هندسة مصادر المياه

Yarmouk Private University
CEE 315:WATER RESOURCES

ENGINEERING
Dr.Eng.Youssef Saed Marai
Damascus - 2015
Outlines of the Course (1)
Introduction to water:
current issues in water
resources engineering,
 hydrological processes,
 calculating catchment water
balances.
Rainfall run-off modelling:
 the unit hydrograph model,
 general linear transfer functions,
 linear and nonlinear storage
models,
 conceptual modelling,
 model calibration and uncertainty
analysis.
Surface water quality:
introduction to surface water
quality and relevant legislation.
 organic pollution and dissolved
oxygen, nutrients and
eutrophication.
 modelling fully and partially
mixed systems,
 nonconservative substances.
Groundwater resources management:
 introduction,
 resource exploration and evaluation,
 well pumping tests for yield
assessment and hydrogeological
parameter determination,
 use of modelling techniques for
aquifer management,
 groundwater vulnerability and
source protection.
Reservoir design:
 introduction,
 critical period design
techniques,
 simulation and data generation.
Water resources systems analysis:

 introduction,
 water allocation,
 water supply capacity
extension,
 reservoir design and operation.
What‘s are the Water Resources?
Water Resources are sources of water that

are useful or potentially useful to humans.
Uses of water include agricultural,
industrial, household, recreational and
environmental activities.
Uses of water in different countries
Total global water content
Total Water Volume On Earth
1400 x 106 km3
The oceans are the largest reservoirs of water, but since it is

saline it is not readily usable for requirements of human survival.
Global fresh water distribution(1)
The fresh water distribution is highly uneven, with

most of the water locked in frozen polar ice caps.
Virtually all of these human uses require fresh
water. 97.5% of water on the Earth is salt water,
leaving only 2.5% as fresh water of which over
two thirds is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps.
The remaining unfrozen freshwater is mainly
found as groundwater, with only a small fraction
present above ground or in the air.
Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the
world's supply of clean, fresh water is steadily
decreasing. Water demand already exceeds
supply in many parts of the world, and as
world population continues to rise at an
unprecedented rate, many more areas are
expected to experience this imbalance in the
near future.
When water scarcity causes political
tensions to arise, this is referred to as
water stress. About one third of the
world’s population lives in countries
with moderate to high water stress
with disproportionately high impacts
on the poor.
Water stress has led most often to
conflicts at local and regional levels,
despite the lack of evidence of
international wars being fought over
water alone. Water stress can also
exacerbate conflicts and political
tensions which are not directly caused
by water.
Gradual reductions over time in the
quality and/or quantity of fresh water
can add to the instability of a region by
depleting the health of a population,
obstructing economic development, and
exacerbating larger conflicts.
Equitable and sustainable management

of water resources is a major global
challenge. The framework for allocating
water resources to water users (where
such a framework exists) is known as
water rights.
Water Resources Engineering(1)
Water resources engineering is concerned
with the analysis and design of systems to
control the quantity, quality, timing, and
distribution of water to meet the needs of human
habitation and the environment.
Aside from the engineering and environmental
aspects of water resource systems, their
feasibility from legal, economic, financial,
political, and social viewpoints must also be
considered in the development process.
In fact, the successful operation of an engineered
system usually depends as much on no
engineering analyses (e.g., economic and social
analyses) as on sound engineering design this is
particularly true in developing countries.
Examples of water resource systems include
domestic and industrial water supply, wastewater
treatment, irrigation, drainage, flood control,
salinity control, sediment control, pollution
abatement, and hydropower-generation systems.
The waters of the earth are found on land, in the
oceans, and in the atmosphere. The core science
of water resources engineering is hydrology,
which deals with the occurrence, distribution,
movement, and properties of water on earth.
Engineering hydrologists are primarily concerned
with water on land and in the atmosphere, from its
deposition as atmospheric precipitation, such as
rainfall and snowfall, to its inflow into the oceans
and its vaporization into the atmosphere.
The technical areas that are fundamental to
water resources engineering can be grouped
into the following five categories:
 Surface water and climate.
 Subsurface hydrology.
 Hydro geochemistry and water chemistry.
 Erosion, sedimentation, and geomorphology.
 Water policy, economics, and systems
analysis.
Surface water and climate
is concerned with the

occurrence and movement of water
above the surface of the earth
Subsurface hydrology
is concerned with the occurrence

and movement of water below the
surface of the earth
Hydro geochemistry and water
chemistry
is concerned with the chemical

changes in water that is in contact
with earth materials
Erosion, sedimentation, and
geomorphology
deal with the effects of sediment

transport on landforms
Water policy, economics, and
systems analysis
are concerned with the political,

economic, and environmental
constraints in the design and
operation of water resource systems
Important Note
The quantity and quality of water are
inseparable issues in design, and the modern
practice of water resources engineering demands
that practitioners be technically competent in
understanding the physical processes that govern
the movement of water, the chemical and
biological processes that affect the quality of
water, the economic and social considerations that
must be taken into account, and the environmental
impacts associated with the construction and
operation of water resource projects.
Who designs water resource systems?
The design of water resource systems
usually involves interaction with governm-
ent agencies. Collection of hydrologic and
geologic data, granting of development
permits, specification of design criteria,
and use of government developed
computer models of water resource
systems are some of the many areas in
which water resource engineers interact
with government agencies.
The key water
resources agencies
The following are some of the key water
resources agencies in the Syrian Arab
Republic:
 Ministry of Water Resourses.
 Ministry of Local Administration and
Environment.
 Ministry of Housing and Construction.
 Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform.
The Hydrologic Cycle(1)
Water in our planet is available in the atmosphere,
the oceans, on land and within the soil and
fractured rock of the earth’s crust water molec-
ules from one location to another are driven by the
solar energy. Moisture circulates from the earth
into the atmosphere through evaporation and then
back into the earth as precipitation. In going
through this process, called the Hydrologic Cycle.
The hydrologic cycle is defined as the

pathway of water as it moves in its various
through the atmosphere, to the earth, over
and through the land, to the ocean, and
back to the atmosphere.
A description of the hydrologic cycle can start

with the evaporation of water from the oceans
driven by energy from the sun. The evaporated
water, in the form of water vapor, rises by conve-
ction, condenses in the atmosphere to form
clouds, and precipitates onto land and ocean
surfaces, predominantly as rain or snow.
Precipitation on land surfaces is partially

Intercepted by surface vegetation,
partially stored in surface depressions,
partially infiltrated into the ground, and
partially flows over land into drainage
channels and rivers that ultimately lead
back to the ocean.
Precipitation that is intercepted by surface
vegetation is eventually evaporated into the
atmosphere; water held in depression storage
either evaporates or infiltrates into the ground;
and water that infiltrates into the ground
contributes to the recharge of ground water,
which either is utilized by plants or becomes
subsurface flow that ultimately emerges as
recharge to streams or directly to the ocean.
Ground water is defined as the water
below the land surface; water above the
land surface (in liquid form) is called
surface water. In urban areas, the ground
surface is typically much less pervious
than in rural areas, and surface runoff
is mostly controlled by constructed
drainage systems.
Surface waters and ground waters in urban areas
also tend to be significantly influenced by the
water supply and wastewater removal systems
that are an integral part of urban developments.
Since human made systems are part of the
hydrologic cycle, it is the responsibility of the
water resources engineer to ensure that systems
constructed for water use and control are in
harmony with the needs of the natural environment.
The quality of water varies considerably as it
moves through the hydrologic cycle, with
contamination resulting from several sources.
Human Impacts on the Hydrologic Cycle

