develop
evidence from a range of sources and link these with methodological ideas and
approaches. Whatever your context the crucial skill is to establish enough appropriate
links and evidence or examples, such that your argument cannot be rejected as
improbable or unsubstantiated.

5.1 Structuring Arguments

Any argument needs to be structured with reasoned evidence supporting the

statements. A stronger, more balanced argument is made when examples for and
against the general tenet are quoted.

Cultural Approaches

It is essential to be aware of the range of ideas and perspectives which surround any
political or cultural issue in your studies. You cannot read and consider everything
but you need a balanced selection of evidence. You are faced with different points of
view, a lack of absolutes, and ideological baggage which colours opinions and
investigative approaches. If you research green issues you need some background in
politics, economics and sociology. But these are areas where theories are always open
to argument, persuasion and debate. Your reading becomes the evidence from which
you can draw and discuss, compare and contrast.

Literary Studies

The text is at the centre of your argument, providing the basis for discussion and
examples through quotations, but its place is complemented by your reading of the
criticism and analyses which will help inform and develop your ideas and opinions.
Breadth and narrow focus are both essential - breadth of reading around other
works by the same author, and wider secondary (critical) sources; but above all, close
reading of the primary text(s).

5-2- Unpacking Arguments

15
It is all too easy when speaking and writing to put too much information into a sentence,
or to make very general statements. One might say: 'In Reformation Germany a wedding
provided a temporary break from everyday social constraints'. This is true but hides
much information. A fuller statement like: The guilds, so influential in sixteenth-century
German urban society, drew clear and sharp distinctions of status between the married
master and his as yet unmarried journeymen, and determined how far each group
could deviate from the behavioural norm on special occasions'. To further strengthen
this assertion, add references or a supporting quotation, such as: In Augsburg the eve of
the wedding was marked by a drinking party where master and journeymen rubbed
shoulders, but at the wedding feast itself the masters sat separately and later only
danced with their wives, while the young men processed separately and sat together
and danced with as many young women as possible'. (Hufton, 1997).'

5-3- Rational And Non-Rational Arguments

Arguments are categorized as being rational and non-rational. The non-rational are to
be avoided. Here are four examples:

1. The re-introduction of capital punishment would practically eliminate homicide in

Great Britain.' Aside from being arguable, this is hyperbole. It might sell newspapers but
it is not an argument unless supported by data.

2. 'People become obese primarily because they overeat. Students overeat when they
are stressed, therefore they are more at risk of becoming obese around exam time'. This
is a very poor argument and untrue in the majority of cases.

Some students are obese, most are not, some overeat at stressful times, some forget to
eat altogether. Everyone's weight fluctuates over time.

3. Going OTT with language or throwing in jargon to impress the reader is a typical
journalistic device, involving an emotional rather than factual appeal to the reader.
'Politicians have been documented using styles of language that enable them to avoid
giving direct answers to questions', is a more considered academic statement than 'All
politicians excel in roundabout linguistic constructions that convey absolutely zero,
because they are inherently incapable of giving straight answers to important
questions'.

4. 'It is abundantly clear that de Gaulle's profound hatred of all things British set the
economic evolution of Europe back by at least a decade'. Words which sound very
strong like clearly, manifestly, undoubtedly, all, naturally, and obviously, are intended
to influence the reader into thinking the rest of the statement must be true. Overuse
of strong words is unprofessional and unhelpful, the written equivalent of
browbeating or shouting; they should be used at best sparingly not least because
university examiners are programmed to greet them with scepticism.

Inductive or deductive? Which approach?

16
In presenting an argument, orally or on paper, give some thought to the ordering of
ideas. If you write deductively you begin with the general idea and then follow on with
examples. Inductive writing starts with specific evidence and uses it to draw general
conclusions and explanations. You must decide what suits your material. In general,
use the inductive approach when you want to draw a conclusion. The deductive
approach is useful when you want to understand cause and effect, test a hypothesis or
solve a problem. The examples given here of an inductive (A) and deductive (B)
approach are in paragraph form, but the same principles apply to essays and
dissertations.

A. So far we have been discussing the two philosophical traditions which provided the
background to Coleridge's interest in the philosophical status of poetry. The first was
his native British tradition which had come to regard language in general, and poetry in
particular, as being relevant to philosophy. The second was the German tradition.
Coleridge's uses of both are far from straightforward. As regards the first, he had
scarcely a good word to say about Kames, Reid and Beattie, but he had a lot to say for
and against the notion of common sense. More importantly, his statements about
common sense betray his habit of treating the phenomenon of language as evidence for
a particular kind of philosophy. However, he moves beyond the conservatism of the
common-sense philosophers to describe the development of knowledge as being
analogous to the growth of a language. He thinks that language grows like an organic
body, and that the principle explaining this growth is the progress of the human
intellect. And, further, that language exemplifies the identity of the principles of natural
growth and intellectual progress, and can be used as the model of this identity
(Hamilton, 1983).

