Unit 1

Information technology (IT) is the use of computers to create, process, store, and exchange
all kinds of electronic data[1] and information. IT is typically used within the context of
business operations as opposed to personal or entertainment technologies.[2] IT is considered
to be a subset of information and communications technology (ICT). An information
technology system (IT system) is generally an information system, a communications system,
or, more specifically speaking, a computer system – including all hardware, software, and
peripheral equipment – operated by a limited group of IT users. Information Technology (IT)
is a business sector that deals with computing, including hardware, software,
telecommunications and generally anything involved in the transmittal of information or the
systems that facilitate communication.

What is information technology and what does it encompass?

The most basic information technology definition is that it's the application of technology to
solve business or organizational problems on a broad scale. No matter the role, a member of
an IT department works with others to solve technology problems, both big and small.

There are three primary pillars of responsibility for an IT department:

 IT governance: This refers to the combination of policies and processes that ensure IT
systems are effectively run and in alignment with the organization‘s needs.
 IT operations: This is a catchall category for the daily work of an IT department. This
includes providing tech support, network maintenance, security testing and device
management duties.
 Hardware and infrastructure: This focus area refers to all the physical components of
IT infrastructure. This pillar of IT includes the setup and maintenance of equipment
like routers, servers, phone systems and individual devices like laptops.

Why is information technology important?

Simply put, the work of most organizations would slow to a crawl without functioning IT
systems. Maintaining a standard level of service, security and connectivity is a huge task, but
it‘s not the only priority or potential challenge on their plates.

Let‘s take a look at the needs that current and future IT specialists will be working on:

 Data overload: Businesses need to process huge amounts of data. This requires large
amounts of processing power, sophisticated software and human analytical skills.
 Mobile and wireless usages: More employers are offering remote work options that
require smartphones, tablets and laptops with wireless hotspots and roaming ability.
 Cloud services: Most businesses no longer operate their own ―server farms‖ to store
massive amounts of data. Many businesses now work with cloud services—third-
party hosting platforms that maintain that data.
 Bandwidth for video hosting: Videoconferencing solutions have become more and
more popular, so more network bandwidth is needed to support them sufficiently.
IT career opportunities

Now that you know the general responsibilities of an IT department, you may be wondering
what the individual roles within are. Here are some of the positions that you‘ll find in many
IT departments:

 Computer support specialists work on the front lines troubleshooting any

technology issues including software issues, computer crashes and hardware trouble.
These specialists may also assist senior-level IT members with larger-scale network
issues.
 Network systems administrators focus on the big picture of the network system,
security and performance.
 Computer systems analysts work behind the scenes to marry IT with smart business
solutions. They usually specialize in a particular industry while working for a
technology firm or work directly in an industry, like finance or government.
 Information security analysts are responsible for the security of an organization‘s
computer networks, conducting tests and developing company-wide best security
practices.

Information system, an integrated set of components for collecting, storing, and

processing data and for providing information, knowledge, and digital products. Business
firms and other organizations rely on information systems to carry out and manage their
operations, interact with their customers and suppliers, and compete in the marketplace.
Information systems are used to run interorganizational supply chains and electronic markets.
For instance, corporations use information systems to process financial accounts, to manage
their human resources, and to reach their potential customers with online promotions. Many
major companies are built entirely around information systems.

Difference between Information Systems and Information Technology

People get confused while differentiating between IS and IT as they think that all the
information systems is computer-based systems. These two terms are always considered
tangible which is wrong as they are two different paths.

Both IT and IS manage PC based frameworks to an extent, yet need distinctive instruction
and preparation. In reality, IT is considered a subset of IS. Information Systems or IS is the
bridge between user and technology.

After reading this your doubts will get clear and you will easily differentiate between these
two terms.

 The contrast between IS and IT is that information systems fuse the technology,
individuals, and cycles engaged with data whereas information technology is the plan
and execution of data, or information, inside the information systems.
  Information Systems cover the arrangement of data as a whole whereas IT alludes
explicitly to the technology perspective inside that system.

 If we talk about the origin then IS has existed since the pre-mechanical period in the
pattern of drawings, books, and many more. However, IT is especially linked with the
creation of computer systems.
 The field of IS fills in as the extension among technology and individuals, though IT
centers are around helping them use and sort out that framework.
 The two controls are connected, yet have particular arrangements of learnings and
professional ways.

 While both IS and IT will include working with others, IS experts are ordinarily more
coordinated in using technology and different frameworks to achieve business goals.
On the other hand, IT experts, while serving a significant capacity to the general
association, are more centered around the machines and hardware and software
systems.

 Organizations have been using IS for instance in the type of manual books of records
to present day Tally. The method of transmission has undergone enormous change,
for instance, from a letter to an email. IT has helped drive proficiency across
association with improved efficiency and accuracy fabricating.

I, Computer: Definition

A computer is a machine that can be programmed to manipulate symbols. Its principal

characteristics are:

 It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.

 It can execute a pre-recorded list of instructions (a program).
 It can quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data.

Therefore computers can perform complex and repetitive procedures quickly, precisely and
reliably. Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery (wires,
transistors, and circuits) is called hardware; the instructions and data are called software. All
general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:

 Central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the component that
actually executes instructions organized in programs ("software") which tell the
computer what to do.
 Memory (fast, expensive, short-term memory): Enables a computer to store, at least
temporarily, data, programs, and intermediate results.
 Mass storage device (slower, cheaper, long-term memory): Allows a computer to
permanently retain large amounts of data and programs between jobs. Common mass
storage devices include disk drives and tape drives.
 Input device: Usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through
which data and instructions enter a computer.
 Output device: A display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the
computer has accomplished.
In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to
work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data
from one part of the computer to another.

All the computers that are developed are not alike rather they have different designs and
features. Some computers have very high capacity as well as working speed; however, some
are slow. Depending upon the requirements, computers are being developed.