The effects of the quantity and quality of water
on the health of terrestrial ecosystems and the
value of these ecosystems in the hydrologic
cycle are often overlooked.
For example, the modification of free flowing
rivers for energy or water supply, and the
drainage of wetlands, can have a variety of
adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems,
including losses in species diversity, floodplain
fertility, and biofiltration capability.
Two of the most widely used climatic measures are
the mean annual rainfall and the mean annual
potential evapotranspiration
Climate Spectrum for subtropical and midlatitudinal regions
Mean Annual Mean Annual Length of
Climate Precipitation Evapotranspiration Rainy Season
(mm) (mm) (months)
Superarid < 100 < 3000 <1
Hypearid 100 – 200 2400 – 3600 1 –2
Arid 200 – 400 2000 – 2400 2–3
Semiarid 400 – 800 1600 – 2000 3–4
Subhumid 800 – 1600 1200 – 1600 4–6
Humid 1600 – 3200 1200 6–9
Hyperhumid 3200 – 6400 1200 9 – 12
Superhumid ≥ 6400 1200 12
Water resource systems tend to differ
substantially between climates.
For example, forecasting and planning for
drought conditions is particularly
important in semiarid climates, whereas
droughts are barely noticeable in very
humid areas.
On regional scales, water resources
are managed within topographically
defined areas called watersheds or
basins. These areas are typically
enclosed by topographic high points in
the land surface, and within these
bounded areas the path of the surface
runoff can usually be controlled with a
reasonable degree of coordination.
Watershed
A hypothetical watershed
showing four raingauge stations
Design
of Water Resource Systems (1)
The uncertainty and natural variability of
hydrologic processes require that most water
resource systems be designed with some
degree of risk. Approaches to designing such
systems are classified as either frequency-
based design, risk-based design, or critical-
event design, In frequency-based design, the
exceedance probability of the design event is
selected a prior and the water resource system
is designed to accommodate all lesser events
up to and including an event with the selected
exceedance probability.
Design
The water-resource system will then be expected
to fail with a probability equal to the exceedance
probability of the design event. The frequency
based design approach is commonly used in
designing the minor structures of urban drainage
systems. For example, urban storm-drainage
systems are typically designed for precipitation
events with return periods of 10 years or less,
where the return period of an event is defined as
the reciprocal of the (annual) exceedance
probability of the event.
Design
In risk-based design, systems are designed
such that the sum of the capital cost and the cost
of failure is minimized capital costs tend to increase
and the cost of failure tends to decrease with
increasing system capacity.
Because any threats to human life are generally
assigned extremely high failure costs, structures
such as large dams are usually designed for rare
hydrologic events with long return periods and
commensurate small failure risks.
Design
In some extreme cases, where the consequences

of failure are truly catastrophic, water resource
systems are designed for the largest possible
magnitude of a hydrologic event. This approach
is called critical-event design, and the value of
the design (hydrologic) variable in this case is
referred to as the estimated limiting value (ELV).
Design
Water resource systems can be broadly
categorized as water-control systems or
water-use systems
Water – Control Water – Use
Systems Systems
Drainage Irrigation
Flood control Wastewater treatment
Salinity control Hydropower generation
Sediment control Domestic and industrial
Pollution abatement water supply
Design
It should be noted that these

systems are not mutually exclusive.
A third category of environmental
restoration systems has been
suggested
Water-Control Systems(1)
Water-control systems are primarily
designed to control the spatial and temporal
distribution of surface runoff resulting from
rainfall events. Flood-control structures and
storage impoundments reduce the peak
flows in streams, rivers, and drainage
channels, thereby reducing the occurrence
of floods. A flood is defined as a high flow
that exceeds the capacity of a stream or
drainage channel, and the elevation at which
the flood overflows the embankments is
called the flood stage.
A floodplain is the normally dry land adjoining
rivers, streams, lakes, bays, or oceans that is
inundated during flood events. Typically, flows
with return periods from 1.5 to 3 years represent
bankfull conditions, with larger flows causing
inundation of the floodplain. The 100 year flood
has been adopted by the U.S.Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) as the base flood
For delineating floodplains, and the area
Inundated by the 500 year flood is sometimes
delineated to Indicate areas of additional risk.
Encroachment onto floodplains reduces
the capacity of the watercourse and
increases the extent of the floodplain.
Approximately 7% -10% of the land in
the United States is in a floodplain, and
in the 1970s flood-related deaths were
200 per year, with another 80,000 per
year forced from their homes.
The largest floodplain areas in the United
States are in the South; the most populated
floodplains are along the north Atlantic
coast, the Great Lakes region, and in
California. In urban settings, water-control
systems include storm-sewer systems for
collecting and transporting surface runoff,
and storage reservoirs that attenuate peak
runoff rates and reduce pollutant loads in
drainage channels.
Urban storm water control systems are

typically designed to prevent flooding
from runoff events with return periods
of 10 years or less. For larger runoff
events, the capacity of these systems is
exceeded and surface (street) flooding
usually results.
Water-use systems are designed to support human
habitation and include water treatment systems,
water-distribution systems, wastewater-collection
systems, and wastewater-treatment systems.
The design capacity of these systems is generally
dictated by the population of the service area,
commercial and industrial requirements, and the
economic design life of the system.
Water-use systems are designed to provide speci-
fied levels of service: Water-treatment systems,
for example, must produce water of sufficient
quality to meet drinking water standards, water
distribution systems must deliver peak demands
while sustaining adequate water pressures,
wastewater-collection systems must have sufficient
capacity to transport wastes without overflowing
into the streets, and wastewater treatment systems
must provide a sufficient level of treatment that
Effluent discharges will not degrade the aquatic
environment.
In agricultural areas, the water requirements of
plants are met by a combination of rainfall and
irrigation. The design of irrigation systems
requires the estimation of crop evapotranspiration
rates and leaching requirements in agricultural
areas, with the portion of these requirements that
are not met by rainfall being met by irrigation
systems. In rivers where there is sufficient
available energy, such as behind large dams or in
rapidly flowing rivers, hydroelectric power
generation may be economically feasible.
Surface Water Hydrology (1)
Surface water hydrology deals with the distribution,
movement, and properties of water above the surface
of the earth. Applications of surface water hydrology
in engineering practice include modeling rainfall
events and predicting the quantity and quality of the
resulting surface runoff. The temporal distribution of
rainfall at a given location is called a hyetograph, the
temporal distribution of surface runoff at any location
is called a hydrography and the temporal distribution
of pollutant concentration in the runoff is called a
pollutograph.
The estimation of hydrographs and pollutographs
from hyetographs and the design of systems to control
the quantity and quality of surface runoff are the respo-
nsibility of a water resources engineer. Agricultural
production is a significant component of most societies,
and the water supplied to agricultural crops by rainfall
must usually be supplemented by irrigation water derived
from various terrestrial sources. To determine the irriga-
tion requirements, water engineers must be able to
predict the amount of water consumed by evapotranspi-
ration, and ensure that water resources are made
available to sustain important agricultural activities.
The land area that can contribute to the runoff at
any particular location is determined by the
shape and topography of the surrounding
region. The potential contributing area is called
the watershed; the area within a watershed over
which rainfall occurs is called the catchment
area. In most engineering applications, the
watershed and catchment areas are taken to
be the same, and are sometimes referred to as
drainage basins or drainage areas.
The characteristics of the catchment area dete-
rmine the quantity, quality, timing, and distribution
of the surface runoff for a given rainfall event.
Pollutants contained in surface runoff generally
depend on the land uses within the catchment
area, and classes of pollutants contained in
surface water runoff that are typically of interest
include suspended solids, heavy metals, nutrients,
organics, oxygen demanding substances, and
bacteria . These pollutants may be in solution or
suspension, or attached to particles of sediment.
Precipitation
The precipitation of water vapor from the
atmosphere occurs in many forms, the most
important of which are rain and snow. Hail and
sleet are less frequent forms of precipitation.
Engineered drainage systems in most urban
communities are designed primarily to control
the runoff from rainfall. The formation of
precipitation usually results from the lifting of
moist air masses within the atmosphere, which
results in the cooling and condensation of
moisture.
Formation of Rainfall
The four conditions that must be present
for the production of precipitation are:
1) cooling of the air mass,
2) condensation of water droplets
onto nuclei,
3) growth of water droplets, and
4) mechanisms to cause a sufficient
density of the droplets.
Rainfall
 is precipitation in the form of water drops of size
larger than 0.5 mm to 6mm
 The rainfall is classified into:
– Light rain – if intensity is trace to 2.50 mm/hr
– Moderate rain – if intensity is 2.50 mm/hr to
7.50 mm/hr
– Heavy rain – above 7.50 mm/hr
Things to know about rainfall
• Where to get rainfall information
• Rainfall sites in the area of interest
• Seasonal rainfall trends
• Variability of rainfall across the state and between towns
• Area specific rainfall
• Site specific rainfall
o Methods of measuring rainfall
o Where to place rainfall gauges - depends on the site
o How many gauges to place in area - depends on the
experiment
o What to do with the rainfall data
Raingauge Network
 Since the catching area of the raingauge is very
small as compared to the areal extent of the
storm, to get representative picture of a storm
over a catchment the number of raingauges
should be as large as possible, i.e. the catchment
area per gauge should be small
 There are several factors to be considered to

restrict the number of gauge:
 Like economic considerations to a large extent
Topographic & accessibility to some extent
Considerations in sitting a raingauge
station(1)
 The ground must be level and in the open and the
instrument must represent a horizontal catch surface
station(2)
 The raingauge must be set as near the ground as
possible to reduce wind effects
Without Shield With Shield
Windshields may reduce the loss due to turbulence