B. Coleridge's statements about common sense betray his habit of treating the
phenomenon of language as evidence for a particular kind of philosophy, according to
which: language grows like an organic body; the principle explaining this growth is the
progress of the human intellect; language exemplifies the identity of the principles of
natural growth and intellectual progress; and it can be used as the model of this identity.
He makes use of both his native British philosophical tradition (which had come to
regard language in general, and poetry in particular, as being relevant to philosophy)
and that of the Germans, but in a far from straightforward manner. Although he had
scarcely a good word to say about Kames, Reid and Beattie, he had a lot to say for and
against the notion of common sense. But moving beyond the conservatism of the
common-sense philosophers, he describes the development of knowledge as being
analogous to the growth of a language.

5-4- Potential Minefields

Watch out for bad arguments creeping into your work. The following examples are
rather obvious but are there more subtle logic problems? Be critical in reviewing

17
your own work. It is easy to spot logical errors when sentences are adjacent - they may
be less easy to see if there are a thousand words in between.

Circular reasoning: Check that conclusions are not just a restatement of your original
premise. The Russian Revolution brought the long rule of imperialism to a bloody end.
It was the violent conclusion of an era of autocratic government that had gone
unchallenged for centuries.

Cause and effect: Be certain that the cause really is driving the effect. Students are
forced to live in crime ridden areas, so crime becomes part of student life.

Leaping to conclusions: The conclusion may be right but steps in the argument are
missed. Some arguments are simply wrong: Levels of personal savings are higher in
most countries which have adopted the Euro than in the United Kingdom. Britons will
never be prosperous until Britain adopts the Euro.

Sons of alcoholic fathers are more likely than sons of non-alcoholic fathers to develop
alcoholism. This tells us that alcoholism is hereditary.

Be clear about the difference between arguments where the supporting material
provides clear, strong evidence, and those where there is textual or historical
evidence supporting the case but uncertainty remains. In projects and dissertations
dealing with very complex or ongoing issues, conclusions may have to be conjectural or
provisional. Be clear about the limitations. Statements like

“'On the basis of the information available at the time of writing, we can suggest that ...”'
or “The most recent evidence suggests ...'” or “'However the Hong Kong economy is still
in a state of flux following the colony's return to China in 1997, and it would be rash
to attempt to draw firm conclusions before 2007 at the earliest'” are very
acceptable. Qualifying statements of this type have the additional merit of implying
that you have thought about the limits and drawbacks inherent in the research
results.

Is this a good argument?

Watch out for arguments where the author gives a true premise, but the
conclusion is dodgy. Just because you agree with the first part of a sentence does not
mean that the second part is also right. Keep thinking right through to the end of the
sentence. Having articulated an argument; do you buy it? Why? Why not? What is your
view?

Consider the following statements. What questions do they raise? Are they true and
logical?

What arguments could be amassed to support or refute them?

18
1. It Is evident from the fact that most university degrees in Britain take only three
years to complete, compared to an average of six years in Italy, that Italian, graduates
are better educated.'

2. The outbreak of the First World War led to a severe shortage of men to do many
essential jobs in the towns and on the land, resulting in greatly increased status and
rapid emancipation for women.

19
 6- PRODUCTIVE SKILLS

6.1. IMPROVING YOUR SPOKEN LANGUAGE:

Equipped with your well-honed listening strategies and skills, and spurred on by your
weekly oral language class successes, you are now ready to venture into the uncharted
territory of unstructured real-world conversation. Fear not! There are plenty of non-
threatening opportunities out there for you to improve your spoken language, and
plenty of tricks to help you along.

Probably the easiest way of all to start is - by talking to yourself. And when you get
bored with listening to your own voice, rope in some of your friends. Don't worry about
correcting one another's grammar or accent, that's what your classes are for, just
concentrate on getting your fluency up and improving your comprehension.

Watch and copy the body language used by native speakers, not only to make your
own contribution to a conversation appear more authentic, but because certain signs,
e.g. nodding or shaking one's head, are aids to comprehension.

Talk as interaction

Talk as interaction refers to what we normally mean by “conversation” and

describes interaction that serves a primarily social function. When people meet, they
exchange greetings, engage in small talk, recount recent experiences, and so, on because
they wish to be friendly and to establish a comfortable zone of interaction with others.
The focus is more on the speakers and how they wish to present themselves to each
other than on the message. Such exchanges may be either casual or more formal,
depending on the circumstances.

Some of the skills involved in using talk as interaction involve knowing how to do the
following things:

- Opening and closing conversations

- Choosing topics
- Making small-talk
- Joking
- Recounting personal incidents and experiences
- Turn-taking
- Interrupting
- Reacting to others
- Using an appropriate style of speaking
Mastering the art of talk as interaction is difficult and may not be a priority for all
learners. However, students who do need such skills and find them lacking report that
they sometimes feel awkward and at a loss for words when they find themselves in
situations that require talk for interaction. They feel difficulty in presenting a good
image of themselves and sometimes avoid situations that call for this kind of talk. This

20
can be a disadvantage for some learners where the ability to use talk for conversation
can be important.

Talk as transaction

Talk as transaction refers to situations where the focus is on what is said or done.
The message and making oneself understood clearly and accurately is the central focus,
rather than the participants and how they interact socially with each other.

