MODULE 2

ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)

INTRODUCTION

USM is mechanical material removal process or an abrasive process used to

erode holes or cavities on hard or brittle workpiece by using shaped tools, high
frequency mechanical motion and an abrasive slurry. USM offers a solution to
the expanding need for machining brittle materials such as single crystals,
glasses and polycrystalline ceramics, and increasing complex operations to
provide intricate shapes and workpiece profiles. It is therefore used extensively
in machining hard and brittle materials that are difficult to machine by
traditional manufacturing processes.

Ultrasonic Machining is a non-traditional process, in which abrasives

contained in a slurry are driven against the work by a tool oscillating at low
amplitude (25-100 μm) and high frequency (15-30 KHz):
The process was first developed in 1950s and was originally used for finishing
EDM surfaces.
The basic process is that a ductile and tough tool is pushed against the work
with a constant force. A constant stream of abrasive slurry passes between the
tool and the work (gap is 25-40 μm) to provide abrasives and carry away
chips. The majority of the cutting action comes from an ultrasonic (cyclic) force
applied.

The basic components to the cutting action are believed to be,

• brittle fracture caused by impact of abrasive grains due to the tool vibration;
• cavitation induced erosion;
• chemical erosion caused by slurry.

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 USM working principle

• Material removal primarily occurs due to the indentation of the hard abrasive
grits on the brittle work material.
• Other than this brittle failure of the work material due to indentation some
material removal may occur due to free flowing impact of the abrasives
against the work material and related solid-solid impact erosion,
• Tool’s vibration – indentation by the abrasive grits.
• During indentation, due to Hertzian contact stresses, cracks would develop
just below the contact site, then as indentation progresses the cracks would
propagate due to increase in stress and ultimately lead to brittle fracture of
the work material under each individual interaction site between the
abrasive grits and the work piece.

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• The tool material should be such that indentation by the abrasive grits does
not lead to brittle failure.
• Thus the tools are made of tough, strong and ductile materials like steel,
stainless steel and other ductile metallic alloys.

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USM Machine

USM Equipment

The basic mechanical structure of an USM is very similar to a drill press.

However, it has additional features to carry out USM of brittle work material.
The work piece is mounted on a vice, which can be located at the desired
position under the tool using a 2 axis table. The table can further be lowered
or raised to accommodate work of different thickness.
The typical elements of an USM are
• Slurry delivery and return system.
• Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on the tool during
machining.
• The transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration.

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  The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies the vibration to
the required amplitude of 15 – 50 μm and accommodates the tool at its
tip.

Working of horn as mechanical amplifier of amplitude of vibration

The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the transducer. The transducer is

driven by suitable signal generator followed by power amplifier. The
transducer for USM works on the following principle:

• Piezoelectric effect
• Magnetostrictive effect
• Electrostrictive effect

Magnetostrictive transducers are most popular and robust amongst all.

Figure shows a typical magnetostrictive transducer along with horn. The horn
or concentrator is a wave guide, which amplifies and concentrates the
vibration to the tool from the transducer.

The horn or concentrator can be of different shape like

• Tapered or conical
• Exponential
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• Stepped

Machining of tapered or stepped horn is much easier as compared to the

exponential one. Figure shows different horns used in USM

PROCESS VARIABLES:
• Amplitude of vibration (ao) – 15 – 50 μm
• Frequency of vibration (f) – 19 – 25 kHz
• Feed force (F) – related to tool dimensions
• Feed pressure (p)
• Abrasive size – 15 μm – 150 μm
• Abrasive material – Al2O3
 SiC
 B 4C
 Boronsilicarbide
 Diamond
• Flow strength of work material
• Flow strength of the tool material
• Contact area of the tool – A
• Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry – C
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 Applications of USM
• Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys, semiconductors, glass,
ceramics, carbides etc.
• Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface
impressions.
• Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies.