(eddies) around the gauge
Windshield Types
station(3)
 The raingauge must be set sufficiently high to
prevent splashing, flooding etc
station(4)
 The instrument must be surrounded by an open
fenced area of at least 5.50m x 5.50m
Size of Watershed Number
(km2) of Gauge Sites
26 2
260 6
1300 12
2600 15
5200 20
7800 24
World Metrological Organization
(WMO) Recommendations
 In flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical
zones:
• Ideal  1 station for 600 – 900 km2
• Acceptable  1 station for 900 – 3000 km2
 In mountainous regions of temperate, Mediterranean-
and tropical zones:
• Ideal  1 station for 100 – 250 km2
• Acceptable  1 station for 250 – 1000 km2
 In arid and polar zones:
• 1 station for 1500 – 10 000 km2
 In Islands:
• 1 station for 25 km2 (depending on the feasibility).
 10% of the raingauges should be self recording to know
the intensity of the rainfall
Adequacy of Raingauge Stations
100.σ m −1
CV =
P
 m 
∑ i − 2
( P P ) 
σ m −1 =  1 
 m −1 

 

1 m 
P =  ∑ Pi  − mean precipitation
m 1 
Pi - precipitation magnitude in the ith station

σ - standard deviation
EXAMPLE:
A catchment has 5 raingauge stations. In a year, the annual rainfall
recorded by the gauges are as follows:
Station A B C D E
Rainfall (mm) 82.60 102.90 180.30 98.80 136.70
For a 10% error in the estimation of the mean rainfall, calculate
the optimum number of stations (N) in the catchment
Solution: from first data
m=5 100 x 35.04

Cv = = 32.35%
P = 120.26mm 118.60
2
σ m −1 = 38.91mm  29.54 
N =  = 10.46, say 11
ε = 10%  10 
27
Why do we need to measure rainfall?
Agriculture – what to plant in certain areas,

where and when to plant, when to harvest
Horticulture/viticulture – how and when to

irrigate
Engineers – to design structures for runoff
control i.e. storm - water drains, bridges etc
Scientists – hydrological modelling of catchments

How do we want to measure rainfall?
• in as many places as possible

• as continuously as possible
• as reproducible as possible
we need
⇒ cheap,
⇒ simple, and
⇒ automated measurements.
Measurement of Rainfall(1)
 Rainfall and other forms of precipitation are
measured in terms of the vertical depth, the
values being expressed in millimeters
 One millimeter of precipitation represents
the quantity of water needed to cover the
land with a 1mm layer of water, taking into
account that nothing is lost through
drainage, evaporation or absorption
 Instrument used to collect and measure the
precipitation is called raingauge. (also called
pluviometer, ombrometer, hyetometer etc)
 Rain gauges are operated by government
agencies (in Syria, Metrological Department
and Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian
Reform)
 Raingauge measurements are actually point
measurements of rainfall and are only
representative of a small area surrounding the
rain gage. Areas on the order of 25 km2 (10 mil2)
have been taken as characteristic of rainguage
measurements, although considerably smaller
characteristic areas can be expected in regions
where convection storms are common
 Measurement is achieved by Raingauge, Radar and
Satellite
 Raingauges may be broadly classified into 2 categories
viz.
1. Non-recording raingauges and
2. Recording raingauges
In order that the rainfall catch
of a raingauge accurately represents
the rainfall in the area surrounding
the raingauge, certain standards are
followed while establishing raingauge
stations.
Non-recording Raingauges (1)
 These raingauges just collect the rainwater
but do not record the quantity of rainfall.
 The most extensively used non-recording
raingauge for example in India – Symon’s
gauge.
 Circular collecting area of 12.7 cm diameter
connected to a funnel. The rim of the
collector is set in a horizontal plane at a
height of 30.5cm above the GL.
 The funnel discharges the rainfall catch into
a receiving vessel. The funnel and collecting
vessel (bottle) are housed in a metallic
container.
 Water collected in the
bottle is measured
using a suitably
graduated measuring
jar with 0.1mm accuracy.
 Rainfall is measured in
mm or cm of water depth.
 Rainfall is measured
everyday at 8.30 am and
is recorded as the
rainfall of that day.
Symon’s gauge used in India
Two types of standard storage

Non-recording (collecting) raingauge
Recording Raingauges (1)
Recording raingauges give a permanent
automatic record of rainfall. It has a mechanical
arrangement by which the total amount of
rainfall since the start of record gets
automatically recorded on a graph paper.
It produces a plot of cumulative rainfall vs time
(mass curve of rainfall).
These raingauges are also called integrating
raingauges since they record cumulative
rainfall.
In addition to the total amount of rainfall
at a station, it gives the times of onset
and cessation of rains (thereby gives the
duration of rainfall events).
The slope of the plot gives the intensity
of rainfall for any given time period.
They can provide continuous record for a
number of days. They are very useful in
hilly and far off areas. In other areas, they
are installed along with a non-recording
raingauge.
Evaporation losses high.
Prevention by:
oilfilm.
small exposed surface area.
poor ventilation.
low internal temperature.
Recording Raingauges can be classified into:
 Analogue Devices:
 Weighing Bucket Raingauge.
 Float Type gauge.
 Digital Devices:
 Tipping Bucket Raingauge.
 Optical Raingauge.
Analogue Recording Raingauges
Weighing Bucket Raingauge
 Standard instrument used to quantify
rainfall.
 Spring scale beneath the collecting
bucket platform that is calibrated to mark
the rainfall depth on a paper chart.
 The chart is rotated by a spring driven or
electric clock at speeds of 1 revolution in
6, 9, 12, 24, or 192 hours.
 The rain gauge chart is a record of the
accumulated of rainfall for the selected
time interval.
Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge
Weighing Bucket Raingauge Chart
Each small grid = 0.05”
Recording Mechanism of Weighing

Type Recording Raingauge
Float Type Raingauge
 Standard instrument used to quantify
rainfall.
 Float within collecting bucket rises with
level.
 Vertical movement marked by pen and
shows rainfall depth on a paper chart.
 The chart is rotated by a spring driven or
electric clock at speeds of 1 revolution in
6, 9, 12, 24, or 192 hours.
 The rain gauge chart is a record of the
accumulated of rainfall for the selected
time interval.
Float Type Raingauge
Recording from a siphon

type gauge (schematic)
If there is no rainfall, the pen traces a horizontal line.

Float Type Rain Gauge with Siphon
 Standard instrument used to quantify rainfall.
 Usually with Float Type Raingauges
• System siphons itself at a certain level (typically
25mm).
• Empties container completely.
• Stores siphoned water in separate (total) container.
• Total container as check.
• Pen returns to bottom line.
• It allows continuous measurement of the rainfall.
Problems:
 15 seconds to siphon.
 Freezes.
 Digitizing.
Float Type Raingauge with Siphon
Principal Siphon Raingauge
Digital Recording Raingauges
Tipping Bucket Raingauge(1)
• It is ideally suited for
use as a telemetering
raingauge.
• Two containers on
balance beam form a
“tipping bucket”
• The catch from the funnel falls onto one of a pair of
small buckets
• These buckets are so balanced that when 0.25mm of
rain falls into one bucket, it tips bringing the other
bucket in position
• The water from the tipped bucket is collected in a can
• Tipping actuates an electrically driven pen to