Examples of talk as transaction are:

- Classroom group discussions and problem-solving activities

- A class activity during which students design a poster
- Discussing needed computer repairs with a technician
- Discussing sightseeing plans with a hotel clerk or tour guide
- Making a telephone call to obtain flight information
- Buying something in a shop
- Ordering food from a menu in a restaurant
The main features of talk as transaction are:

- It has a primarily information focus.

- The main focus is on the message and not the participants.
- Participants employ communication strategies to make themselves understood.
- There may be frequent questions, repetitions, and comprehension checks, as in the
example from the preceding classroom lesson.
- There may be negotiation and digression.
- Linguistic accuracy is not always important.
Talk as performance

The third type of talk that can usefully be distinguished has been called talk as
performance. This refers to public talk, that is, talk that transmits information before an
audience, such as classroom presentations, public announcements, and speeches.

Talk as performance tends to be in the form of monolog rather than dialog, often follows
a recognizable format (e.g., a speech of welcome), and is closer to written language than
conversational language. Similarly, it is often evaluated according to its effectiveness or
impact on the listener, something that is unlikely to happen with talk as interaction or
transaction.

Examples of talk as performance are:

- Giving a class report or presentation

- Conducting a class debate
- Giving a speech of welcome
- Making a sales presentation
- Giving a lecture

21
 6.2. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CLASSES

Written assignments come most weeks. They are self, peer or tutor marked and overall
you are trying to reduce the red ink on the paper as you progress. The comments should
alter in character as your command of the language improves; you will get into more
subtle areas of style and idiom where there is room for several alternative 'best
options'. You will have crossed the great divide from novice learner to advanced
professional, and from here on in your future as a linguist will be concerned more
with nuances of meaning and elegance of expression than with genders and endings.
(Or so the theory goes.)

Effective Essay Skills

All essays need good starts and ends, lots of support material and a balance of personal
research and lecture-based evidence. This usually requires an initial plan, some
rethinking, writing, further research, and re-writing. This should be followed by a
heavy editing session where the long sentences are ruthlessly pruned and
paragraphs broken up, so that each paragraph makes or develops a separate point. The
first version of anything you write is a draft, a rough and ready first attempt,
requiring development and polish before it is a quality product. Most marks
disappear because the first drafts are submitted as the final product.

What Kinds Of Essays Are There?

The 'what do you know about ...' style essay should be disappearing from your life.
University questions usually require you to think about information that you have
researched and to weave it into an argument. You are asked to analyse, criticize,
examine, and debate ideas in a structured way, using apt examples to illustrate your
arguments.

Essays that get high marks interweave lecture material with personal research findings
and ideas. Facts from lectures, by themselves, are not enough - painful but true!
Reproducing the facts and arguments as presented in a lecture may get you a mark of
30-50 per cent. To get 50 per cent plus you need to show an examiner that you have
thought about the issues. This involves adding other information gleaned through
reading, sorting out what it all means for you, and re-stating the argument coherently in
your own words. OK, that is our opinion. Ask your language tutors what they think about
this - get your own department's view.

You will increasingly be asked for discussion rather than descriptive essays.

Compare these questions:

1. Descriptive: Describe the impact of social change on Moroccan daily life, or;

22
2. Discussion: The contradictions, complexity and stresses of modern living
impacts on all aspects of Moroccan life.' Discuss.

The descriptive essay title may have pointers to the structure, content and type of
answer required.

The discussion essay needs more thought and planning; you must establish your own
structure, and write an introduction to signpost it to the reader. Follow this with linked
arguments supported by evidence, leading to a conclusion justified by the points you
have made. Including material that veers off at a tangent, or is irrelevant, or presenting
evidence in ways that do not really support your case, loses marks.

Many essays in language studies involve a question with no right answer. You may be
asked to consider the various dimensions of a problem, evaluate alternative
interpretations, provide supporting evidence and reach a balanced conclusion.

Effective writing skills

Spelling

Spelling is a potential minefield - use a spell-checker but remember that it will not pick
up the errors in the following sentences, caused by homonyms (words that sound the
same but have different spellings and meanings):

'Shogun warriors had to be skilled in the marshall arts.

'In speech, the tongue and the teeth compliment one another.'

'Most academic books have a forward, but very few books have an epithet.'

Abbreviations and acronyms in text

Replacing long words or phrases with initials or abbreviations is regarded as lazy by

some tutors. However, with well known and established acronyms and phrases like
WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get), it is reasonable to adopt this approach.

When using abbreviations the full definition must be given the first time the phrase
is used, with the abbreviation immediately afterwards in brackets.

Colloquial usage

Regional or colloquial terms may not be universally understood so are best omitted.
Writing as you speak can also be a trap, as in these examples from student essays:

'He therefore put to greater emphasis on ... .' It should read 'He therefore put too great
an emphasis on ...'; The Central Bank will of always considered interest rates', should
read “The Central Bank will have always considered ...'.

