LAB PART 2

Constraint
SQL Constraints are rules used to limit the type of data that can go into a table, to maintain the
accuracy and integrity of the data inside table.
Constraints can be divided into the following two types,

1. Column level constraints: Limits only column data.

2. Table level constraints: Limits whole table data.

Constraints are used to make sure that the integrity of data is maintained in the database.
Following are the most used constraints that can be applied to a table.

 NOT NULL
 UNIQUE
 PRIMARY KEY
 FOREIGN KEY
 CHECK
 DEFAULT

NOT NULL Constraint

NOT NULL constraint restricts a column from having a NULL value. Once NOT
NULL constraint is applied to a column, you cannot pass a null value to that
column. It enforces a column to contain a proper value.
One important point to note about this constraint is that it cannot be defined at
table level.

Example using NOT NULL constraint

CREATE TABLE Student(s_id int NOT NULL, Name varchar(60),
Age int);
The above query will declare that the s_id field of Student table will not take
NULL value.

UNIQUE Constraint
UNIQUE constraint ensures that a field or column will only have unique values.
A UNIQUE constraint field will not have duplicate data. This constraint can be applied at
column level or table level.

Using UNIQUE constraint when creating a Table (Table

Level)
Here we have a simple CREATE query to create a table, which will have a
column s_id with unique values.

CREATE TABLE Student(s_id int NOT NULL UNIQUE, Name varchar(60),

Age int);

The above query will declare that the s_id field of Student table will only have unique
values and wont take NULL value.

Using UNIQUE constraint after Table is created (Column

Level)
ALTER TABLE Student ADD UNIQUE(s_id);

The above query specifies that s_id field of Student table will only have unique value.

Primary Key Constraint

Primary key constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database. A Primary Key
must contain unique value and it must not contain null value. Usually Primary Key is
used to index the data inside the table.

Using PRIMARY KEY constraint at Table Level

CREATE table Student (s_id int PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(60) NOT
NULL, Age int);

The above command will creates a PRIMARY KEY on the s_id.

Using PRIMARY KEY constraint at Column Level

ALTER table Student ADD PRIMARY KEY (s_id);

The above command will creates a PRIMARY KEY on the s_id.

Foreign Key Constraint

FOREIGN KEY is used to relate two tables. FOREIGN KEY constraint is also used to
restrict actions that would destroy links between tables. To understand FOREIGN KEY,
let's see its use, with help of the below tables:
Customer_Detail Table

c_id Customer_Name address

101 Adam Noida

102 Alex Delhi

103 Stuart Rohtak

Order_Detail Table

Order_id Order_Name c_id

10 Order1 101

11 Order2 103

12 Order3 102

In Customer_Detail table, c_id is the primary key which is set as foreign key
in Order_Detail table. The value that is entered in c_id which is set as foreign key
in Order_Detail table must be present in Customer_Detail table where it is set as
primary key. This prevents invalid data to be inserted into c_id column
of Order_Detail table.
If you try to insert any incorrect data, DBMS will return error and will not allow you to
insert the data.
Using FOREIGN KEY constraint at Table Level
CREATE table Order_Detail(

order_id int PRIMARY KEY,

order_name varchar(60) NOT NULL,

c_id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Customer_Detail(c_id)

);

In this query, c_id in table Order_Detail is made as foriegn key, which is a reference
of c_id column in Customer_Detail table.

Using FOREIGN KEY constraint at Column Level

ALTER table Order_Detail ADD FOREIGN KEY (c_id) REFERENCES
Customer_Detail(c_id);

Behaviour of Foriegn Key Column on Delete

There are two ways to maintin the integrity of data in Child table, when a particular
record is deleted in the main table. When two tables are connected with Foriegn key,
and certain data in the main table is deleted, for which a record exits in the child table,
then we must have some mechanism to save the integrity of data in the child table.

1. On Delete Cascade : This will remove the record from child table, if that value of
foriegn key is deleted from the main table.
2. On Delete Null : This will set all the values in that record of child table as NULL,
for which the value of foriegn key is deleted from the main table.
3. If we don't use any of the above, then we cannot delete data from the main table
for which data in child table exists. We will get an error if we try to do so.

ERROR : Record in child table exist

CHECK Constraint
CHECK constraint is used to restrict the value of a column between a range. It performs
check on the values, before storing them into the database. Its like condition checking
before saving data into a column.

Using CHECK constraint at Table Level

CREATE table Student(

s_id int NOT NULL CHECK(s_id > 0),

Name varchar(60) NOT NULL,

Age int

);

The above query will restrict the s_id value to be greater than zero.