Figure: A non-round hole made by USM

 Drilling and machining cavities or holes in conductive and non-conductiv e
materials like glass, ceramics etc.
 Used to machine hard materials like tool steel, tungsten and hard carbides.
 Threading of various glass and ceramic materials.
 Used for making tools and dies.
 Soft materials like non-ferrous metals and alloys and brittle materials can
be machined.
 Removing flash and parting lines from injection moulded parts.
 Deburring and polishing plastic, nylon and Teflon components.
 To produce high quality surface.
 Hard materials and precious stones such as synthetic ruby for the
preparation of jewels for watch and timer movements are successfully
machined by this method.
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Advantage of USM
USM process is a non-thermal, non-chemical, creates no changes in the
microstructures, chemical or physical properties of the workpiece and offers
virtually stress free machined surfaces.
The main advantages are;
 Any materials can be machined regardless of their electrical
conductivity.
 Especially suitable for machining of brittle materials.
 Machined parts by USM possess better surface finish and higher
structural integrity. · USM does not produce thermal, electrical and
chemical abnormal surface.
 No burrs and no distortion of workpiece.
 Hard and brittle metals can be machined.
 Stresses are minimum.
 Thin sheets can be machined.
 Investment cost is low.
 Power consumption is low.
Some disadvantages of USM
 USM has higher power consumption and lower material-removal rates
than traditional fabrication processes.
 Tool wears fast in USM.
 Machining area and depth is restraint in USM.
 Depth of holes and cavities produced are small. Usually the depth of
hole is limited to 2.5 times the diameter of the tool. There is a tendency
for holes to break out at the bottom owing to high amplitude of
vibrations of the tool.
 Not suitable for soft workpiece material.
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  Machining accuracy is poor.
 Nozzle wear rate is high.
 Suitable only for small workpieces.
Problems:
1. Calculate the depth of indentation and volume of metal removed
during the machining of glass surface in ultrasonic machining by the
throwing action of abrasive grain of 100 µ m diameter. The following
data are given:
Amplitude of vibration = 0.1 mm
Frequency = 20 Kc/s
Abrasive density = 3 kg/ ଷ
Yield strength of glass = 4.0 x ͳͲଵଵ N/ ଶ
Sol:
Mean abrasive size (݀◌ ) = 100 µm = 100 x ͳͲ− m
Amplitude of oscillation = a/2 = 0.1 mm = 0.1 × ͳͲ−ଷ m
Frequency of oscillation = f = 20 kc/s, = 20,000 CPS
Abrasive density = = 3 kg/ ଷ
Flow strength of work material = = 4.0 x ͳͲଵଵ N/ ଶ

Grain throwing model penetration in workpiece due to throwing is given by

δ = πAf݀◌ √

ଷ
δ = π (2x0.1 × ͳͲ−ଷ ) (20000) (100 x ͳͲ− ) √
х ሺସ. x ଵ11 ሻ

δ = 1.404 х ͳͲ−9 mm

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 ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)
INTRODUCTION

Abrasive water jet cutting is an extended version of water jet cutting; in which
the water jet contains abrasive particles such as silicon carbide or aluminium
oxide in order to increase the material removal rate above that of water jet
machining. Almost any type of material ranging from hard brittle materials
such as ceramics, metals and glass to extremely soft materials such as foam
and rubbers can be cut by abrasive water jet cutting. The narrow cutting
stream and computer controlled movement enables this process to produce
parts accurately and efficiently. This machining process is especially ideal for
cutting materials that cannot be cut by laser or thermal cut. Metallic,
nonmetallic and advanced composite materials of various thicknesses can be
cut by this process. This process is particularly suitable for heat sensitive
materials that cannot be machined by processes that produce heat while
machining.

Working principle

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In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), abrasive particles are made to impinge on
the work material at a high velocity. The jet of abrasive particles is carried by
carrier gas or air. The high velocity stream of abrasive is generated by
converting the pressure energy of the carrier gas or air to its kinetic energy
and hence high velocity jet. The nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a controlled
manner onto the work material, so that the distance between the nozzle and
the work piece and the impingement angle can be set desirably. The high
velocity abrasive particles remove the material by micro-cutting action as
well as brittle fracture of the work material.

AJM Equipment

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In AJM, air is compressed in an air compressor and compressed air at a pressure
of around 5 bar is used as the carrier gas. Figure also shows the other major
parts of the AJM system. Gases like CO2, N2 can also be used as carrier gas
which may directly be issued from a gas cylinder. Generally oxygen is not used
as a carrier gas. The carrier gas is first passed through a pressure regulator to
obtain the desired working pressure. To remove any oil vapour or particulate
contaminant the same is passed through a series of filters. Then the carrier gas
enters a closed chamber known as the mixing chamber. The abrasive particles
enter the chamber from a hopper through a metallic sieve. The sieve is
constantly vibrated by an electromagnetic shaker. The mass flow rate of
abrasive (15 gm/min) entering the chamber depends on the amplitude of
vibration of the sieve and its frequency. The abrasive particles are then
carried by the carrier gas to the machining chamber via an electro-magnetic
on-off valve. The machining enclosure is essential to contain the abrasive and
machined particles in a safe and eco-friendly manner. The machining is
carried out as high velocity (200 m/s) abrasive particles are issued from the
nozzle onto a work piece traversing under the jet.