23
Punctuation and style

The excessive use of exclamation marks!!!!!!!!!!, of which these authors are generally
guilty, is also less than good practice! And never start a sentence with 'And', 'But' or
'BUT'. But having said that, there are plenty of examples of its incorrect usage in this
book, where BUT and capitalization are used to emphasize points.

When editing, check that you do not over-use certain words. Find synonyms or
restructure the paragraph if repetition is a problem! Keep sentences short and TO THE
POINT. Ensure paragraphs address one point only. Be consistent in your use of fonts
and font sizes, symbols, heading titles and position, bullet points and referencing.
Decide on your style and stick to it.

TOP TIPS

Read and revise everything you write. Make time at the end of an essay to re-read and
re-draft, correct spelling, insert missing words, check grammar and insert references.

Check that your arguments are logical.

Read what is written, not what you meant to write.

Work with a friend.

24
 7- Discussion

Language students develop their research abilities through discussion in

workshops, tutorials and seminars. Talking through the details of a topic leads to a
greater degree of understanding and learning. In most jobs being able to discuss topics
calmly, fairly and professionally is essential, so discussions are valuable opportunities
to practise.

To learn effectively from discussions there needs to be a relaxed atmosphere where

you can think about the content, and note what others are saying. Ineffective
discussions occur when people worry about what to say next, and run through it
mentally, rather than listening to the person speaking. Some of this is nerves, which will
calm down with practice, but in the meantime, preparing fully is the best way to lower
your stress levels. You have plenty of background and specific information to share.

Be positive about seeking the views of others and value their contributions.

Employ open-ended questions, those which encourage an elaborated, rather than a brief
yes or no answer. 'What are the main features of the Animal Farm novel?' is an open
ended question and more useful than 'Do you like the Animal Farm novel?'

Keep up the quality of argument in discussion. For example, if discussing the musical
properties of the sonnet you might make a general point like “There is evidence that the
more complex rhyme scheme of the Petrarchan sonnet allows for finer melodic
differentiation than other varieties'”. This is a general argument that would be
strengthened, and get more marks, by adding references and examples as you speak.
You might say “'Appiani and Grimaldi in their 1999 study of rhetorical structures in
verse suggest that Petrarch's virtuoso command of rhyme pattern variations produces
a markedly wider and more sophisticated range of melodic effects than either
Shakespeare or Milton achieved'”. By adding an example and citing the authors, the
argument is stronger and more memorable.

For top marks, take examples from more than one source.

Types of Discussion

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a great way of collecting a range of ideas and opinions and getting a
group talking. The process involves everyone calling out points and ideas. Someone
keeps a list, maybe on a flipchart so everyone can see. A typical list has no organization
- there is overlap, repetition and a mix of facts and opinions. The art of brainstorming
is to assemble ideas, including the wild and wacky, so that many avenues are
explored. The points are reordered and arguments developed through discussion, so
that by the end of a session they have been pooled, ordered and critically discussed.

25
Role play exercises

These may involve the simulation of a meeting, as for example, where a committee
discusses the progress of a project. You will prepare a role in advance, not necessarily a
role you would agree with personally. Procedure depends on the type of topic. It may
lead to a decision given by the Chairman, or a vote from observers.

Transactional discussion

This is the term for a dialogue centred around a real-life activity such as buying a rail
ticket, ordering a meal, describing an aching tooth to the dentist or making a phone call.
It is used regularly in the early stages of language learning, one you can practise with
friends or alone.

Debate

The normal format for a debate presupposes that there is a clear issue on which there
are polarized opinions. A motion is put forward for discussion. It is traditionally put in
the form This house believes that .. /. One side proposes the motion, and the other side
opposes it. The proposer gives a speech in favour, followed by the opposer speaking
against the motion. These speeches are 'seconded' by two further speeches for and
against, although for reasons of time these may be dispensed with in one-hour
debates. The motion is then thrown open so everyone can contribute. The proposer and
the opposer make closing speeches in which they can answer points made during the
debate, followed by a vote. Issues in literature are rarely clear-cut and a vote may be
inappropriate, but a formal debate on a current affairs topic is a useful way of
exploring positions and opinions, and for eliciting reasoned responses.

Oppositional discussion

Oppositional discussion is a less formal version of debate, in which each side tries to
persuade an audience that a particular case is right and the other is wrong. You may
work in a small group, assembling information from one point of view, and then argue
your case with another group that has tackled the same topic from another angle.
Remember that all your arguments need supporting evidence, so keep case examples
handy.

Consensual discussion

Consensual discussion involves a group of people with a common purpose, pooling

their resources to reach an agreement. Demonstrations of good, co-operative,
discussion skills are rare; most of the models of discussion on TV, radio, and in the press
are set up as Oppositional rather than consensual. Generally you achieve more through
discussing topics in a co-operative spirit, and one of the abilities most sought after by
employers of graduates is the ability to solve problems through teamwork.

26
Negotiation

Negotiation, coming to an agreement by mutual consent, is another useful business

and professional skill. One practises and improves negotiation skills in everyday
activities like persuading a tutor to extend an essay deadline, getting a landlord to do
repairs or persuading someone else to clean the kitchen. In formal negotiations:

• Prepare by considering the issues in their widest context, in advance.