Types of Computer

Depending upon the internal structure and subsequent features and applicability, computer
system is categorized as follows −
Mainframe Computer
It is high capacity and costly computer. It is largely used by big organizations where many
people can use it simultaneously.
Super Computer
This category of computer is the fastest and also very expensive. A typical supercomputer
can solve up to ten trillion individual calculations per second.
Workstation Computer
The computer of this category is a high-end and expensive one. It is exclusively made for
complex work purpose.
Personal Computer (PC)
It is a low capacity computer developed for single users.
Apple Macintosh (Mac)
It is a sort of personal computer manufactured by Apple company.
Laptop computer (notebook)
It is a handy computer that can be easily carried anywhere.
Tablet and Smartphone
Modern technology has advanced further. It has helped develop computers that are pocket-
friendly. Tablets and smartphones are the best examples of such computer.

II, Computer sizes and power

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is
considerable overlap:

 Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.

 Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal
computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality
monitor.
  Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users
simultaneously.
 Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously.
 Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of
instructions per second.

Supercomputer and Mainframe

Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that
require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching).

Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit
or "main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller
"minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described
as "mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes.

Minicomputer

It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and
small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers
and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of
supporting from up to 200 users simultaneously.

Workstation

It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,

software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally
come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network
support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device
such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes
without a disk drive.

Personal computer:

It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user.
In price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five
thousand pounds.

Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular
personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late
1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing operating systems seemed to appear daily.
Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC.
The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal
computer manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for personal computer or IBM PC.
One of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, which remains a
major player in the personal computer marketplace. Other companies adjusted to IBM's
dominance by building IBM clones, computers that were internally almost the same as the
IBM PC, but that cost less. Because IBM clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs,
they were capable of running the same software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its
influence in directing the evolution of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM
the term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers, to the
exclusion of other types of personal computers, such as Macintoshes. In recent years, the
term PC has become more and more difficult to pin down. In general, though, it applies to
any personal computer based on an Intel microprocessor, or on an Intel-compatible
microprocessor. For nearly every other component, including the operating system, there are
several options, all of which fall under the rubric of PC

Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintoshes and
PCs. The principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems
and are based on microprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as
single-user systems, it is common to link them together to form a network. In terms of power,
there is great variety. At the high end, the distinction between personal computers and
workstations has faded. High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing
power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-
Packard, and DEC.

III, Personal Computer Types

Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The chassis
or case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic components.
Every computer system requires at least one chassis to house the circuit boards and wiring.
The chassis also contains slots for expansion boards. If you want to insert more boards than
there are slots, you will need an expansion chassis, which provides additional slots. There are
two basic flavors of chassis designs–desktop models and tower models–but there are many
variations on these two basic types. Then come the portable computers that are computers
small enough to carry. Portable computers include notebook and subnotebook computers,
hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs.

Tower model

The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage
devices are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models, in
which these components are housed in a more compact box. The main advantage of tower
models is that there are fewer space constraints, which makes installation of additional
storage devices easier.

Desktop model

A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on
top of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model
computers are narrow and tall. Because of their shape, desktop model computers are
generally limited to three internal mass storage devices. Desktop models designed to be very
small are sometimes referred to as slimline models.

Notebook computer
An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh less than
6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal
difference between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the display screen.
Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to
produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook display screens
varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers are nearly
equivalent to personal computers. They have the same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk
drives. However, all this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook computers cost
about twice as much as equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with
battery packs that enable you to run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries
need to be recharged every few hours.

Laptop computer

A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop
computers are more frequently called notebook computers.

Subnotebook computer

A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook computer.
Typically, subnotebook computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but are otherwise
equivalent to notebook computers.

Hand-held computer

A portable computer that is small enough to be held in one‘s hand. Although extremely
convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook computers because of
their small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held computers are those that are
specifically designed to provide PIM (personal information manager) functions, such as a
calendar and address book. Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard
problem by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices
rely on handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held
computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.

Palmtop

A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops
are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and
calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often called hand-held
computers or PDAs. Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk
drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk drives, modems,
memory, and other devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket
computers.

PDA

Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing,
telephone/fax, and networking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax
sender, and personal organizer. Unlike portable computers, most PDAs are pen-based, using a
stylus rather than a keyboard for input. This means that they also incorporate handwriting
recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice input by using voice recognition
technologies. The field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, which introduced the
Newton MessagePad in 1993. Shortly thereafter, several other manufacturers offered similar
products. To date, PDAs have had only modest success in the marketplace, due to their high
price tags and limited applications. However, many experts believe that PDAs will eventually
become common gadgets.

PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

Computer Hardware?

Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e. the
components that can be seen and touched. The computer hardware contains mechanical
elements and electronic elements of the computer. The hardware of the computer system
includes monitor, CPU, keyboard, mouse, printer, sound system, RAM, hard disk and many
more. Hardware is used for taking input data from the user, store the data and display the
output and execute the commands given by an individual.

Examples of Hardware are the following −

 Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.

 Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.

 Secondary storage devices − Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.

 Internal components − CPU, motherboard, RAM, etc.

Different Types of Computer Hardware

Given below are the types of computer hardware:

1. RAM
RAM (Random Access Memory) is a type of computer hardware that is used to store the
information and then process that information. The processing speed of RAM is much faster
than a hard disk but Ram is a volatile device which means when a computer system is shut
down all the information stored is wiped out from RAM whereas hard disk is non-volatile
which means it stores the data permanently in it. The data can be easily stored in RAM and
can be easily fetched from RAM. The fetch process of data is very fast in Ram compare to
hard disk. There are two types of RAM SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) and DRAM
(Dynamic random access memory). The use of SRAM is in a cache memory of CPU. And the
DRAM is mostly used in modern computers.

2. Hard disk
The hard disk is another type of computer hardware that is used to store the data in it. The
hard disk can be preinstalled in CPU or can be used as an external device. The hard disk is
the non-volatile component which means the data is stored permanently in hard disk and it
does not wipe out when the system is shut down. The hard disk contains electromagnet
surface which is used to store huge chunks of data and can be accessed easily. The hard disk
has the capacity to store trillions of bytes of data in its storage. In the internal of hard disk, it
has a collection of stacked disks which have electromagnetic surface used to store data in it.
Every hard disk has a certain processing speed which varies from 4200-15000 rpm. The
higher the rpm more is the processing speed of a hard disk. The high processing speed is used
in supercomputers.

3. Monitor
For the computer hardware, the hardware is another device that is used to display the output,
videos and other graphics as it is directly connected to the CPU. The video displayed by the
monitor uses the video card.