Process Parameters and Machining Characteristics.

The process parameters are listed below:

• Abrasive
Material – Al2O3 / SiC / glass beads
Shape – irregular / spherical
Size – 10 ~ 50 μm
Mass flow rate – 2 ~ 20 gm/min

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 • Carrier gas
o  Composition – Air, CO2, N2

o  Density – Air ~ 1.3 kg/ mଷ

 Velocity – 500 ~ 700 m/s
o  Pressure – 2 ~ 10 bar
o  Flow rate – 5 ~ 30 lpm
 Abrasive Jet
Velocity – 100 ~ 300 m/s
Mixing ratio – mass flow ratio of abrasive to gas
Stand-off distance – 0.5 ~ 5 mm

Impingement Angle – 60° ~ 90°

 Nozzle
Material – WC / sapphire
Diameter – (Internal) 0.2 ~ 0.8 mm
Life – 10 ~ 300 hours

The important machining characteristics in AJM are

• The material removal rate (MRR) /min or gm/min
• The machining accuracy
• The life of the nozzle

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 Effect of process parameters MRR

Parameters of Abrasive Jet Maching (AJM) are factors that influence its Meta l
Removal Rate (MRR). In a machining process, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) is
the volume of metal removed from a given work piece in unit time. The
following are some of the important process parameters of abrasive jet
machining:
1. Abrasive mass flow rate.
2. Nozzle tip distance.
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3. Gas Pressure.
4. Velocity of abrasive particles.
5. Mixing ratio.
6. Abrasive grain size.

Abrasive mass flow rate:

Mass flow rate of the abrasive particles is a major process parameter that
influences the metal removal rate in abrasive jet machining.
In AJM, mass flow rate of the gas (or air) in abrasive jet is inversely
proportional to the mass flow rate of the abrasive particles.
Due to this fact, when continuously increasing the abrasive mass flow rate,
Metal Removal Rate (MRR) first increases to an optimum value (because of
increase in number of abrasive particles hitting the work piece) and then
decreases.
However, if the mixing ratio is kept constant, Metal Removal Rate (MRR)
uniformly increases with increase in abrasive mass flow rate.

Nozzle tip distance:

Nozzle Tip Distance (NTD) is the gap provided between the nozzle tip and
the work piece.
Up to a certain limit, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) increases with increase in
nozzle tip distance. After that limit, MRR remains constant to some extent
and then decreases.
In addition to metal removal rate, nozzle tip distance influences the shape
and diameter of cut.
For optimal performance, a nozzle tip distance of 0.25 to 0.75 mm is
provided.

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Gas pressure:
Air or gas pressure has a direct impact on metal removal rate.
In abrasive jet machining, metal removal rate is directly proportional to air
or gas pressure.

Velocity of abrasive particles:

Whenever the velocity of abrasive particles is increased, the speed at which
the abrasive particles hit the work piece is increased. Because of this reason,
in abrasive jet machining, metal removal rate increases with increase in
velocity of abrasive particles.

Mixing ratio:
Mixing ratio is a ratio that determines the quality of the air-abrasive mixture
in Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM).
It is the ratio between the mass flow rate of abrasive particles and the mass
flow rate of air (or gas).
When mixing ratio is increased continuously, metal removal rate first increases
to some extent and then decreases.

Abrasive grain size:

Size of the abrasive particle determines the speed at which metal is removed.
If smooth and fine surface finish is to be obtained, abrasive particle with small
grain size is used.
If metal has to be removed rapidly, abrasive particle with large grain size is
used.

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 Applications
 Abrasive water jet cutting is highly used in aerospace, automotive and
electronics industries.
 In aerospace industries, parts such as titanium bodies for military aircrafts,
engine components (aluminium, titanium, heat resistant alloys), aluminium
body parts and interior cabin parts are made using abrasive water jet cutting.
 In automotive industries, parts like interior trim (head liners, tru nk liners, door
panels) and fibre glass body components and bumpers are made by this
process. Similarly, in electronics industries, circuit boards and cable stripping
are made by abrasive water jet cutting.

Figure: Steel gear and rack cut with an abrasive water jet

Advantages of abrasive water jet cutting

 In most of the cases, no secondary finishing required
 No cutter induced distortion
 Low cutting forces on workpieces
 Limited tooling requirements
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 Little to no cutting burr
 Typical finish 125-250 microns
 Smaller kerf size reduces material wastages
 No heat affected zone
 Localises structural changes
 No cutter induced metal contamination
 Eliminates thermal distortion
 No slag or cutting dross
 Precise, multi plane cutting of contours, shapes, and bevels of any angle.