• List the strengths and weaknesses of your position. It reduces the chances of being
caught out!

• Get all the options and alternatives outlined at the start. There are different routes to
any solution and everyone needs to understand the choices available.

• Check that everyone agrees that no major issue is being overlooked, and that all the
information is available to everyone.
• Appreciate that there will be more than one point of view, and let everyone have their
say.

• Stick to the issues that are raised and avoid personality-based discussion; s/he may be
an idiot BUT saying so will not promote agreement.

• If discussion gets over-heated, break for coffee, or agree to meet again later.

• At the end, ensure everyone understands what has been decided by circulating a
summary note.
There are many books on discussion, assertiveness, and negotiation skills; see Drew and
Bingham (1997) or Fisher et al. (1997), or do a library keyword search.

Top Tips

• Being asked to start a discussion is not like being asked to represent your country at
football. You are simply 'kicking off. Make your points clearly and 'pass the ball'
promptly. Focus thoughts by putting the main points on a handout or OHT.

• Don't wait for a 'big moment' before contributing. Ask questions to get a topic going.

• Don't be anxious about the quality of your contributions. Get stuck in. Early in a
discussion everyone is nervous and too concerned' about his or her own contribution to
be critical of others.

• Keep discussion points short and simple.

• Use examples to illustrate and strengthen your argument.

• Share the responsibility for keeping the group going.

• Have a short discussion before a tutorial to kick ideas about. Meet in the bar, over
coffee or supper.

27
Some final points

Getting better at discussion and argument needs practice, and hearing one's own voice
improves one's self-confidence. You can practise in private. Listen to a question on a
TV or radio discussion programme. Then turn the sound down, take a deep breath to
calm down, and use it as thinking time. What is the first point?

Now say it out loud. Subject matter is not important, get in there and have a go.

Respond with two points and then a question or observation that throws the topic back
to the group or audience. That is a good technique because you share the discussion
with the rest of the audience, who can contribute their views. You might want to tape a
programme and compare your answer with the panellists' - remember to look at the
style of the answers and their content.

Where points of view or judgements are needed, you may want to seek the opinions of
people with different academic, social and cultural backgrounds and experience. Their
views may be radically different from your own.

Seminars, workshops and tutorial discussions in literature and language classes are
explicitly designed to allow you to share these kinds of complementary views. To get
the most out of a discussion or conversation:

• Be positive.

• Ask yourself questions, like 'How will this help me understand .. .?'

• Make eye contact with the group.

• Give the speaker feedback and support.

• Aim to be accurate and on the point.

• Include examples and references as you speak.

28
 8. Managing Time

Self-Assesment:
On a scale of 1to 5 with 1 being “not at all effective,” 3 being “somewhat
effective,” and 5 being “very effective,” respond to each of the statements below.
This should give you a good idea of your current time-management system.

1. How effective is your current system for managing time? 1 2 3 4 5

2. How effective is your current system for balancing your school, work,
1 2 3 4 5
and social obligations?
3. How effective is your ability to get things done in an organized way? 1 2 3 4 5
4. How effective is your use of short periods of time (such as the time in
1 2 3 4 5
between classes) to get things done?
(mostly fives= you are successful in managing your time)
Managing time is the biggest challenge that faces university students. Before university,
everything was planned for you by others. Rarely were there occasions when YOU took
responsibility of your time. At university, you are in class for few hours, and this leaves with
big chunks of time to manage. Your primary task is make sure that you do not fall behind and
then have to scramble to make up for the lost time.
The magic word(s): It‟s high time you learned how to go about managing your time. To be
able to do so, you need to be organized. This means that you have to create a balance among
all your obligations (classes, friends, home, roommate(s), social life). Four (4) things are
essential for creating a balance among all the things you may want to do and those that you
have to do:
1. Treat your studies as a full time job.
As a full time student, you should make sure that you are covering a week‟s load of
studies. Your week load should not be less than 48 hours a week of studies. Of these,
you spend some 18 hours in class. You should make sure that you spend the
remaining 30 hours on studying for your past and future classes. You spend around 4
hours everyday in class and you must spend a minimum 5 hours on preparing for
class, revising lessons, preparing for tests,…The rest of your time (around 70 hours),
you are free to devote to sleeping and your other waking-activities. One thing that
you should always bear in mind is that you are, as a university student „free‟ to study
when you want.
2. Plan your review schedule for times when you are most alert.
The sooner you find what kind of person you are (a morning person/ an afternoon
person,…) the better you can approach the task of managing your schedule(s). The
latter should always be tailored to your needs as much as possible.
3. Go to class.
Even in the case where your professors does not take attendance, you should be
convinced that they believe that going to classes is part of learning. There is a lot of
information that you can only get in class. For example, most professors think of a
syllabus as a work-in-progresss (a suggestion) that is liable to change without any
prior notice.. Your attendance will help you in the sense it will provide you with
clues as to what it is that you should focus on.
4. Don’t procrastinate.
The habit of continually putting off work that needs to be done is what the word
„procrastinate‟ refers to. It is very tempting to put off work until later. This is a very
human nature. However, you will completely overwhelmed if you continually
procrastinate. Once you start procrastinating, it is very difficult to get back on track.