4. CPU
CPU (Central processing unit) is the core hardware part of the computer system which is used
to interpret and execute most of the commands using other computer parts i.e. software and
hardware.

5. Mouse
It is a hand operator input device that is used to point something on the screen. The mouse
can be wired or wireless. If the mouse is wired it is connected to the CPU directly.

6. Keyboard
The keyboard is another type of computer hardware that is used to give input text, commands
to the computer. The keyboard can be wired or wireless. The keyboard contains, alphabets,
numbers, special characters and other buttons to give input to the computer. It is the input
device that takes input to the user and processes the commands.

7. Printer
The printer is a type of hardware that is used to print something which is seen on the
computer and then transfer that displayed information to paper. The printers can be
differentiated based on size, processing speed, and other factors.

8. Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower
spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions. The
function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

9. Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or
draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed
in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen
button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.

10. Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer
can be moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a
mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

11. Scanner

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the
computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then
converted into a digital form that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited
before they are printed.

12. Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer
can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be
stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the
camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it
converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used
for fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.

13. Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form. The
microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

14. Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine
readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The
main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

15. Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans the text optically, character
by character, converts them into a machine readable code, and stores the text on the system
memory.

16. Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and
dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It
may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader
scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the
computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
17. Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.
Advantages of computer hardware

Following are the advantages pointed below.

 It will help to establish an effective mode of communication that can help the
organizations to improve their business standards.
 It will help to make the task automated and help to store the huge chunks of data that
can be beneficial for the organization or individual.
 The user can use the hardware to give the instruction to command and can obtain the
output as per the given instruction.
 The processing speed of a hardware device is fast which will help to execute more
operations at one time.
 The hardware devices are multiprocessing which means the user can use more than
one hardware device at the same time.
 The hardware can be installed very easily in a computer system and also can be
upgraded as per the user requirements.

Output Devices
Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display
1. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels,
the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a
whole character, such as the letter ‗e‘ in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be
divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard
character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data
horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size
 High power consumption
 2. Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight
and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear
them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games,
monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −
 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD
(Liquid-Crystal Device).

Printers

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers −

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
1. Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on
the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −

 Character printers
 Line printers
2. Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel
3. Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are
popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in
the form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or
9*9) which come out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages

 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages

 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
4. Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for
word-processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice
quality.
Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
5. Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of two types −

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum
is divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a
paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the
track. Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96
characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can
print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
  Very high speed
Disadvantages

 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages

 Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form
the characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages

 Expensive
  Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high
quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable
Disadvantages

 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer

Plotter
A plotter produces vector graphics drawings. Plotters draw lines on paper using a pen, or in
some applications, use a knife to cut a material like vinyl or leather. In the latter case, they
are sometimes known as a cutting plotter. A plotter is a computer hardware device much like
a printer that is used for printing vector graphics. Instead of toner, plotters use a pen, pencil,
marker, or another writing tool to draw multiple, continuous lines onto paper rather than a
series of dots like a traditional printer. Though once widely used for computer-aided design,
these devices have more or less been phased out by wide-format printers. Plotters produce a
hard copy of schematics and other similar applications.

Advantages of plotters

 Plotters can work on very large sheets of paper while maintaining high resolution.
 They can print on a wide variety of flat materials including plywood, aluminum, sheet
steel, cardboard, and plastic.
 Plotters allow the same pattern to be drawn thousands of times without any image
degradation.

Disadvantages of plotters

 Plotters are quite large compared to a traditional printer.

 Plotters are also much more expensive than a traditional printer.

When was the first plotter invented?

The first plotter was invented in 1953 by Remington-Rand. It was used in conjunction with
the UNIVAC computer to created technical drawings.

1. Portable Bluetooth speakers

Bluetooth technology is integrated into the majority of modern devices and offers an
alternative to speaker connections.

Do you want a portable music device that you can carry with you everywhere you go?
Bluetooth speakers have rechargeable batteries built-in. Cellphones, laptops, or desktops will
play music through Bluetooth speakers. There are small ones that you can stick to your bag.
Bluetooth speakers are a convenient way to listen to music on the go.

2. Wireless Speakers

Wireless speakers receive their signals through radio frequency rather than the cables used by
electrically driven speakers. These occupy little space as they are wireless. They are simple
and easy to handle.

However, they have larger drivers and more efficient amplification than most portable
Bluetooth speakers. Wireless speakers are most often used with Wi-Fi or Bluetooth, in
addition to infrared signals. App control for swapping sources, selecting tracks, and changing
volumes are available. Wireless home speakers allow you to listen to music from all over the
world.

3. Built-in Speakers

Built-in speakers are used in stereo sets, televisions, laptops, and other electronic devices.
Some can produce adequate sound, but not exceptional sound. These machines have speaker
systems attached to them. External speakers are better than built-in speakers as they offer the
excellent listening experience that advanced speaker devices provide.

4. Subwoofer

It‘s a low-frequency speaker or horn of approximately 80 hertz. This system aims to

reproduce frequency spectrum without the distortion that other types can‘t, and on the other
hand, sounds are captured in audio tracks known as.1, which corresponds to multi-channel
versions. Subwoofers are designed to replicate very low bass frequencies in audio, such as
roars, thunder, and growls in movies and bass guitar sounds in music.

5. Woofer

These can reproduce low and medium frequencies that are approximately 80-1000 Hz.
They‘re mostly used in ―home cinema,‖ where the concept is that audio can be heard in a
wide range of dynamics.

These are mainly served as the loudspeaker while installation at our homes. Woofers and
subwoofers reproduce the low-frequency spectrum. It is derived from a dog‘s barking or a
‗woof,‘ which uses lower-frequency waves than birds‘ tweeting, which uses higher frequency
waves.

6. Midrange – squawker

Squawker speaker is designed to replicate mid-range sounds. A mid-range loudspeaker will

generally cover frequencies between 200 and 300 Hz and 5 to 7 kHz approximately. A
midrange speaker‘s primary role is to distribute sound, including dialogue and music. As a
result, it is the most basic type of speaker with the broadest frequency coverage.

7. High-frequency loudspeaker – tweeter

Tweeters are designed to handle high-frequency sounds or shrill, high-pitched notes with
great performance. Since it reproduces high frequencies, sometimes above 2 to 5 kHz, the
high-frequency loudspeaker is a tweeter since various loudspeakers have different frequency
ranges and are built differently.