Limitations of abrasive water jet cutting

• Cannot drill flat bottom
• Cannot cut materials that degrades quickly with moisture
• Surface finish degrades at higher cut speeds which are frequently used for
rough cutting.
• The major disadvantages of abrasive water jet cutting are high capital cost
and high
• noise levels during operation.

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 WATER JET MACHINING (WJM)
INTRODUCTION
Abrasive water jet cutting is an extended version of water jet cutting; in which
the water jet contains abrasive particles such as silicon carbide or aluminium
oxide in order to increase the material removal rate above that of water jet
machining. Almost any type of material ranging from hard brittle materials
such as ceramics, metals and glass to extremely soft materials such as foam
and rubbers can be cut by abrasive water jet cutting. The narrow cutting
stream and computer controlled movement enables this process to produce
parts accurately and efficiently. This machining process is especially ideal for
cutting materials that cannot be cut by laser or thermal cut. Metallic,
nonmetallic and advanced composite materials of various thicknesses can be
cut by this process. This process is particularly suitable for heat sensitive
materials that cannot be machined by processes that produce heat while
machining.
The schematic of abrasive water jet cutting is shown in Figure which is simila r
to water jet cutting apart from some more features underneath the jewel;
namely abrasive, guard and mixing tube. In this process, high velocity water
exiting the jewel creates a vacuum which sucks abrasive from the abrasive
line, which mixes with the water in the mixing tube to form a high velocity
beam of abrasives.

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 Figure: Abrasive water jet machining
Applications
Abrasive water jet cutting is highly used in aerospace, automotive and
electronics industries. In aerospace industries, parts such as titanium bodies for
military aircrafts, engine components (aluminium, titanium, heat resistant
alloys), aluminium body parts and interior cabin parts are made using
abrasive water jet cutting.
In automotive industries, parts like interior trim (head liners, trunk liners, door
panels) and fibre glass body components and bumpers are made by th is
process. Similarly, in electronics industries, circuit boards and cable stripping
are made by abrasive water jet cutting.

Advantages of abrasive water jet cutting

• In most of the cases, no secondary finishing required
• No cutter induced distortion
• Low cutting forces on workpieces
• Limited tooling requirements
• Little to no cutting burr
• Typical finish 125-250 microns
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• Smaller kerf size reduces material wastages
• No heat affected zone
• Localises structural changes
• No cutter induced metal contamination
• Eliminates thermal distortion
• No slag or cutting dross
• Precise, multi plane cutting of contours, shapes, and bevels of any angle.

Limitations of abrasive water jet cutting

• Cannot drill flat bottom
• Cannot cut materials that degrades quickly with moisture
• Surface finish degrades at higher cut speeds which are frequently used for
rough cutting.
• The major disadvantages of abrasive water jet cutting are high capital cost
and high noise levels during operation.

Frequently Asked Questions:

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

1. With a neat sketch explain Ultrasonic machining, equipment and

mechanism of metal removal.
2. What are the parameters and characteristics of Ultrasonic machining.
3. What are the applications of Ultrasonic machining?
4. Write a note on abrasive and liquid media in USM. (10 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2011)
5. Discuss the influence of the following parameters on USM process:
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 i) Amplitude and frequency of vibration.
ii) Grain size.
iii) Slurry. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2011)
6. Write a note on process capability of USM. (5 Marks) (VTU June/July
2011)
7. With a neat sketch, explain the working principle of ultrasonic
machining process. (8 Marks) (VTU June 2012)
8. Explain the effect of different process parameters on machining
performance in USM process. (10 Marks) (VTU June 2012)
9. What are the advantages, disadvantages and application of USM
process? (10 Marks) (VTU June 2012)
10.Explain USM process with the required figure of the set up and a
magnified view at tool tip/workpiece. (10 Marks) (VTU Dec 2012)
11. Explain with help of neat sketch the working principle ultrasonic
machining process, and also mention its advantages. (10 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2013)
12. Explain how various process parameters influence the material removal
rate in ultrasonic machining process. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2013)
13. Explain with sketch the working principle ultrasonic machining process.
(8 Marks) (VTU June/July 2014)
14. Explain with sketch, different tool feeding mechanisms in ultrasonic
machining. (8 Marks) (VTU June/July 2014)
15. Explain different parameters which affect ultrasonic machining. (6
Marks) (VTU June/July 2014)
16. Calculate the depth of indentation and volume of metal removed
during the machining of glass surface in ultrasonic machining by the
throwing action of abrasive grain of 100 µ m diameter. The following
data are given:
Amplitude of vibration = 0.1 mm
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 Frequency = 20 Kc/s
Abrasive density = 3 kg/ ଷ
Yield strength of glass = 4.0 x ͳͲଵଵ N/ ଶ
(6 Marks) (VTU June/July 2014)
17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Ultrasonic machining ?
(6 Marks) (VTU Dec 2014/Jan 2015)
18. Explain with graph the effect of various parameters on material
removal rate (MRR) in USM process. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
19. With neat sketch, explain the main elements of ultrasonic machining
process. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
20. Explain with graph the effect of various parameters on material
removal rate (MRR) in USM process. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
21. With neat sketch, explain the main elements of ultrasonic machining
process. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
22. Explain with graph the effect of various parameters on material
removal rate (MRR) in USM process. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
23. With neat sketch, explain the main elements of ultrasonic
machining process. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
24. Explain with neat diagram construction and working of USM
processes. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2016)
25. Explain the following parameters with respect to USM:
i) Effect of amplitude and frequency of vibration.
ii) Effect of grain diameter.
iii) Effect of applied static load.
iv) Effect of slurry. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2016)