Using CHECK constraint at Column Level

ALTER table Student ADD CHECK(s_id > 0);

SQL - Using Joins

The SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more tables in a database.
A JOIN is a means for combining fields from two tables by using values common to each.
Consider the following two tables –
Table 1 − CUSTOMERS Table
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | bikila | 32 | naqamte | 2000.00 |
| 2 | caala | 25 | gudar | 1500.00 |
| 3 | hacaalu | 23 | ambo | 2000.00 |
| 4 | caltuu | 25 | gincii | 6500.00 |
| 5 | bontuu | 27 | finfine | 8500.00 |
| 6 | akmal | 22 | shashee | 4500.00 |
| 7 | guyo | 24 | moyale | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2 − ORDERS Table
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as shown below.
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, AMOUNT
FROM CUSTOMERS, ORDERS
WHERE CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;
This would produce the following result.
+----+----------+-----+--------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | AMOUNT |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
| 3 | hacaalu | 23 | 3000 |
| 3 | hacaalu | 23 | 1500 |
| 2 | caala | 25 | 1560 |
| 4 | Caaltu | 25 | 2060 |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
Here, it is noticeable that the join is performed in the WHERE clause. Several operators
can be used to join tables, such as =, <, >, <>, <=, >=, !=, BETWEEN, LIKE, and NOT;
they can all be used to join tables. However, the most common operator is the equal to
symbol.
There are different types of joins available in SQL −
 INNER JOIN − returns rows when there is a match in both tables.
 LEFT JOIN − returns all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in
the right table.
 RIGHT JOIN − returns all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches
in the left table.
 FULL JOIN − returns rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
 CARTESIAN JOIN − returns the Cartesian product of the sets of records from the
two or more joined tables.

SQL - UNIONS CLAUSE

The SQL UNION clause/operator is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT
statements without returning any duplicate rows.
To use this UNION clause, each SELECT statement must have

 The same number of columns selected

 The same number of column expressions
 The same data type and
 Have them in the same order
But they need not have to be in the same length.

Syntax
The basic syntax of a UNION clause is as follows −
SELECT column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

UNION

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]
Here, the given condition could be any given expression based on your requirement.

Example
Consider the following two tables.
Table 1 − CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2 − ORDERS Table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as follows −
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
UNION
SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;
This would produce the following result −
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | NULL | NULL |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | NULL | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | NULL | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | NULL | NULL |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
The UNION ALL Clause
The UNION ALL operator is used to combine the results of two SELECT statements
including duplicate rows.
The same rules that apply to the UNION clause will apply to the UNION ALL operator.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the UNION ALL is as follows.
SELECT column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]

UNION ALL

SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]
Here, the given condition could be any given expression based on your requirement.
Example
Consider the following two tables,
Table 1 − CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2 − ORDERS table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as follows −
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
UNION ALL
SELECT ID, NAME, AMOUNT, DATE
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;
This would produce the following result −
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID | NAME | AMOUNT | DATE |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| 1 | Ramesh | NULL | NULL |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
| 5 | Hardik | NULL | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | NULL | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | NULL | NULL |
| 3 | kaushik | 3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
There are two other clauses (i.e., operators), which are like the UNION clause.
 SQL INTERSECT Clause − This is used to combine two SELECT statements, but
returns rows only from the first SELECT statement that are identical to a row in
the second SELECT statement.
 SQL EXCEPT Clause − This combines two SELECT statements and returns rows
from the first SELECT statement that are not returned by the second SELECT
statement.

SQL - NULL Values

The SQL NULL is the term used to represent a missing value. A NULL value in a table
is a value in a field that appears to be blank.
A field with a NULL value is a field with no value. It is very important to understand that
a NULL value is different than a zero value or a field that contains spaces.

Syntax
The basic syntax of NULL while creating a table.
SQL> CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
Here, NOT NULL signifies that column should always accept an explicit value of the
given data type. There are two columns where we did not use NOT NULL, which means
these columns could be NULL.
A field with a NULL value is the one that has been left blank during the record creation.

Example
The NULL value can cause problems when selecting data. However, because when
comparing an unknown value to any other value, the result is always unknown and not
included in the results. You must use the IS NULL or IS NOT NULL operators to check
for a NULL value.
Consider the following CUSTOMERS table having the records as shown below.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now, following is the usage of the IS NOT NULLoperator.
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NOT NULL;
This would produce the following result −
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now, following is the usage of the IS NULL operator.
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NULL;
This would produce the following result −
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | |
SQL - Alias Syntax
You can rename a table or a column temporarily by giving another name known as Alias.
The use of table aliases is to rename a table in a specific SQL statement. The renaming
is a temporary change and the actual table name does not change in the database. The
column aliases are used to rename a table's columns for the purpose of a particular SQL
query.
Syntax
The basic syntax of a table alias is as follows.
SELECT column1, column2....
FROM table_name AS alias_name
WHERE [condition];
The basic syntax of a column alias is as follows.
SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];
Example
Consider the following two tables.
Table 1 − CUSTOMERS Table is as follows.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Table 2 − ORDERS Table is as follows.
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, the following code block shows the usage of a table alias.
SQL> SELECT C.ID, C.NAME, C.AGE, O.AMOUNT
FROM CUSTOMERS AS C, ORDERS AS O
WHERE C.ID = O.CUSTOMER_ID;
This would produce the following result.
+----+----------+-----+--------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | AMOUNT |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | 3000 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | 1500 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | 1560 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | 2060 |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
Following is the usage of a column alias.
SQL> SELECT ID AS CUSTOMER_ID, NAME AS CUSTOMER_NAME
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NOT NULL;
This would produce the following result.
+-------------+---------------+
| CUSTOMER_ID | CUSTOMER_NAME |
+-------------+---------------+
| 1 | Ramesh |
| 2 | Khilan |
| 3 | kaushik |
| 4 | Chaitali |
| 5 | Hardik |
| 6 | Komal |
| 7 | Muffy |
+-------------+---------------+