trace a record on the graph paper mounted on a
clock work driven drum
• Water collected in the can is measured at regular
intervals to check the total rainfall recorded
• The record from this raingauge gives the
intensity of rainfall
• These can be installed in stations located in hilly
and inaccessible areas
Tipping Bucket Raingauge
Tipping Bucket Type
Tipping Bucket Type
Tipping Bucket Type
Problems:
• Evaporation from buckets.
• Discontinuous record in light rain.
• Susceptible to freezing.
Optical Raingauge (ORG)
• The ORG is mounted on a small pole.
• The ORG sends a beam of light (which you
cannot see) from one of its ends to a
detector at the other end.
• When raindrops fall, they break the beam.
The rain rate is measured by the ORG by
measuring how often the beam is broken.
• The rain rate can be used to calculate the
total amount of rain that has fallen in any
given period.
• ORG measures the rate of rainfall in
millimeters per hour (mm/hr).
Optical Raingauge (ORG)
Optical raingauge
 Effect : particles passing
through a light beam cause
SMET ORG scintillations
Optical RaingGauge
Radar Measurements(1)
• The meteorological radar is the powerful
instrument for measuring the area extent,
location and movement of rainstorm.
• The amount of rainfall overlarge area can be
determined through the radar with a good
degree of accuracy
• The radar emits a regular succession of
pulse of electromagnetic radiation in a
narrow beam so that when the raindrops
intercept a radar beam, its intensity can
easily be known.
 In an integrated system for measurement of rainfall,
raingauges are used for measuring the total amount
as well as intensity of a rainstorm and a microwave
radar (wavelength ~ 3 to 10cm) is used for
determining the areal extent, location and
movement of rainstorms.
 The hydrological range of radar is about 200km.
 Heavy rains – 10 cm radar.
 Light rains and snow – 5cm radar.
 Doppler type radars are used for measuring the
velocity and distribution of raindrops.
 Weather radar has become an increasingly
important tool for estimating the spatial distribution
of rainfall.
NEXRAD –The WSR-88D Specifications
 Weather Surveillance
Radar commissioned in
1988 with Doppler
capability.
 The radar tower is 98 feet
high and has an antenna
that is 28 feet in diameter.
 It has a beam width of
0.95 degrees and rotates
at a rate of 36 degrees
per second.
o Raindrops in the atmosphere and the
characteristics of the reflected signal(Z)
can be related to rainfall rates (R).
o Most common is Marshall-Palmer
relationship.
o Radar is far from an absolutely accurate
measurement method.
o Provides detailed information on the time
and space distribution of rain and can be
particularly valuable for heavy rainfall.
Temporal and Spatial Variation
of Rainfall
 Rainfall varies greatly both in time and space
• With respect to time – Temporal variation
• With respect to space – Spatial variation
 The temporal variation may be defined as
hourly, daily, monthly, seasonal variations
and annual variations (long-term variation of
precipitation).
Measured Gauge Accuracy(1)
Two problems arise in quantifying
precipitation input to a given land
area:
 how to measure precipitation at
one or more points in space?
 how to extrapolate these point
measurements to determine the
total amount of water delivered to
a particular land area?
Measured Gauge Accuracy(2)
• (Un)avoidable Errors: • Common Errors
 Equipment failure – Evaporation
 Observer error – Adhesion
– Inclination
– Splash
•Avoidable Errors:
Site:
Aspect - parallel to ground
Obstructions
Height – splashing
Surrounds
Wind
Analysis of Precipitation Data
 The Analysis of Precipitation Data includes:
 Estimation of Missing Data

 Test for Consistency of Record
Estimation of Missing Data(1)
• Given the annual precipitation values, P1, P2,

P3,. . ., Pm at neighboring M stations 1,2,3,.., &
m respectively,
• The average annual precipitation given by N1,

N2, N3,…, Nm, Ni… (including station X).
• It is required to find the missing annual Pxat a

station X not included in the above M stations
Estimation of Missing Data(2)
• To find the missing precipitation, Px , of station X:
 If the normal annual precipitations at various stations are
within about 10% of the normal annual precipitation at station X:
Px =
1
[P1 + P2 + ....... + Pm ]
M
 If the normal annual precipitations vary considerably (>10%)
N x  P1 P2 Pm 
Px =  + + ... + 
M  N1 N2 Nm 
Ni - Average Annual Precipitation in i station
Example
The normal annual rainfall at stations A,B and C are
170.60, 180.30, and 165.30 cm, respectively. In 1987,
station B was inoperative and stations A and C recorded
annual precipitations of 153.00 and 145.10cm,respectively.
Find the annual rainfall at B station in that year.
Solution
Since the normal annual precipitations is >10% ,so
N x  P1 P2 Pm 
Px =  + + ... + 
M  N1 N2 Nm 
180.30 153.00 145.10 

PB =  +  = 160.00cm
2 170.60 165.30 
Test for Consistency of Record
Some of the common causes for inconsistency of
record are:
(i) Shifting of a rain gauge station to a new
location,
(ii) Change of gauge type,
(iii) The neighborhoods of the station
undergoing a marked change,
(iv) Change in the ecosystem due to
calamities, such as forest fires, land
slides, and
(v) Occurrence of observational error from
a certain date. 31
Test for Consistency of Record
(Double Mass Curve - DMC)
 Let a group of 5 to 10 base stations in the
neighbourhood of the problem station X is selected
 Arrange the data of X stations rainfall and the average of
the neighbouring stations in reverse chronological order
(from recent to old record)
 Accumulate the precipitation of station X (∑ Px ) and the
average values of the group base stations (∑ Pavg ) starting
from the latest record.
 Plot the (∑ Px ) against (∑ Pavg ) as shown on the next figure
 A decided break in the slope of the resulting plot is
observed that indicates a change in precipitation regime
of station X, i.e inconsistency.
 Therefore, is should be corrected by the factor shown on
the next slide
(Double Mass Curve - DMC)
Accumulated Annual Rainfall at x station
ΣP in units of l03 cm
Mc
Pcx = Px
Ma
Accumulated Annual Rainfall of 10 stations Mean ΣP in units of l03 cm
Pcx – Corrected precipitation at any time period t1 at station X

Px – Original recorded precipitation at time period t1 at station X
Mc – Corrected slope of the double mass curve
Ma – Original slope of the mass curve 32
Description of Precipitation
 Intensity(RATE ):
How hard it rains. Measured in units of depth per time, usually
mm/hr or cm/hr.
 Duration (TIME ):
How long it rains. Measured in units of time. From intensity and
duration you can determine total rainfall depth.
 Return Period (Frequency):

How often, on average, a storm of a certain intensity and
duration occurs at a particular location. Measured in units of
time, generally years.
Mean Precipitation over an area
• Raingauges rainfall represent only point
sampling of the areal distribution of a storm
• The important rainfall for hydrological analysis
is a rainfall over an area, such as over the
catchment
• To convert the point rainfall values at various
stations to in to average value over a
catchment, the following methods are used:
 arithmetic mean method
 the method of the Thiessen polygons
 the isohyets method
Arithmetic Mean Method
• When the area is physically and climatically
homogenous and the required accuracy is
small, the average rainfall ( P ) for a basin can
be obtained as the arithmetic mean of the hi
values recorded at various stations.
• Applicable rarely for practical purpose
P1 + P2 + ..... + Pi + .....Pn 1 N
P =
N
=
N
∑P
i =1
i
The Method of the Thiessen Polygons(1)
This involves determining the area of influence for each station,
rather than assuming a straight-line variation. It is easier than
the isohyetal method but less accurate
Locate all rainfall stations
on a base map and record
the rainfall amount Thiessen polygons ……….
 Connect each station by

straight lines with the
several nearest stations to
form a series of triangles
Erect perpendicular
bisectors on each of these
lines and extend them to the
intersect with other
bisectors, thus forming a
series of irregular polygons
 Calculate the average rainfall using:
P1 A1 + P2 A2 + ..... + Pm Am
P =
( A1 + A2 + ..... + Am )
Generally for M station
M
∑PA i i M
Ai
P = i =1
= ∑ Pi
Atotal i =1 A
Ai
The ratio is called the weightage factor of station i
A
where A1,A2,.........Am are the areas of the Thiessen polygons

representing the stations 1,2,....... m and P1, P2,......Pm are the
corresponding precipitations, and A is the total area.
P7
P6
A7
A6
P2
A2
A1
A8 A5
P1
P8 P5
A3 A4
P3
P4
Example
Determining the average rainfall over the catchment
shown below by the Thiessen polygon method .
The rainfall recorded at the various rain gauge stations
and areas of the Thiessin polygons are marked on the
plan.
Solution
The calculation are given in the table below:
ΣAi = 429.0km2
The isohyets method(1)
An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall magnitude
The isohyets method(2)
The mean average rainfall Pover the catchment can be
calculated by
 P1 + P2   P2 + P3   Pn −1 + Pn 
a1   + a2   + ... + an −1  
P =  2   2   2 
A
P1, P2, P3, …. , Pn – the values of the isohyets

a1, a2, a3, ……, an-1 – the inter isohytes area respectively
A – the total catchment area
Note
The isohyet method is superior to the other two methods especially when the
stations are large in number.
10.0
8
D
6 C a5
12
9.2
12
a4
7.0 a3
4 B
7.2
A
a2 E 10.0
9.1
4.0 a1
F
8
6
4
Example
Determine the average rainfall over the catchment
shown below by the Isohyetal map method.
Take P12 = 1.9 cm and P56 = 5.2 cm. Areas A12 = 105 Km2,
A23 = 225 km2, A34 = 230 km2, A45 = 170 km2 , A56 = 55 km2.
Solution
The calculation are given in the table below.
ΣAij = 785.0km2
Water Balance Equation
in a Catchment
P - Q - G - ET - ∆S = 0
P - Precipitation
Q - Stream discharge
G - Groundwater Discharge
ET - Evapotranspiration
∆S - Change in Storage
Depth-Area-Duration curves(1)
 In designing structures for water resources,
one has to know the areal spread of rainfall
within watershed
 However, it is often required to know the
amount of high rainfall that may be expected
over the catchment
 It may be observed that usually a storm event
would start with a heavy downpour and may
gradually reduce as time passes
 Hence, the rainfall depth is not proportional
to the time duration of rainfall observation
 Similarly, rainfall over a small area may be more
or less uniform
 But if the area is large, then due to the variation
of rain falling in different parts, the average
rainfall would be less than that recorded over a
small portion below the high rain fall occurring
within the area
 Due to these facts, a Depth-Area-Duration
(DAD) analysis is carried out based on records
of several storms on an area and, the maximum
areal precipitation for different durations
corresponding to different areal extents
A typical Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) curve