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Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Abrasive jet machining

?
2. With a neat sketch explain Abrasive jet machining, equipment and
mechanism of metal removal.
3. What are the parameters and characteristics of Abrasive jet machining.
4. What are the applications of Abrasive jet machining?
5. How does the following parameters affect MRR in abrasive jet
machining?
i) Nozzle gap distance.
ii) Abrasive size.
iii) Nozzle pressure. (12 Marks) (VTU June/July 2011)
6. Write a note on abrasives used in AJM with examples. (8 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2011)
7. List the variables that influence the rate of metal removal and accuracy
of machining in abrasive jet machining. Explain any three. (10 Marks)
(VTU Dec 2011)
8. Sketch a explain AJM process. (10 Marks) (VTU June 2012)
9. During AJM process the mixing ratio is 0.2. calculate the mass ratio if the
ratio of density of abrasive and density of carrier gas is 20. (4 Marks)
(VTU June 2012)
10.Write a note on an abrasive slurry used in AJM indicating types of
abrasive, and their properties, sizes used and liquid media with functions
and characteristics. (10 Marks) (VTU Dec 2012)
11. List the variables in AJM. Explain any four variables. (10 Marks) (VTU
Dec 2012)

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 12. Explain how the following parameters influence the metal removal rate
in abrasive jet machining process:
i) Nozzle tip distance.
ii) Velocity of abrasive.
iii) Abrasive flow rate.
iv) Gas pressure. (10 Marks) (VTU June/July 2013)
13. Explain the desired properties of abrasive materials used in abrasive jet
machining. (5 Marks) (VTU June/July 2013)
14. Explain with block diagram the principle of operation of abrasive jet
machining. (6 Marks) (VTU June/July 2014)
15. Explain the different variables that influence the rate of material
removal and accuracy in abrasive jet machining. (8 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2014)
16. How does ASM differ from conventional sand blasting process. (4 Marks)
(VTU Dec 2014/Jan 2015)
17. What are the different types of abrasives used in ASM? (4 Marks) (VTU
Dec 2014/Jan 2015)
18. State and explain the working and principle of abrasive jet machining.
(12 Marks) (VTU Dec 2014/Jan 2015)
19. Draw the schematic diagram of abrasive jet machining and explain
working principle. (8 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
20. List the applications of Abrasive jet machining. (4 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2015)
21. Draw the schematic diagram of Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM). Explain
its construction and working. (6 Marks) (VTU June/July 2016)
22. List and explain the variables used in AJM. (12 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2016)

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Water Jet Machining (WJM)

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of water jet machining ?

2. With a neat sketch explain water jet machining, equipment and
mechanism of metal removal.
3. What are the parameters and characteristics of water jet machining?
4. What are the applications of water jet machining?
5. Briefly explain the process of “water jet machining”. (5 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2011)
6. With a schematic diagram, explain briefly, the water jet machining
process. (7 Marks) (VTU Dec 2011)
7. What are the applications of WJM? (3 Marks) (VTU Dec 2011)
8. What are the process variables that affect the performance of water-
jet machining process. (6 Marks) (VTU June 2012)
9. Explain the advantages of water jet machining. (10 Marks) (VTU Dec
2012)
10.What are the abrasive materials used in water jet machining? ? (5
Marks) (VTU June/July 2013)
11. Explain with block diagram the water jet machining. ? (6 Marks) (VTU
June/July 2014)
12. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of water jet machining. ?
(8 Marks) (VTU June/July 2015)
13. List the application of water jet machining. (2 Marks) (VTU June/July
2016)

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