8. Soundbars

A soundbar might be a good choice for you if you want more dynamic sound without having
to position speakers around your room or insert them into your walls.

LCD, LED, and plasma TV enhances by the unique layouts of soundbars, and they typically
are of great quality than the set‘s built-in speakers.
9. An electrostatic loudspeaker (ESL): It is a loudspeaker that generates sound by applying
force to a membrane suspended in an electrostatic field.

Flat-panel loudspeakers, also known as diaphragm speakers, are electrostatic speakers. Over
two conductive, stationary panels, they have one driver and a thin membrane. Electrostatic
speakers are typically powered from the outside and connected through an electrical socket.
Since the thin membrane moves very little, it receives current from an amplifier, which
creates sound.

Relationship between Hardware and Software

 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must
work together to make a computer produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into
the hardware.
 Hardware is a one-time expense.
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
 A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
 If the hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then the software is its 'soul'. Both
are complementary to each other.
What Does Storage Device Mean?

A storage device is any type of computing hardware that is used for storing, porting or
extracting data files and objects. Storage devices can hold and store information both
temporarily and permanently. They may be internal or external to a computer, server or
computing device.

A storage device may also be known as a storage medium or storage media depending on
whether it is seen as discrete in nature (for example, ―a hard drive‖ versus ―some hard drive
space.‖)

There are two different types of storage devices:

Primary storage devices: Generally smaller in size, primary storage devices are designed to
hold data temporarily and are internal to the computer. They have the fastest data access
speed. These types of devices include RAM and cache memory.
Secondary storage devices: Secondary storage devices usually have larger storage capacity,
and they store data permanently. They can be either internal or external to the computer.
These types of devices include the hard disk, the optical disk drive and USB storage device.

Brief History of Storage Devices

In order to really understand what storage devices used to look like and what they look like
now, it can be helpful to look at a history of evolving storage devices in general.

Early storage devices were primitive mechanical systems based on items like punch cards and
later, magnetic tape. They presented binary through physical media.

These became largely obsolete when other digital media was created. First, there were floppy
disks and diskettes, then there were compact discs that could hold large amounts of binary in
digital formats.

At the same time, computers and other devices continued to be made with primary hard
drives, where a traditional platter is read by an arm in order to read and write data.

Eventually, a new option emerged called the solid-state drive or SSD.

The New Paradigm: Solid-State Drives and Storage Devices

New solid-state drives and storage devices store data in a way that's different from the
traditional platter hard drive.

Solid-state storage involves running electrical currents through a substrate instead of using a
spinning hard drive platter. It eliminates some of the mechanical parts of the traditional hard
drive. It also makes the storage of digital information much more efficient.

New computers may have solid-state drives as a primary device. New flash drives and thumb
drives use solid-state storage for secondary devices.

At the same time, companies have been updating how they approach storage device
engineering for broader enterprise systems. Systems like Redundant Array of Independent
Disk (RAID) designs allow companies to use a series of drives to store information in
"slices."

Then the storage area network (SAN) evolved, which links together individual storage
devices to provide network storage. Something called "storage fabric" uses fiber channel
switching to build network storage for enterprise systems.

Cloud and Virtual Storage

One of the latest advances in storage media involves the cloud and virtualization. With
modern systems, users can store data virtually, rather than using physical hardware on-site.
For example, Amazon Web Services offers AWS S3, a type of object storage where instead
of being stored in physical hard drive devices, customers store data in virtual buckets. These
types of innovations represent the frontier of where storage media is going.

Why is storage needed in a computer?

A computer would be considered a dumb terminal without a storage device. It cannot store or
hold any type of information or settings if it has no storage device. Although your computer
can run without storage media, you only can view or read the information on it unless it was a
computer that is connected to another computer contained storage abilities. Furthermore, a
storage device is needed to store information about such tasks, like browsing the Internet.

What is a storage location?

When you store any type of information on a computer or other similar devices, it may ask
you to the storage location where you want to store the information. By default, there is
various type of data stored on your computer hard disk. If you want to move this information
to another device, you need to transfer it to another storage media, like a USB flash drive that
makes capable you to move it to any other computer.

Why so many different storage devices?

As the use of a computer is increasing rapidly, the technologies used to store data are also
increasing day by day due to the higher need for storage capacity. There is need to invent the
new technologies as the use of storage device is increasing day by day and people want take
it with them. As new storage devices are invented, people replace the old device with a new
storage device. Therefore, the need for older devices is ended and stop being used.

The CD-ROM drives replaced them with the introduction of floppy diskettes, and CD-ROM
was replaced by DVD drives. Then flash drives are designed to replace the DVD drives. The
cost of the first hard disk drive from IBM that contained only 5 MB was $50,000. In modern
times, we have smartphones that contain much storage capacity at a smaller price, which can
also be carried out in pocket easily. Furthermore, every enhancement of storage device makes
it capable of a computer system to store a large amount of data, including accessing it
speedily.

Examples of computer storage

Magnetic storage devices

Nowadays, magnetic storage is commonly founded on hybrid hard drives or extremely large
HDDs.

A list is given below of magnetic storage devices:

o Floppy diskette: A floppy disk drive (FDD) offers users the benefit of saving data to
removable diskettes. FDDs have been replaced with other storage devices like
network file transfer and USB.

o Hard drive: A hard disk drive (HDD) is used to store data permanently as it is a non-
volatile computer storage device, and directly connected to the disk controller of the
 computer's motherboard. Usually, it is installed internally in a computer, known as
secondary storage device.

o Magnetic Card: A magnetic card is a card that may have information about an
individual, such as passcodes to enter secure buildings or available recognition on a
credit card.

o SuperDisk: Imation Corporation developed the disk storage technology. SuperDisk is

also known as a LS-240 and LS-120. The drive was most popular with OEM
computers and able to store up to 120 MB (Megabyte) on a single disk. Later, it was
capable of storing 240 MB and also backward compatible with 1.44 MB disks.

o Tape cassette: A tape is a rectangular and flat container that is capable of storing
data. As compared to other storage media, it is less expensive and commonly used for
backing up a huge amount of data.

o Zip diskette: A Zip drive is a hardware data storage device that is an advanced
version of the floppy disk. Its functions like a diskette and standard 1.44" floppy drive
and developed by Iomega. It became very popular in the late 1990s and capable of
storing data that was not possible with ordinary floppy disks.