Intensity-Duration-Frequency
curves(1)
 The analysis of continuous rainfall events,
usually lasting for periods of less than a
day, requires the evaluation of rainfall
intensities
 The assessment of such values may be
made from records of several part storms
over the area and presented in a graphical
form
Intensity-Duration-Frequency
curves(2)
A typical Intensity – Duration – Frequency (IDF) curve

Overland flow and inter flow(1)
• During a precipitation event, some of the

rainfall is intercepted by vegetation before it
reaches the ground and this phenomenon is
known as interception
• At places without any vegetation, the rain
directly touches the land surface
• This water can infiltrate into the soils, form
puddles called the depression storage, or
flow as a thin sheet of water across the land
surface
• The water trapped in puddles ultimately
evaporates or infiltrates
• If the soil is initially quite dry, then most
of the water infiltrates into the ground
• The amount of rainfall in excess of the
infiltrated quantity flows over the ground
surface following the land slope. This is
the overland flow
• Part of the water in the unsaturated zone of
the soil (also called the vadose zone) moves
in a lateral direction, especially if the
hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal
direction is more than that in vertical
direction and emerges at the soil surface at
some location away from the point of entry
into the soil
• This phenomenon is known as interflow
• The Hydraulic conductivity is a measure of the
ability of a fluid to flow through a porous medium
and is determined by the size and shape of the pore
spaces in the medium and their degree of
interconnection and also by the viscosity of the fluid
• The Hydraulic conductivity can be expressed as the

volume of fluid that will move in unit time under a
unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area
measured at right angles to the direction of flow
Rainfall – Runoff Process
Stream flow
and groundwater flow(1)
• If the unsaturated zone of the soil is uniformly
permeable, most of the infiltrated water
percolates vertically. Infiltrated water that
reaches the ground water reserve raises the
water table
• This creates a difference in potential and the
inclination of the water table defines the
variation of the piezometric head in horizontal
direction
• This difference in energy drives the ground
water from the higher to the lower head and
some of it ultimately reaches the stream flowing
through the valley
Stream flow
• This contribution of the stream flow is known
as Base Flow, which usually is the source of
dry weather flow in perennial streams
• During a storm event, the overland flow
contributes most of the immediate flow of the
stream. The total flow of the stream, however,
is the sum of overland flow, interflow and base
flow
• It must be remembered that the rates at which
these three components of runoff move varies
widely
Stream flow
• Stream flow moves fastest, followed by
interflow and then ground water flow, which
may take months and sometimes even years
to reach the stream
• Note that for some streams, the water table
lies quite some distance below the bottom of
the stream. For these streams, there is a
loss of water from the river bed percolating
into the ground ultimately reaching the water
table
Stream flow
•The reason for a low water table could possibly
be due to natural geographic conditions, or a
dry climate, or due to heavy pumping of water in
a nearby area
The Hyetograph
The hyetograph is the graphical plot of the
accumulated rainfall plotted against time, in
chronological order
Hyetograph for
• Total depth = 10cm
• Duration = 56hr
The hydrograph
 Hydrograph is the plot of the stream flow at a particular
location as a function of time
 Although the flow comprises of the contributions from
overland flow, interflow and groundwater flow, it is useful
to separate only the groundwater flow (the base flow) for
hydrograph analysis
Pear shaped catchment with narrow

end toward upstream and blunt end
towards outlets A hydrograph for a hypothetical rainfall
Runoff generation(1)
• direct runoff
– Rs, surface runoff
– Ri, interflow
• indirect runoff
– G, groundwater flow
Infiltration
Surface runoff
• infiltration
– soil moisture storage
– interflow
– percolation → groundwater
Percolation
• Effluent (perennial) vs.
influent (intermittent)
Groundwater flow
Interflow
stream
flood
base (dry weather) flow
=
streamflow = direct runoff + indirect runoff (baseflow)
Effective rainfall(1)
• A part of the rainfall reaching the earth’s
surface infiltrates into the ground and finally
joins the ground water reservoirs or moves
laterally as interflow
• Of the interflow, only the quick response or
prompt interflow contributes to the immediate
rise of the stream flow hydrograph
• Hence, the rainfall component causing
perceptible change in the stream flow is only a
portion of the total rainfall recorded over the
catchment
• This rainfall is called the effective rainfall
Effective rainfall(2)
• The infiltration capacity varies from soil to soil
and is also different for the same soil in its moist
and dry states
• If a soil is initially dry, the infiltration rate (or the
infiltration capacity of the soil) is high
• If the precipitation is lower than the infiltration
capacity of the soil, there will be no overland
flow, though interflow may still occur
• As the rainfall persists, the soil become moist
and infiltration rate decreases, causing the
balance precipitation to produce surface runoff
Methods of base flow separation(3)
 Consider the total runoff hydrograph shown down,
for which the corresponding effective rainfall
hyetograph over the catchment is known
 It is required to separate the base flow .For this, the
total flow is seen to be
reducing initially, and then
a sudden rise takes place,
probably due to a sudden
burst of rainfall
A typical hydrograph requiring

base flow separation
Methods of base flow separation
Method 1
One method to separate the base flow from the
total runoff hydrograph is to join points X and Z
as shown in figure. This method is considered
not very accurate
Method 2
This method suggests the extension of the base flow
graph (figure shown beside) along its general trend
before the rise of the hydrograph up to a point P directly
below the runoff hydrograph peak
From P, a straight line PQ is
drawn to meet the hydrograph
at point Q, which as separated
from P in the time scale by an
empirical relation given as:
N (in days) = 0.862 ͯ A0.2
Where, A is the area of the
drainage basin in square
kilometers
Method 3
The third method makes use of composite base flow
recession curve, as shown in figure . The following points
are to be kept in mind:
X – A follows the trend of the initial base flow recession
curve prior to the start of
the direct runoff hydrograph.
B – Q follows the trend of the
later stage base flow recess-
ion curve
B is chosen to lie below the
point of inflection (C) of the
hydrograph
The hydrograph after separating

and the base flow results in
what is called the
Direct Runoff Hydrograph
The Unit Hydrograph(1)
 The Unit Hydrograph (abbreviated as UH) of a
drainage basin is defined as a hydrograph of
direct runoff resulting from one unit of effective
rainfall which is uniformly distributed over the
basin at a uniform rate during the specified
period of time known as unit time or unit
duration
 The unit quantity of effective rainfall is generally
taken as 1.0mm or 1.0cm and the outflow
hydrograph is expressed by the discharge
ordinates
 The unit duration may be 1.0 hour, 2.0
hour, 3.0 hours or so depending upon
the size of the catchment and storm
characteristics
 However, the unit duration cannot be
more than the time of concentration,
which is the time that is taken by the
water from the furthest point of the
catchment to reach the outlet
A typical unit hydrograph

Unit hydrograph assumptions(1)
 The following assumptions are made while

using the unit hydrograph principle:
1. Effective rainfall should be uniformly
distributed over the basin, that is, if there
are ‘N’ rain gauges spread uniformly over
the basin, then all the gauges should record
almost same amount of rainfall during the
specified time.
2. Effective rainfall is constant over the
catchment during the unit time.
3. The direct runoff hydrograph for a given

effective rainfall for a catchment is always the
same irrespective of when it occurs. Hence,
any previous rainfall event is not considered.
This antecedent precipitation is otherwise
important because of its effect on soil
infiltration rate, depressional and detention
storage, and hence, on the resultant hydrograph.
4. The ordinates of the unit hydrograph are