Mr AFKINICH Study Skills I: Managing Time SEM 1 MOD page 1 of 4

 Procrastination tends to be a bad habit that many students adopt. And then have
difficulty getting rid of.. What follows are some strategies that would help you do so.
Managing your time:
Managing your time can help you organize your responsibilities and achieve your goals. You
need to determine three (3) pieces of information so as to manage your time effectively:
1. What do you need to accomplish?
You should have a clear idea about the things that you want to do during any period
of time. One of the things, in this respect, that you should bear in mind is that it is
very difficult to say how long an activity X is going to take to be done. The ability to
know comes with experience. This is why you are better off if you make this rule,
your rule: Things always take longer than you think they will. In planning your
activities, provide more time than you think you will need. This way you avoid
yourself going through the experience of feeling frustrated or rushing to get things
done.
2. What things that you currently do that waste your time?
Before planning for an effective use of your time, you should find out if and how
waste your time. Are you doing things that simply waste large amounts of time?
How might you restructure your days so that less time is wasted.?
3. How can you keep track of what you need to do?
Get hold of a schedule book and jot down what things you need to do and how time
you should be spending on them. However, you should not content yourself with
writing the things-to-do list. You must also make sure to check your list evry now
and then.
Scheduling your time:
The following tips may turn out to be very useful when preparing your schedule. They may
help you avoid the trap of time-management pitfalls:
1. Study when you are most alert.
Try to find some of blocks of time that are naturally best for you. Test
several times of the day to find out when you are the most ready to study.
2. Spend some time each dy on a course you are taking.
Even in those times when you have nothing to prepare for class (homework,
exam/test, reading something,…). It‟s a good things to exercise yourself at
the task of being uptodate.
3. Be specific.
By creating a schedule that lists each specific tasks, one is more like to
remember to get everything done.
4. Make a reading schedule for each class.
For evry class, make sure that you read an X-number of pages everyday by
way of preparing for these classes.
5. prioritize.
It is very useful if you prioritize what you have to do. You may want to label
your assignments as “high”, “medium”, or “low”. priority.
6. make “to do” lists
As a student, you may be a victim of what might be called (distracting
thoughts). To keep yourself on track, you‟d better adopt a „to do‟ list.
7. borrow time- don’t steal it!
If for one reason or another, you decided to skip an activity, make sure that
you schedule for the wasted time the following day.
8. use the time between your classes.

Mr AFKINICH Study Skills I: Managing Time SEM 1 MOD page 2 of 4

 The time between two activities can be very important so why lose it. Plan to
use short periods of time . This time should not be lost.
9. scheduling studying breaks.
If you plan to study for more than an hour , schedule a 10-15 mns break for
each hour. But be careful that your short breaks don‟t turn into long breaks.
10. take some time off
On a good schedule, you might be able to reward yourself by taking some
time offwithout feeling guilty about it or regretting it later. You should plan
some free time when creating your schedule
11. don’t spin your wheels.
In case you have trouble, seek help. There is nothing that gets in the way of
managing your time more than wasting it worrying rather than doing
something productive. Don‟t allow problems / mishaps to let you fall too far
behind.
PREPARING FOR TESTS
The following tips might be very useful for effectively managing your time during exam
period:
1. Plan ahead.
Review and rehearse your notes and the texts, if any, before tests week. Starting
early is a must for you as a student who seeks to build up their linguistic
competence. This is not something that you can do overnight. It is also a must
for you to do so for all your courses have a cumulative nature. You are
responsible for all that was covered before the test (= the whole term in the case
of end term tests).
2. Cut down on work or other commitments.
Make sure that your friends and family understand that you are going to be
extremely busy during test preparation (and also during the build up period
referred to above). I fyou have a full-time or part-time job, work less, free
yourself as much as possible for your test preparation. Avoid adding any new
commitment to your schedule during this period, too.
3. Get enough sleep.
It rarely pays off to stay up all-night long preparing for a test. Your test
preparation schedule should be so done that it leaves you some adequate sleep
time. Falling asleep while taking a test is ot a very good prospect.
4. Study with a partner.
By this time you should already have figured out the importance of working with
a study group. If for nothing, a study group will keep motivated and force you to
be on schedule. The notes you have taken in class could be completed, corrected,
adjusted,.. by the members of your study group.
5. Don’t panic.
This is just an exam; it‟s not the end of the world. If you think that there is too
much pressure on you, re-adjust your schedule and allow yourself more break
time and try to relax during those breaks. If you feel too much anxiety, don‟t let
it build up, get help before it turns into a stumbling block to doing well in your
tests.