Optical storage devices

Another type of storage devices are given below:

o Blu-ray disc

o CD-ROM disc

o CD-R and CD-RW disc.

o DVD-R, DVD+RW, DVD+R, and DVD-RW disc.

Flash memory devices

Flash memory is cheaper as well as portable. Due to become more reliable and efficient
solution, most magnetic and optical media have replaced by flash memory device.
o Flash drive: A USB flash drive is a portable storage device used for data storage that
is also known as pen drive, thumb drive, data stick, keychain drive. They are
connected to a computer via a USB port and often the size of a human thumb.

o Memory card: A memory card is commonly used in digital cameras, printers, MP3
players, PDAs, digital camcorders, game consoles, and handheld computers. The most
common memory card format was CompactFlash for many years, but today are
CFexpress, SD, MicroSD, and XQD.

o Compact Flash (CF): Compact Flash is a type of flash memory that is commonly
found in digital cameras, PDAs and other portable devices. It is a 50-pin connection
storage device that is capable of storing data ranging from 2 MB to 128 GB.

o 2: M.2 is a solid-state drive, introduced in 2014.There are two types of M.2 devices;
SATA M.2 and PCIe M.2.

o MultiMediaCard: A MultiMediaCard or MMC is an Integrated Circuit that is used in

car radios, printers, PDAs, MP3 players, and digital cameras. It acts as external
storage for data. The MMCP (MMCplus) and MMCM (MMCmobile / MMCmicro)
are the variations of the MMC card.

o SDHC card (Secure Digital High Capacity): It uses new technology and an
improved version of the standard SD card. It is not backward compatible with SD
format devices and has the ability to store data in a range from 4 GB to 32 GB.

o NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory Express): It is a device specification that is designed

for data centers and standardizes the way devices like SSDs can be connected to a
computer's PCI Express bus, introduced by Intel in 2007.

o Sony Memory Stick: Sony Memory Stick is a family of flash memory cards, first
introduced by Sony in October 1998. It is designed for digital storage in cameras and
other Sony products.

o SmartMedia Card: A SmartMedia card is a memory card developed by Toshiba that

is also known as a solid-state floppy disk card.
 o xD-Picture Card (EXtreme Digital Picture Card): The xD-Picture Card is a flash
memory card that is introduced by Olympus and Fuji in 2002. In 2003, until the Mini
SD card was introduced, the xD cards were the smallest flash memory cards available
on the market. H and M/M+ versions of the xD-Picture Card had a capacity of up to 2
GB and the original version up to 512 MB.

o SSD: An SSD is a storage medium that is similar to a hard disk drive (HDD). Even
without power, it has the ability to maintain stored data in a permanent state. It has
higher reliability, noiseless operation, lower power consumption, and faster access
time because it has no moving parts, unlike a hard drive.

o SD Card: An SD Card, stands for Secure Digital Card, is most commonly used with
electronics that are designed to offer high-capacity memory with small size. It is often
used in small portable devices like cell phones, digital cameras, digital video
camcorders, mp3 players, etc. It is used by more than 400 brands of electronic
devices.

Online and cloud storage

The need to store data online and in cloud storage is increasing rapidly.

o Cloud storage: Cloud storage is a cloud computing model that transmits and holds
data on remote storage systems where a cloud computing provider manages,
maintains, and made available data to users over a network. It offers users the
reliability, confidentiality, durability, and 'access data anytime'.

o Network media: Network media is used on a computer network such as the Internet,
as it is any audio, video, images or text.

Paper storage

Initially, computers were not able to store data on any storage technologies, like flash
memory devices, optical storage devices; they had to depend on paper. In modern times, the
method of paper storage to store data is rarely used or found.
 o Punch card: A punch card is also known as Hollerith cards or IBM cards that are
able to store data in the form of small punched holes. It is a simple piece of paper
stock that was widely used to input data into early computers.

o OMR: It stands for optical mark recognition or optical mark reading. It is a method of
extracting data from human beings by identifying certain markings on a document,
such as checkboxes and fill-infields, on printed forms. Generally, the OMR process is
accomplished by scanning that detects a reflection or transmission with the help of a
piece of paper. This technology provides advantages for applications such as ballots,
reply cards, surveys, and questionnaires as they need a large amount of hand-filled
forms to be processed quickly and with accuracy.

Which storage devices are used today?

Although there are various storage devices, most of the storage devices have explained above
are not in use today. In modern times, most computers mainly use SSD to hold data,
including flash drives and cloud storage. Some of the laptops and most desktop computers
use a disk drive, which has the ability to read and write CDs and DVDs.

Are storage devices input and output devices?

Storage devices are not considered as input and output devices; however, they have the
ability to forward and receive information in the form of storing data, these devices are not
input or output devices. It will be more suitable to consider these devices as a storage device
rather than input or output devices as they are capable of reading and storing data.

What is the latest storage device?

The NVMe, stands for Non-Volatile Memory Express, is one of the most recent storage
device technologies. The cloud storage and SSDs are also becoming recently developed
storage devices. Also, some older storage device technologies such as tape drives and hard
disk drives are also introducing new technologies for holding much data.

How do you access storage devices?

To access a storage device on the computer or laptop, it is dependent on the operating system,
which is being used in the system. For instance, if you are using Microsoft Windows, you can
use Windows Explorer on computer that is its default file manager. To open Windows
Explorer, you need to double click on the My Computer shown on the desktop screen, or you
can use a shortcut key Window key + E. Additionally, Finder is considered the default file
manager on the Apple computers.

What storage device has the largest capacity?

The SSD or hard disk is the largest storage device for most computers. Also, computers that
have network connections may have the ability to access larger storage with cloud
computing, NAS devices, or cloud computing.

Although there are several storage devices available with different capacities, for example,
when the hard drive was developed, it had only 5 MB capacity. But now, it can store data up
to several terabytes in size. Because with the development of the hard disk, its storage
capacity has been increased.

Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute
specific tasks. It is the opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a
computer. Software is a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs that
run on a device. It can be thought of as the variable part of a computer, while hardware is the
invariable part.