directly proportional to the effective rainfall
hyetograph ordinate. Hence, if a 6.0-h unit
hydrograph due to 1.0 cm rainfall is given, then a
6.0-h hydrograph due to 2.0 cm rainfall would just
mean doubling the unit hydrograph ordinates.
Hence, the base of the resulting hydrograph
(from the start or rise up to the time when
discharge becomes zero) also remains the same
Unit hydrograph limitations(1)
Under the natural conditions of rainfall over
drainage basins, the assumptions of the unit
hydrograph cannot be satisfied perfectly.
However, when the hydrologic data used in the
unit hydrograph analysis are carefully selected
so that they meet the assumptions closely, the
results obtained by the unit hydrograph theory
have been found acceptable for all practical
purposes.
In theory, the principle of unit hydrograph is
applicable to a basin of any size
However, in practice, to meet the basic
assumption in the derivation of the unit
hydrograph as closely as possible, it is essential
to use storms which are uniformly distributed
over the basin and producing rainfall excess at
uniform rate. Such storms rarely occur over
large areas
The size of the catchment is, therefore, limited
although detention, valley storage, and
infiltration all tend to minimize the effect of
rainfall variability
The limit is generally considered to be about
5000 sq. km. beyond which the reliability of
the unit hydrograph method diminishes. When
the basin area exceeds this limit, it has to be
divided into sub-basins and the unit
hydrograph is developed for each sub-basin.
The flood discharge at the basin outlet is then
estimated by combining the sub-basin floods,
using flood routing procedures
 Flood Routing: This term is used to denote the
computation principles for estimating the
values of flood discharge with time and in
space, that is, along the length of a river
Unit Hydrograph Parameters
Time lag – The time between center of
mass of rainfall and center of mass of
runoff
Time of concentration-The time of
concentration of a drainage basin is the
time required by the water to reach the
outlet from the most remote point of the
drainage area.
Time to peak – beginning of rise to peak
Application of the unit hydrograph(1)
• Calculations of direct runoff hydrograph in
catchment due to a given rainfall event (with
recorded rainfall values), is easy if a unit
hydrograph is readily available
• Remember that a unit hydrograph is constructed
for a unit rainfall falling for a certain T-hours,
where T may be any conveniently chosen time
duration
• The effective rainfall hyetograph, for which the
runoff is to be calculated using the unit
hydrograph, is obtained by deducting initial and
infiltration losses from the recorded rainfall
Application of the unit hydrograph(2)
• This effective rainfall hyetograph is

divided into blocks of T-hour duration
• The runoff generated by the effective
rainfall for each T-hour duration is then
obtained and summed up to produce
the runoff due to the total duration
Direct runoff calculations using
unit hydrograph(1)
• Assume that a 6-hour unit hydrograph (UH) of a
catchment has been derived, whose ordinates are
given in the following table and a corresponding
graphical representation is shown in the figure
A 6.0 – hour unit hydrograph

unit hydrograph(2)
• Assume further that the effective rainfall hyetograph
(ERH) for a given storm on the region has been
given as in the following table
unit hydrograph(3)
• This means that in the first 6 hours, 2cm excess
rainfall has been recorded, 4cm in the next 6 hours,
and 3cm in the next
• The direct runoff hydrograph can then be calculated
by the three separate hyetographs for the three
excess rainfalls by multiplying the ordinates of the
hydrograph by the corresponding rainfall amounts.
• Since the rainfalls of 2cm, 4cm and 3cm occur in
successive 6-hour intervals, the derived DRH
corresponding to each rainfall is delayed by 6 hours
appropriately
• These have been shown in the figures indicated
DRH corresponding to 2.0cm excess rainfall in 0 – 6 hours
DRH corresponding to 4.0cm excess rainfall during 6 .0 – 12.0hours
h
DRH corresponding to 3.0cm excess rainfall during 12.0 – 18.0hours

• The final hydrograph is found out by adding the three
individual hydrographs, as shown in the following figure
Final direct runoff hydrograph derived from summation of individual DRHs

• The calculations to generate the direct runoff hydrograph (DRH)
from a given UH and ERH can be conveniently done using a
spreadsheet program, like the Microsoft XL
• A sample calculation for the example solved graphically is given in
the following table. Note the 6 hour shift of the DRHs in the second
and subsequent hours
The last column in the above table gives the ordinates of the DRH produced by the
ERH. If the base flow is known or estimated ,then this should be added to the DRH
to obtain the 6-houly ordinates of the flood hydrograph.
Ground
Water
Hydrology
Introduction
 Ground-water hydrology is the science dealing with the
quantity, quality, movement, and distribution of water below
the surface of the earth
 The field of ground-water hydrology is sometimes called
geohydrology or hydrogeology, where the former term is
used in the context of engineering practice and the latter
term in the context of geologic practice
 A major application of the principles of ground-water
hydrology is in the development of water supplies by means
of wells and infiltration galleries
 Other important applications include the evaluation,
mitigation, and remediation of contaminated ground water;
the storage of surface waters in underground reservoirs;
and the lowering of ground-water levels to permit crop
growth
Ground water Importance(1)
• Groundwater is an important source of fresh water in
arid and semiarid regions
• It is either the main source of fresh water ,or a

complementary source to surface water
• The proportion of ground

water in drinking water
supplies in some European
countries in 1988 was
(UNEP, 1989):
Ground water Importance(2)
• Many of the major cities of Europe are, therefore,
dependent on groundwater
• In Africa and Asia, most of the largest cities use

surface water, but many millions of people in the rural
areas are dependent on groundwater
• Accordingly, groundwater
protection should be one
of the top priority in such
regions to ensure sustaina-
bility of development
Groundwater Occurrence(1)
 Groundwater begins with precipitation that seeps
into the ground
 The amount of water that seeps into the ground will
vary widely from place to place, depending on the
slope of the land, amount and intensity of rainfall,
and type of land surface
 The subsurface environment consists of a porous
medium in which the void spaces have varying
degrees of water saturation
 Regions where the void spaces are completely filled
with water are called zones of saturation, and
regions where the void spaces are not completely
filled with water are called zones of aeration
 Water in a zone of aeration is sometimes called
vadose water, and the zone of aeration is sometimes
called the vadose zone
 Vadose is a derivative of the Latin word vadosus, which
means "shallow “
 Typically, the zone of aeration (vadose zone) lies above
the zone of saturation, and the upper boundary of the
zone of saturation is called the phreatic surface or
water table
 Phreatic is a derivative of the Greek word phreatos,
which means "well" In this context, a saturated zone is
encountered when a well is dug
 At the water table, the pressure is equal to atmospheric
pressure
The Water Table
Water table: the

surface separating
the vadose zone
from the saturated
zone.
Measured using
water level in well
 Within the zone of aeration are three subzones: the
soil-water, intermediate, and capillary zones
 The soil-water zone is the region containing the roots
of surface vegetation, voids left by decayed roots of
earlier vegetation, and animal and worm burrows
 The maximum moisture content of the soil in the soil-
water zone corresponds to the maximum moisture
that can be held by the soil against the force of
gravity, regardless of the depth of the water table
below ground surface
 The maximum moisture content in the soil-water zone is
called the field capacity, and the thickness of the soil-
water zone is typically on the order of 1 to 3 m
 Beneath the soil-water zone is the intermediate zone,
which extends from the bottom of the soil-water zone to
the upper limit of the capillary zone
 The capillary zone extends from the water table up to the
limit of the capillary rise of the water from the zone of
saturation (through the pores of the porous formation)
 The thickness of the capillary zone depends on the pore
size, and can vary from 1 cm to several meters
Vertical Distribution of Groundwater

Aquifers(1)
 An aquifer is a geologic formation containing water that
can be withdrawn in significant amounts
 Aquifer is a derivative of the Latin words aqua ("water")
and ferre ("to bear“)
 A common misconception is that an aquifer is always
completely saturated with water; however, it is
important to keep in mind that an aquifer consists of
the entire water-bearing geologic unit (or entire group
of water bearing units) and not just its saturated
portion
 Aquicludes contain water but are in capable of
transmitting it in significant quantities, and aquifuges
neither contain nor transmit water
Aquifers(2)
 A clay layer is an example of an aquiclude; solid rock is
an example of an aquifuge; and, for most practical
purposes, aquicludes can be taken as impervious
formations
 Aquifers are classified as either unconfined or confined
 Unconfined aquifers are open to the atmosphere, and
are also called phreatic aquifers or water- table
aquifers
 In confined aquifers, water in the saturated zone is
bounded above by either impervious or semi pervious
formations
Aquifers(3)
Types of aquifers
Confined aquifer Unconfined aquifer