THINKING Critically?
1

Mr AFKINICH Study Skills I: Managing Time SEM 1 MOD page 3 of 4

 Noureddine is a 1st term student. He loves being at university. Kénitra for him is
a new city, his own place, new friends, and a wonderful social life. He has left
behind him the time when he had to be home at 10 p.m Noureddine is having
the time of his life. He does not seem to be the person who goes to all his classes
and he is falling behind on his class work
He has 10 courses to attend to this term. He has a quite extensive reading list to
see to this term (about 300 pages every week). In addition to in-class short
quizzes, he has two tests to prepare for : a mid term and an end of term. He never
seems to be able to keep up with his reading or to find time for study. Though he
seems to enjoy these, he missed several of his writing and grammar classes.
Another of his problems is his part-time job. His job as a waiter in a local café
place gives him the feeling that it is eating up on his study time. He works there
for 15 hours every week (3 hours a day). He can‟t quit or cut back on hours
because he needs the money he earns there.
His social commitments are another of his problems. Whenever he tries to start
studying / reviewing, somebody knocks at his door. He has a hard time saying no
and ends up procrastinating on his work evry time. When he was back home, he
never had trouble with his studies. He knows that he had to do things differently
but he just can‟t find the time to get everything done.
Using the strategies you learned about time- and self management, what advice
would give Noureddine to help him manage his time?

2
a- How do you thing your current time management system is affecting your
performance at university?
b- Do you find yourself with a lot of time during which you do not get anything
accomplished? If so how can you adjust your current schedule to account for this
wasted time?
c- What kinds of obstacles currently make hard to manage yourself as a
university student?
d- What obstacles did you find to managing yourself and your time in preparing
for your midterm tests? What do you plan to do differently for the end term
tests?

3
Follow the schedule you created for 1 week and then evaluate yourself by asking
the following questions:
a- Did you find that you accomplished more work?
b- What adjustments would you make to your schedule?
c- Have you left enough flexibility in your schedule for emergencies?
d- Are you studying during your most alert time?

Mr AFKINICH Study Skills I: Managing Time SEM 1 MOD page 4 of 4

 10- EXAMINATIONS

Relax, you did all that reflection, reviewing and revision, so the examinations will be
most agreeable. Check, and double-check, the examination timetable and room locations
- they can change. Know where you are going. Plan to be there 20 minutes early to find
your seat or block number, visit the loo and relax. Check the student handbook so you
know what to do if you are delayed. Make sure you have a pen, spare pens, pencils and
highlighters and a watch (even though there ought to be a clock in the room). Take heed
of anything the invigilator has to say. If you think there is a problem with the paper
tell an invigilator at once, so the Languages staff can be consulted.

Find out well in advance how the paper is structured and use the time in
proportion. The usual convention is that if the marks for individual questions are not
stipulated, the questions will all be worth equal marks. So, if you have to answer four
questions in a two-hour paper, allow equal time for all four, i.e. 25 minutes per question
+ 10 minutes to read the paper and plan your answers + 10 minutes to check through
your answers. Be strict with yourself about running over time, and if you can shave a
couple of minutes off one or two of the questions, you gain another 5 minutes for
extra checking or emergencies. Do all this arithmetic in advance, and try writing some
timed answers to an old exam paper to get yourself tuned in. For language exams,
where it is the quality of the language that determines your mark, you will need to
adjust the time allocation so as to allow sufficient time for checking what you have
written for spelling and grammatical accuracy.

Make sure you read the instructions at the top of the exam paper (the 'rubric') very
carefully. Don't rush to answer the first question on the page. Read through all the
questions before you put pen to paper, and make a rough plan of every answer
(including any quotations or references you intend to use) before you start. Answer
the number of questions required, no more and preferably no less.

Leave time to do justice to each question, and don't leave your potentially best answer
until the end. Equally, don't spend so much time on it that you have to skimp on the
remaining essays.

Should you be seized with anxiety and your brain freezes over, use the brainstorming
approach. Write out the question and then look at each word in turn scribbling down
the first words that occur to you, anything ... authors' names, examples, and related
words. This should generate calm and facts, and you can plan from the spider diagram
you have generated.

10.1 Examination Essays

Double check exam locations and times

In languages, as in most arts and humanities areas, discursive essays will feature
prominently in your exams. The minimalist advice here is: re-read the advice on

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argument, revision, and writing essays, and write fast. Essays allow you to develop lines
of thought, draw in diverse ideas and demonstrate your skills in argument, analysis,
synthesis, evaluation and written communication. Remember to keep the
linguistic/cultural/historical/literary content high, use evidence to support your
arguments wherever you can and cite supporting references.

Top Tips

• If all questions look impossible, choose the one where you have the most examples to
quote, or the longest question. Long questions usually give more clues to plan the
answer.

• Plan your answer even if short of time. Underline or highlight keywords in the
question, like Discuss, or Compare and contrast, note the period, areas and issues the
answer should cover, and don't stray into irrelevancy. Don't make generalizations if
the question asks about specific authors or texts or historical events, but if the answer
calls for a wider-ranging treatment, make sure you supply it, along with relevant
examples. Do a quick list or spider diagram of the main points, and note ideas for the
introduction and conclusion. Then rank the points to get a batting order for the sections.