The two main categories of software are application software and system software. An
application is software that fulfills a specific need or performs tasks. System software is
designed to run a computer's hardware and provides a platform for applications to run on top
of.

Other types of software include programming software, which provides the programming
tools software developers need; middleware, which sits between system software and
applications; and driver software, which operates computer devices and peripherals.

Early software was written for specific computers and sold with the hardware it ran on. In the
1980s, software began to be sold on floppy disks, and later on CDs and DVDs. Today, most
software is purchased and directly downloaded over the internet. Software can be found on
vendor websites or application service provider websites.

Examples and types of software

Among the various categories of software, the most common types include the following:

 Application software. The most common type of software, application software is a

computer software package that performs a specific function for a user, or in some cases,
for another application. An application can be self-contained, or it can be a group of
programs that run the application for the user. Examples of modern applications include
office suites, graphics software, databases and database management programs, web
 browsers, word processors, software development tools, image editors and
communication platforms.

 System software. These software programs are designed to run a computer's application
programs and hardware. System software coordinates the activities and functions of the
hardware and software. In addition, it controls the operations of the computer hardware
and provides an environment or platform for all the other types of software to work in.
The OS is the best example of system software; it manages all the other computer
programs. Other examples of system software include the firmware, computer language
translators and system utilities.

 Driver software. Also known as device drivers, this software is often considered a type
of system software. Device drivers control the devices and peripherals connected to a
computer, enabling them to perform their specific tasks. Every device that is connected
to a computer needs at least one device driver to function. Examples include software
that comes with any nonstandard hardware, including special game controllers, as well
as the software that enables standard hardware, such as USB storage devices, keyboards,
headphones and printers.

 Middleware. The term middleware describes software that mediates between

application and system software or between two different kinds of application software.
For example, middleware enables Microsoft Windows to talk to Excel and Word. It is
also used to send a remote work request from an application in a computer that has one
kind of OS, to an application in a computer with a different OS. It also enables newer
applications to work with legacy ones.

 Programming software. Computer programmers use programming software to write

code. Programming software and programming tools enable developers to develop,
write, test and debug other software programs. Examples of programming software
include assemblers, compilers, debuggers and interpreters.

How does software work?

All software provides the directions and data computers need to work and meet users' needs.
However, the two different types -- application software and system software -- work in
distinctly different ways.
Application software

Application software consists of many programs that perform specific functions for end
users, such as writing reports and navigating websites. Applications can also perform tasks
for other applications. Applications on a computer cannot run on their own; they require a
computer's OS, along with other supporting system software programs, to work.

These desktop applications are installed on a user's computer and use the computer memory
to carry out tasks. They take up space on the computer's hard drive and do not need an
internet connection to work. However, desktop applications must adhere to the requirements
of the hardware devices they run on.

Web applications, on the other hand, only require internet access to work; they do not rely on
the hardware and system software to run. Consequently, users can launch web applications
from devices that have a web browser. Since the components responsible for the application
functionality are on the server, users can launch the app from Windows, Mac, Linux or any
other OS.

System software

System software sits between the computer hardware and the application software. Users do
not interact directly with system software as it runs in the background, handling the basic
functions of the computer. This software coordinates a system's hardware and software so
users can run high-level application software to perform specific actions. System software
executes when a computer system boots up and continues running as long as the system is on.

Design and implementation

The software development lifecycle is a framework that project managers use to describe the
stages and tasks associated with designing software. The first steps in the design lifecycle are
planning the effort and then analyzing the needs of the individuals who will use the software
and creating detailed requirements. After the initial requirements analysis, the design phase
aims to specify how to fulfill those user requirements.
The next is step is implementation, where development work is completed, and then software
testing happens. The maintenance phase involves any tasks required to keep the system
running.

The software design includes a description of the structure of the software that will be
implemented, data models, interfaces between system components and potentially the
algorithms the software engineer will use.

The software design process transforms user requirements into a form that computer
programmers can use to do the software coding and implementation. The software engineers
develop the software design iteratively, adding detail and correcting the design as they
develop it.

The different types of software design include the following:

 Architectural design. This is the foundational design, which identifies the overall
structure of the system, its main components and their relationships with one another
using architectural design tools.

 High-level design. This is the second layer of design that focuses on how the system,
along with all its components, can be implemented in forms of modules supported by
a software stack. A high-level design describes the relationships between data flow and
the various modules and functions of the system.

 Detailed design. This third layer of design focuses on all the implementation details
necessary for the specified architecture.

How to maintain software quality

Software quality measures if the software meets both its functional and nonfunctional
requirements.

Functional requirements identify what the software should do. They include technical details,
data manipulation and processing, calculations or any other specific function that specifies
what an application aims to accomplish.
Nonfunctional requirements -- also known as quality attributes -- determine how the system
should work. Nonfunctional requirements include portability, disaster recovery, security,
privacy and usability.

Software testing detects and solves technical issues in the software source code and assesses
the overall usability, performance, security and compatibility of the product to ensure it meets
its requirements.

The dimensions of software quality include the following characteristics:

 Accessibility. The degree to which a diverse group of people, including individuals who
require adaptive technologies such as voice recognition and screen magnifiers, can
comfortably use the software.

 Compatibility. The suitability of the software for use in a variety of environments, such
as with different OSes, devices and browsers.

 Efficiency. The ability of the software to perform well without wasting energy,
resources, effort, time or money.

 Functionality. Software's ability to carry out its specified functions.

 Installability. The ability of the software to be installed in a specified environment.

 Localization. The various languages, time zones and other such features a software can
function in.

 Maintainability. How easily the software can be modified to add and improve features,
fix bugs, etc.

 Performance. How fast the software performs under a specific load.

 Portability. The ability of the software to be easily transferred from one location to
another.

 Reliability. The software's ability to perform a required function under specific

conditions for a defined period of time without any errors.

 Scalability. The measure of the software's ability to increase or decrease performance in

response to changes in its processing demands.
  Security. The software's ability to protect against unauthorized access, invasion of
privacy, theft, data loss, malicious software, etc.

 Testability. How easy it is to test the software.

 Usability. How easy it is to use the software.