Aquifers(4)
Special Aquifer Systems
 Leaky confined aquifer: represents a stratum
that allows water to flow from above through a
leaky confining zone into the underlying aquifer
 Perched aquifer: occurs when an unconfined
water zone sits on top of a clay lens, separated
from the main aquifer below
Aquifers(5)
 Aquifers have specific characteristics that distinguish
them from other water bodies:
(i) they can help in removing suspended solids and
disease-causing organisms
(ii) they can store water in quantities exceeding those
which are on conceivably could be stored in all
natural and artificial surface-water bodies
(iii) they can regulate the water temperature and its
chemical quality
(iv) they transport water from areas of recharge to
areas of need; and
(v) they slow-down the natural discharge of water to the
surface. As such, aquifers can be utilized as strategic
storage reservoirs for water to make up the bulk of the
dry-weather flow of streams
Groundwater
Recharge and Discharge
• Water is continually recycled through aquifer
systems
• Groundwater recharge is any water added to
the aquifer zone
• Groundwater discharge is any process that
removes water from an aquifer system
• Natural springs and artificial wells are
examples of discharge processes
Groundwater Recharge
Natural
 Precipitation
 Melting snow
 Infiltration by streams
reservoirs and lakes
Artificial
 Recharge wells
 Water spread over land
in pits, furrows, ditches
 Small dams in stream
channels to detain and
deflect water
Groundwater recharge mechanism(1)
 Land surfaces that supply water to aquifers are called
recharge areas, and maintaining an adequate recharge
area (and recharge-water supply) is particularly
important in urban areas where ground water is a major
source of drinking water
 The primary groundwater recharge mechanism is the
infiltration of rainfall
 Piezometers are observation wells with very short
screened openings that are used to measure the
piezometric head, which for an incompressible fluid is
given by
p where p and z are the pressure and elevation at

φ= +z the opening of the observation well (piezometer)
γ and γ is the specific weight of the ground water.
 If the confined aquifer in figure given beside penetrated
by piezometers at B and C, then the water levels in these
piezometers rise to levels equal to the piezometric heads
at B and C, respectively
 At B, the piezometric head Impervious or semi
pervious formation
rises above the top confining

layer of the (confined) aquifer,
indicating that the water
pressure at the top of the
confined aquifer is greater
than atmospheric pressure
 This condition can be contra-
sted with the top of an unconfined aquifer, where the
pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure
 The piezometer at C behaves similarly to the
piezometer at B, the difference being that the
water level in the piezometer at C rises above
the ground surface
 In practical terms, this means that if a well were
extended from the ground surface down into the
confined aquifer at C, then the water would flow
continuously from the well until the piezometric
head was reduced to the elevation at the top of
the well
 An aquifer that produces flowing water when
penetrated by a well from the ground surface is
called an artesian aquifer
 As indicated in the previous figure, a confined
aquifer can be an artesian aquifer at some
locations, such as at C, and an unconfined
aquifer at other locations, such as at A
 The name "artesian" is derived from the name of
the northern French city of Artois, where wells
penetrating artesian aquifers are common
 The presence of artesian aquifers and the
distribution of pressures in aquifers is frequently
identified by plotting the areal distribution of
piezometric head, and such plots are commonly
referred to as piezometric surfaces or
potentiometric surfaces
 In current practice, the term "potentiometric surface"
is preferred
 In cases where artesian aquifers intersect the ground
surface, concentrated flows of ground water called
springs are formed
Water being Water under artesian

pumped from a well pressure flowing from a well Natural spring
 Groundwater inflows into surface water channels
are a common source of perennial discharge in
streams, which is commonly referred to as the base
flow of the stream
 Stream flows mostly consist of the base flow plus
the flow resulting from storm water runoff
 Both unconfined and confined aquifers can be
bounded by semipervious formations called
aquitards, which are significantly less permeable
than the aquifer but are not impervious
 Of course, unconfined aquifers can only be
bounded by impervious or semipervious layers on
the bottom, while confined aquifers are bounded
on both the top and bottom by either impervious
or semipervious layers
 Aquifers bounded by semipervious formations
are called leaky, and terms such as leaky-
unconfined aquifer and leaky-confined aquifer
are used.
Ground water movement(1)
 A microscopic view of the flow through porous media
is illustrated in figure given below, where water flows
through the void space and around the solid matrix
within the porous medium
Microscopic view of flow through porous media

 It is difficult to describe the details of the
flow field within the void spaces, since this
would necessarily require a detailed
knowledge of the geometry of the void
space within the porous medium
 To deal with this problem, it is convenient to
work with spatially averaged variables rather
than variables at a point (which is a spatial
average over a very small volume)
 Referring to previous figure, a property of
the porous medium at P can be taken as the
average value of that property within a
volume centered at P
 The scale of the averaging volume is called the

support scale
 Almost all properties of a porous medium that are
relevant to ground water engineering are
associated with a support scale, and in most
cases the value of the averaged quantity is
independent of the size of the support scale
 A case in point is the porosity, of a porous
medium, which is defined by the relation
Volume of voids(VV ) where the sample volume corresponds

n= to the spherical volume with radius equal
Total volume(Vt ) to the support scale.
Soil volume V
(Saturated)
Pore
with
water
solid
Typical Values of Porosity
Material Porosity (%)
Peat Soil 60-80
Soils 50-60
Clay 45-55
Silt 40-50
Med. to Coarse Sand 35-40
Uniform Sand 30-40
Fine to Med Sand 30-35
Gravel 30-40
Gravel and Sand 30-35
Sandstone 10-20
Shale 1-10
Limestone 1-10
Types of Porous Media

Particle Size Distribution

 As the support scale gets larger, the porosity
becomes less sensitive to the location and size
of the sample volume and approaches a constant
value that is independent of the support scale
 The porosity remains independent of the support
scale until the averaging volume becomes so
large that it encompasses portions of the porous
medium that have significantly different
characteristics; under these circumstances, the
porosity again becomes dependent on the size of
the support scale
The range within which the porosity is
independent of the support scale is given by
the interval between the scales L0 and L1
shown in figure given beside
Therefore, as long as the

support scale is between
L0 and L1, the porosity
need not be associated
with any particular
support scale A typical relationship
between the porosity
and support scale
 The sample volume associated with the
support scale L0 is commonly referred to as
the representative elementary volume (REV)
Estimation of porosity by averaging over elementary volume (REV)

REV – Scale Effect
Microscopic and macroscopic domains

and the representative elementary Volume V3
 For sandy soils, an averaging volume with a radius
on the order of 10 to 20 grain diameters appears to
be adequate for obtaining a stable average
 The relationship between the porosity and support
scale is typical of the relationship between many
other hydrogeologic parameters and support
scales, although the REV of other parameters may
be different
 In general, there is no guarantee that a REV exists
for any hydrogeologic parameter, and in the
absence of a REV the value of the parameter must
be associated with a support scale
 All earth materials are collectively known as rocks ;
and the three main categories of rocks are igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks
 Igneous rocks, such as basalt and granite, are
formed from molten or partially molten rock
(magma) formed deep within the earth; sedimentary
rocks, such as sand, gravel, sandstone, and
limestone, are formed by the erosion of previously
existing rocks and/or the deposition of marine
sediment; and metamorphic rocks, such as schist
and shale, are formed through the alteration of
igneous or sedimentary rock by extreme heat or
pressure or both
 Typically, igneous and metamorphic rocks have
less pore space and fewer passageways for
water than sedimentary deposits
 Rocks are further classified as either
consolidated or unconsolidated, Solid masses
of rock are referred to as consolidated, while
rocks consisting of loose granular material are
termed unconsolidated.
 In consolidated formations, original porosity or
primary porosity is associated with pore spaces
created during the formation of the rock, while
secondary porosity is associated with pore
spaces created after rock formation.
Representative Hydrologic
Properties in Consolidated Formation
 Examples of secondary
porosity in consolidated
formations include
fractures, and solution
cavities in limestone
 Between 60% and 90% of all developed aquifers
consist of granular unconsolidated rocks,
where the porosities are associated with the
intergranular spaces determined by the particle
size distribution
 In general, granular material is classified by
particle size distribution, and many different
organizations have established classification
standards for use in various disciplines.
 The United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA) soil classification system is one of the
most widely used in water-resources
engineering
USDA Classification and Representative
Hydrologic Properties in Unconsolidated Formations
 The porosities of granular materials tend to
decrease with increasing particle size;
however, this does not mean that water flows
with more resistance through aquifers
composed of larger particle sizes.
 In fact, the opposite is true. Porosities are
considered small when n < 0.05, medium when
0.05 < n < 0.20, and large when n > 0.20 .
 The most common aquifer materials are
unconsolidated sands and gravels, which occur
in alluvial valleys, coastal plains, dunes, and
glacial deposits
 Consolidated formations that make good aquifers
are sandstones, limestones with solution channels,
and heavily fractured volcanic and crystalline rocks
 Clays, shales, and dense crystalline rocks are the
most common materials found in aquitards
 Aquifers range in thickness from less than 1 m to
several hundred meters. They may be long and
narrow, as in small alluvial valleys, or they may
extend over millions of square kilometers and
underlie major portions of states
 The depth from the ground surface to the top of the
saturated zone of an aquifer may range from 1 m to
more than several hundred meters
Parameters affecting porosity(1)
The initial (pre-diagenesis) porosity is affected by
three major microstructural parameters.
These are
 grain size,
 grain packing,
 particle shape, and the distribution
of grain sizes
However, the initial porosity is rarely that found
in real rocks, as these have subsequently been
affected by secondary controls on porosity such
as compaction and geochemical diagenetic
processes.
Grain Size
Grain Packing
Parallel cylindrical pores Regular cubic-packed spheres Regular rhombohedral-
packed spheres
Regular orthorhombic- Irregular-packed spheres

packed spheres with different radii
Grain Packing(cont.)
The porosities of standard packing arrangements