• On a three question paper, plan all three questions before writing the answer to
Question 1. Your brain can run in background mode on ideas for Questions 2 and 3 as
you write the first answer.

• Watch the time. Leave a couple of minutes at the end of each answer to check through,
amend grammar, spelling, add extra points, references and tidy up diagrams.

Everything needs setting in a language context. If you do not demonstrate your powers
of argument and include language-related material and examples, connecting what
the examiners are asking with what you know, you are not going to hit the high marks.
Organize your points, one per paragraph, in a structure that flows logically. Set the scene
in your first paragraph and signpost the layout of the answer. Be precise rather than
woolly, for example rather than saying 'Early on .. / give the date; or for the general
'In many parts of Europe we see .. / use examples like 'In Amsterdam, Liege and
Strassburg we can see ...'. Try to keep an exciting, interesting point for the final
paragraph. If you are going to cross things out, do it tidily.

10- 2- Short Answer Questions

Short answer questions search for evidence of understanding through factual,

knowledge-based answers and the ability to reason and draw inferences. For short
answers a reasoned, paragraph answer is required to questions like 'Briefly
describe humanism'. Questions like 'Outline four characteristics of the courtly epic' or
'Suggest four reasons for the increased popularity enjoyed by right-wing politicians
in central Europe in the early years of the 21st century' require four, fact-rich answers,
and can be answered as a set of points. Take care to answer the question that is set -

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'Define and demonstrate the importance of the following four aspects of Dadaism: its
mocking of traditional European institutions and art forms; its emphasis on odd
conjunctions of everyday objects; its left-wing, anti-war thrust; its international
dimensions'. This is a really helpful question, provided you answer all eight parts.

10.3 MCQs

MCQs (multiple choice questions) test a wide range of topics in a short time. They may
be used for revision, in a module test where the marks do not count, or as a part of
module assessment where the marks matter. A class test checks what you have
understood, and should indicate where more research and revision is required. In a
final assessment watch the rules. With on-line assessment, once the answer is typed in
and sent, it cannot be changed.

Look carefully at the instructions on MCQ papers. The instructions will remind you of
the rules, such as:

There is/is not negative marking. (With negative marking you lose marks for
getting it wrong).

One or more answers may be correct, select all the correct answers. (This is how you
can get 100 marks on a paper with 60 questions.)

General advice says to shoot through the paper answering all the questions you can do
easily, and then go back to tackle the rest (but general advice does not suit everyone).
Questions come in a range of types:

10.4 Gap-Filling Test

These are peculiar to language learning, especially interactive CALL (Computer-Assisted

Language Learning) drills, and used wisely they have a powerful reinforcing effect
(because you can learn by your mistakes, go back and try them again). But there is
also a sudden-death paper-based form much-beloved of language teachers out to
probe (as in 'dentists' instruments') students' knowledge of grammar, where they can be
profoundly demoralizing! You are given sentences or a passage containing a series of
gaps which represent missing adjectival endings, articles or verbs, and you are
required to fill the gaps by adding the correct form. With these tests there is no grey
area, only black and white, right and wrong, and the only sensible way to approach
them is in the sure and certain knowledge that comes from learning the rules off by
heart... and get some past exam papers to practise on.

10-5- Oral Examinations

Oral examinations in L2 are an integral part of all language degrees.

In the Oral exam (anything from 10 to 40 minutes) you have a conversation with one or
sometimes two examiners (perhaps one of the native-speaker language assistants plus

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a lecturer or external examiner), either on a topic you have chosen and prepared in
advance, or on a subject determined there and then by the examiner(s). Either way,
it is a test of your conversational skills, aural and oral.

You may also be asked to read a passage out loud, to test your pronunciation.

With a topic chosen beforehand, it is up to you to research it and practise the

vocabulary connected with it, but many people think that if you don't know the subject
until you enter the room, there is nothing you can do to prepare for the exam. Not so. As
with writing an essay, there is a lot you can do to help yourself.

Top Tips

Track down useful conversational gambits and responses and learn them.

Drill yourself until your grammar (especially endings, which always go first under
strain) is as rock-solid as possible. If you make a grammatical error and correct it, you
will rewarded for spotting the mistake, too many candidates aren't even aware they
have made a mistake.

• Second-guess which topics will come up, and rehearse conversations around them
with your friends or kindly language assistants. Even if you guess wrong, all
practice is good practice, but realistically, the examiners are quite likely to ask you
something vaguely related to your course, your residence abroad, the country itself,
your plans for the future, or ...?

• Practise reading aloud (a variety of material, anything will do) to a friend or a tape-
recorder until you are satisfied with your accent and intonation and confident about
reading a new passage at short notice.

Get a good night's sleep and avoid unusual stimulants (always sound advice).

Examiners tend to appear in suits but are interested in your brain not your
wardrobe; but wear something tidy just the same. Celebrate later.

1
Donald G. Sydney and Kneale. E. Pauline. Study Skills for Language Students: A Practical Guide. New York:
Oxford University Press Inc., 2001.
Richards C. Jack. Teaching Listening and Speaking From Theory to Practice. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2008.

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