To maintain software quality once it is deployed, developers must constantly adapt it to meet
new customer requirements and handle problems customers identify. This includes improving
functionality, fixing bugs and adjusting software code to prevent issues. How long a product
lasts on the market depends on developers' ability to keep up with these maintenance
requirements.

When it comes to performing maintenance, there are four types of changes developers can
make, including:

1. Corrective. Users often identify and report bugs that developers must fix, including
coding errors and other problems that keep the software from meeting its requirements.

2. Adaptive. Developers must regularly make changes to their software to ensure it is

compatible with changing hardware and software environments, such as when a new
version of the OS comes out.

3. Perfective. These are changes that improve system functionality, such as improving the
user interface or adjusting software code to enhance performance.

4. Preventive. These changes are done to keep software from failing and include tasks
such as restructuring and optimizing code.
Software licensing and patents

A software license is a legally binding document that restricts the use and distribution of
software.

Typically, software licenses provide users with the right to one or more copies of the software
without violating copyright. The license outlines the responsibilities of the parties that enter
into the agreement and may place restrictions on how the software can be used.
Software licensing terms and conditions generally include fair use of the software, the
limitations of liability, warranties, disclaimers and protections if the software or its use
infringes on the intellectual property rights of others.

Licenses typically are for proprietary software, which remains the property of the
organization, group or individual that created it; or for free software, where users can run,
study, change and distribute the software. Open source is a type of software where the
software is developed collaboratively, and the source code is freely available. With open
source software licenses, users can run, copy, share and change the software similar to free
software.

Over the last two decades, software vendors have moved away from selling software licenses
on a one-time basis to a software-as-a-service subscription model. Software vendors host the
software in the cloud and make it available to customers, who pay a subscription fee and
access the software over the internet.

Although copyright can prevent others from copying a developer's code, a copyright cannot
stop them from developing the same software independently without copying. A patent, on
the other hand, enables a developer to prevent another person from using the functional
aspects of the software a developer claims in a patent, even if that other person developed the
software independently.

In general, the more technical software is, the more likely it can be patented. For example, a
software product could be granted a patent if it creates a new kind of database structure or
enhances the overall performance and function of a computer.

History of software

The term software was not used until the late 1950s. During this time, although different
types of programming software were being created, they were typically not commercially
available. Consequently, users -- mostly scientists and large enterprises -- often had to write
their own software.

The following is a brief timeline of the history of software:

 June 21, 1948. Tom Kilburn, a computer scientist, writes the world's first piece of
software for the Manchester Baby computer at the University of Manchester in England.

 Early 1950s. General Motors creates the first OS, for the IBM 701 Electronic Data
Processing Machine. It is called General Motors Operating System, or GM OS.

 1958. Statistician John Tukey coins the word software in an article about computer
programming.

 Late 1960s. Floppy disks are introduced and are used in the 1980s and 1990s to
distribute software.

 Nov. 3, 1971. AT&T releases the first edition of the Unix OS.

 1977. Apple releases the Apple II and consumer software takes off.

 1979. VisiCorp releases VisiCalc for the Apple II, the first spreadsheet software for
personal computers.

 1981. Microsoft releases MS-DOS, the OS on which many of the early IBM computers
ran. IBM begins selling software, and commercial software becomes available to the
average consumer.

 1980s. Hard drives become standard on PCs, and manufacturers start bundling software
in computers.

 1983. The free software movement is launched with Richard Stallman's GNU (GNU is
not Unix) Linux project to create a Unix-like OS with source code that can be freely
copied, modified and distributed.

 1984. Mac OS is released to run Apple's Macintosh line.

 Mid-1980s. Key software applications, including AutoDesk AutoCAD, Microsoft Word

and Microsoft Excel, are released.

 1985. Microsoft Windows 1.0 is released.

 1989. CD-ROMs become standard and hold much more data than floppy disks. Large
software programs can be distributed quickly, easily and relatively inexpensively.

 1991. The Linux kernel, the basis for the open source Linux OS, is released.
  1997. DVDs are introduced and able to hold more data than CDs, making it possible to
put bundles of programs, such as the Microsoft Office Suite, onto one disk.

 1999. Salesforce.com uses cloud computing to pioneer software delivery over the
internet.

 2000. The term software as a service (SaaS) comes into vogue.

 2007. IPhone is launched and mobile applications begin to take hold.

 2010 to the present. DVDs are becoming obsolete as users buy and download software
from the internet and the cloud. Vendors move to subscription-based models and SaaS
has become common.
What is an operating system?

An operating system (OS) is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer
by a boot program, manages all of the other application programs in a computer. The
application programs make use of the operating system by making requests for services
through a defined application program interface (API). In addition, users can interact directly
with the operating system through a user interface, such as a command-line interface (CLI) or
a graphical UI (GUI).

Why use an operating system?

An operating system brings powerful benefits to computer software and software

development. Without an operating system, every application would need to include its own
UI, as well as the comprehensive code needed to handle all low-level functionality of the
underlying computer, such as disk storage, network interfaces and so on. Considering the vast
array of underlying hardware available, this would vastly bloat the size of every application
and make software development impractical.

Today, the operating system provides a comprehensive platform that identifies, configures
and manages a range of hardware, including processors; memory devices and memory
management; chipsets; storage; networking; port communication, such as Video Graphics
Array (VGA), High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) and Universal Serial Bus
(USB); and subsystem interfaces, such as Peripheral Component Interconnect Express
(PCIe).
Functions of an operating system

An operating system provides three essential capabilities: It offers a UI through a CLI or

GUI; it launches and manages the application execution; and it identifies and exposes system
hardware resources to those applications -- typically, through a standardized API.

UI. Every operating system requires a UI, enabling users and administrators to interact with
the OS in order to set up, configure and even troubleshoot the operating system and its
underlying hardware. There are two primary types of UI available: CLI and GUI.

The architecture of an OS

The CLI, or terminal mode window, provides a text-based interface where users rely on the
traditional keyboard to enter specific commands, parameters and arguments related to
specific tasks. The GUI, or desktop, provides a visual interface based on icons and symbols
where users rely on gestures delivered by human interface devices, such as touchpads,
touchscreens and mouse devices.

The GUI is most frequently used by casual or end users that are primarily interested in
manipulating files and applications, such as double-clicking a file icon to open the file in its
default application. The CLI remains popular among advanced users and system
administrators that must handle a series of highly granular and repetitive commands on a
regular basis, such as creating and running scripts to set up new personal computers (PCs) for
employees.

Application management. An operating system handles the launch and management of

every application. This typically supports an array of behaviors, including timesharing
multiple processes, or threads, so that various tasks can share the available processors' time;
handling interruptions that applications produce to gain a processor's immediate attention,
ensuring there is enough memory to execute the application and its corresponding data
without interfering with other processes; carrying out error handling that can gracefully
remove an application's processes; and performing memory management without disrupting
other applications or the OS.

An operating system can also support APIs that enable applications to utilize OS and
hardware functions without the need to know anything about the low-level OS or hardware
state. As an example, a Windows API can enable a program to obtain input from a keyboard
or mouse; create GUI elements, such as dialog windows and buttons; read and write files to a
storage device; and more. Applications are almost always tailored to use the operating system
on which the application intends to run.

Additionally, an operating system can perform the following services for applications:

 In a multitasking operating system, where multiple programs can be running at the same
time, the OS determines which applications should run in what order and how much
time should be allowed for each application before giving another application a turn.

 It handles input/output (I/O) to and from attached hardware devices, such as hard disks,
printers and dial-up ports.

 It sends messages to each application or interactive user -- or to a system operator --

about the status of operation and any errors that may have occurred.

 It can offload the management of batch jobs -- for example, printing -- so that the
initiating application is freed from this work.

 On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage how
to divide the program so that it runs on more than one processor at a time.
All major computer platforms (hardware and software) require, and sometimes include, an
operating system, and operating systems must be developed with different features to meet
the specific needs of various form factors.

Device management. An operating system is responsible for identifying, configuring, and

providing applications with common access to underlying computer hardware devices. As the
OS recognizes and identifies hardware, the OS will install corresponding device drivers that
enable the OS and applications running on the OS to use the devices without any specific
knowledge of the hardware or devices.

An operating system is responsible for identifying the correct printer and installing the
appropriate printer drivers so that an application needs to only make calls to the printer
without having to use codes or commands that are specific to that printer -- that is the
operating system's job. The situation is similar for other devices, such as USB ports;
networking ports; graphics devices, such as graphics processing units (GPUs); motherboard
chipsets; and storage devices, such as Serial-Attached SCSI (SAS) disk adapters and disks
that are formatted with a suitable file system.

The OS identifies and configures physical and logical devices for service and typically
records them in a standardized structure, such as Windows Registry. Device manufacturers
periodically patch and update drivers, and the OS should update them to ensure best device
performance and security. When devices are replaced, the OS also installs and configures
new drivers.

Operating system types and examples

Although the fundamental roles of an operating system are ubiquitous, there are countless
operating systems that serve a wide range of hardware and user needs.

General-purpose operating system. A general-purpose OS represents an array of operating

systems intended to run a multitude of applications on a broad selection of hardware,
enabling a user to run one or more applications or tasks simultaneously. A general-purpose
OS can be installed on many different desktop and laptop models and run applications from
accounting systems to databases to web browsers to games. General-purpose operating
systems typically focus on process (thread) and hardware management to ensure that
applications can reliably share the wide range of computing hardware present.
Common desktop operating systems include the following:

 Windows is Microsoft's flagship operating system, the de facto standard for home and
business computers. Introduced in 1985, the GUI-based OS has been released in many
versions since then. The user-friendly Windows 95 was largely responsible for the rapid
development of personal computing.

 Mac OS is the operating system for Apple's Macintosh line of PCs and workstations.

 Unix is a multiuser operating system designed for flexibility and adaptability. Originally
developed in the 1970s, Unix was one of the first operating systems to be written in
the C language.

 Linux is a Unix-like operating system that was designed to provide PC users a free or
low-cost alternative. Linux has a reputation as an efficient and fast-performing system.

Mobile operating system. Mobile operating systems are designed to accommodate the
unique needs of mobile computing and communication-centric devices, such as smartphones
and tablets. Mobile devices typically offer limited computing resources compared to
traditional PCs, and the OS must be scaled back in size and complexity in order to minimize
its own resource use, while ensuring adequate resources for one or more applications running
on the device. Mobile operating systems tend to emphasize efficient performance, user
responsiveness and close attention to data handling tasks, such as supporting media
streaming. Apple iOS and Google Android are examples of mobile operating systems.

Embedded operating system. Not all computing devices are general purpose. A huge
assortment of dedicated devices -- including home digital assistants, automated teller
machines (ATMs), airplane systems, retail point of sale (POS) terminals and internet of
things (IoT) devices -- includes computers that require an operating system. The principal
difference is that the associated computing device only does one major thing, so the OS is
highly stripped down and dedicated to both performance and resilience. The OS should run
quickly, not crash, and handle all errors gracefully in order to continue operating in all
circumstances. In most cases, the OS is provided on a chip that is incorporated into the actual
device. A medical device used in a patient's life support equipment, for example, will employ
an embedded OS that must run reliably in order to keep the patient alive. Embedded Linux is
one example of an embedded OS.
Network operating system. A network operating system (NOS) is another specialized OS
intended to facilitate communication between devices operating on a local area network
(LAN). A NOS provides the communication stack needed to understand network protocols in
order to create, exchange and decompose network packets. Today, the concept of a
specialized NOS is largely obsolete because other OS types largely handle network
communication. Windows 10 and Windows Server 2019, for example, include
comprehensive networking capabilities. The concept of a NOS is still used for some
networking devices, such as routers, switches and firewalls, and manufacturers may employ
proprietary NOSes, including Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS), RouterOS and
ZyNOS.

Real-time operating system. When a computing device must interact with the real world
within constant and repeatable time constraints, the device manufacturer may opt to use a
real-time operating system (RTOS). For example, an industrial control system may direct the
operations of a sprawling factory or power plant. Such a facility will produce signals from
myriad sensors and also send signals to operate valves, actuators, motors and countless other
devices. In these situations, the industrial control system must respond quickly and
predictably to changing real-world conditions -- otherwise, disaster may result. An RTOS
must function without buffering, processing latencies and other delays, which are perfectly
acceptable in other types of operating systems. Two examples of RTOSes include FreeRTOS
and VxWorks.