Particle shape
This parameter is not widely understood. Several
studies have been carried out on random packing
of non-spherical grains, and in all cases the resulting
porosities are larger than those for spheres
The effect of grain shape on porosity
Porosity and Permeability and
Transmissibility(1)
• Porosity: the percentage of rock or sediment
that consists of voids or openings
• Permeability: the capacity of a rock to transmit
a fluid such as water or petroleum through
pores and fractures
• Permeability is not proportional to porosity
Transmissibility(2)
WELL SORTED POORLY SORTED WELL SORTED
Coarse (sand-gravel) Coarse - Fine Fine (silt-clay)
Permeability and Hydraulic Conductivity

High Low
Sorting of material affects groundwater movement
Poorly sorted (well graded) material is less porous than well-sorted material
Transmissibility(3)
• Porous: a rock that holds much water
• Permeable: a rock that allows water to flow easily
through it
• Impermeable: a rock that does not allow water to
flow through it easily
• Transmissivity (T) of an aquifer is the product of K
and the saturated thickness of the aquifer b
T = K.b
• It is expressed in m2/day or ft2/day, and can be
measured thru a number of tests - pump, slug,
tracer
Basic Equations of Ground
Water Flow (Darcy's Law)
The study of flow through porous media was
pioneered by Darcy (1856) .
Henri Darcy Darcy's experimental setup

Darcy‘s experiment
Darcy’s law(1)
 Darcy investigated the flow rate of

water through a column of sand with
cross-sectional area A and length L
 The motivation for Darcy's experiments
was to study the performance of the
sand filters in the water-supply system
for the city of Dijon, France
Darcy’s law(2)
 Darcy (1856) found that the flow rate, Q, of water
through the sand column could be described by
the relation
h1 − h2
Q = K . A. (1)
L
where K is a proportionality constant, and h1 and
h2 are the piezometric heads at the entrance and
exit of the sand column, respectively.
 Recall that the piezometric head, h, of an
incompressible fluid is given by h = p + z
γ
 The piezometric head is sometimes called the
hydraulic head.
 Defining the gradient in the piezometric head or
hydraulic gradient, I, across the sand column by
h2 − h1 (2)
I =
L
Darcy’s law(3)
and defining the specific discharge, q, through
the sand column by
Q
q= (3)
A
then Equation (1) can be written in the form
q = −k .I (4)
which is commonly known as Darcy's law
 The specific discharge, q, is sometimes called
the filtration velocity or Darcy's velocity
 The experimentally validated (phe- nomenological)
relationship given by Equation (4) states that the
specific discharge through a porous medium is
linearly proportional to the gradient in the
piezometric head in the direction of flow
Darcy’s law(4)
 The proportionality constant, K, is called the

hydraulic conductivity of the porous medium
 In the field of geotechnical engineering, the
term coefficient of permeability is commonly
used Instead of hydraulic conductivity, but both
terms refer to the same quantity
 Before proceeding to study the applications of
Darcy's law, several important points must be
noted
Darcy’s law(5)
 First of all, the specific discharge, q, is
defined as the volumetric flow rate per unit
cross section of the porous medium and,
since the flow only occurs within the pores,
the actual velocity of flow through the pores
is necessarily higher than the specific
discharge.
 The flow rate through the pores is called the
seepage velocity, v, and is defined by
V =
Q
A
(5)
p
where Ap is the area of the pores (normal to the flow

direction).
Darcy’s law(6)
 Comparing Equations (3) and (5), the seepage

velocity, v, is related to the specific discharge, q,
by
A
V = q. (6)
Ap
 The ratio of the pore area, Ap, to the bulk cross-
sectional area, A, is defined as the areal
porosity, and is equal to the volumetric porosity,
n, defined by Equation
Volume of voids(VV )
n=
Total volume(Vt )
Darcy’s law(7)
 In reality, not all of the pore space is

connected and available for fluid flow, and
therefore the effective areal porosity is less
than the volumetric porosity, n
 The ratio of the effective flow area to the
bulk cross-sectional area is defined as the
effective porosity, ne , where
Ae
ne =
A
(7)
where Ae is the effective flow area through
the pores
Darcy’s law(8)
 For unconsolidated porous media, the effective
porosity is approximately equal to the volumetric
porosity ,while in many consolidated formations
the effective porosity can be over an order of
magnitude smaller than the total porosity, with
the greatest difference occurring in fractured
rocks .
 Combining Equations 6. and 7., and taking Ap
equal to Ae, yields the following relationship
between the seepage velocity, v, and the
specific discharge, q, given by Darcy's law:
V=
q K
= − .I (8)
ne ne
Darcy’s law(9)
 In practice, the effective porosity is sometimes
denoted by n rather than ne and it is
differentiated from the volumetric porosity by
the stated definition of n
 The hydraulic conductivity, K, that appears in
Darcy's law is a function of both the fluid
properties and the geometry of the solid matrix
 This point is intuitively obvious if one considers
the water in Darcy's experiment being replaced
by oil
Darcy’s law(10)
 Clearly there would be less flow than for
water under the same piezometric gradient,
thereby indicating a smaller hydraulic
conductivity for oil in sand than for water in
sand
 Also, if clay were used instead of sand in
Darcy's experiment, then there would be less
flow than for sand under the same hydraulic
gradient, indicating a smaller hydraulic
conductivity for water in clay than for water in
sand
Darcy’s law(11)
 The functional relationship between the

hydraulic conductivity and the fluid and solid-
matrix properties can be extracted using
dimensional analysis
 If the fluid properties are characterized by the
specific weight, y, and dynamic viscosity, µ, and
the solid matrix is characterized by the length
scale of the pores, d, then the hydraulic
conductivity, K, is related to the fluid and solid
matrix properties by the following functional
relationship:
Darcy’s law(12)
ρ .g
K = k.
µ
K = intrinsic permeability Porous medium property

ρ = density
Fluid properties
µ = dynamic viscosity
g = gravitational constant
Darcy’s law(13)
Validity of Darcy’s Law
• We ignored kinetic energy (low velocity)
• We assumed laminar flow
• We can calculate a Reynolds Number for the flow
ρ .q.d10
Re =
µ
where
q = specific discharge
d10 = effective grain size diameter
• Darcy’s Law is valid for Re< 1

Example -1-
Water flows through a sand aquifer with a piezometric
head gradient of 0.01.
(a) If the hydraulic conductivity and effective
porosity of the aquifer are 2 m/d and 0.3,
respectively, estimate the specific discharge and
seepage velocity in the aquifer;
(b) estimate the volumetric flow rate of the ground
water if the aquifer is 15 m deep and 1 km wide,
(c) How long does it take the ground water to move
100 m?
Example-1- (cont.)
Solution
From the given data: I = -0.01; K = 2 m/day; ne = 0.3; and, according
to Darcy's law, the specific discharge, q, is given by
q = − K .I = −(2) × (−0.01) = 0.02m / day
The corresponding seepage velocity, v, is
q 0.02
V = = = 0.0667 m / day
ne 0.30
The volumetric flow rate, Q, of ground water across an area
A = 15 m X 1 km = 15,000 m2 is
Q = q. A = (0.02) × (15.000) = 300m 3 / day
Ground water flows with the seepage velocity, v, and therefore
the time, t, to travel 100 m is given by
100m 100m
t= = = 1500day = 4.11 years
v 0.0667 m / d
This result is indicative of the slow movement of most ground waters.
Example -2-
• A confined aquifer has a source of recharge
• K for the aquifer is 50 m/day, and n is 0.2
• The piezometric head in two wells 1000 m apart is 55 m
and 50 m respectively, from a common datum
• The average thickness of the aquifer is 30 m
• The average width of flow is 5 km
Calculate:
 the Darcy and seepage velocity in the aquifer
 the average time of travel from the head of the
aquifer to a point 4 km downstream
 assume no dispersion or diffusion
Example-2- (cont.)
Solution
Cross-Sectional area :
30.(5).(1000) = 15 x 104 m2
Hydraulic gradient
(55 - 50) /1000 = 5 x 10-3
Rate of Flow through aquifer
Q = (50 m/day).(75 x 10 m2) = 37500 m3/day
Darcy Velocity:
V = Q/A = (37500m3/day) / (15 x 104 m2) = 0.25 m/day
Therefore:
Vs = V/n = 0.25 / 0.20 = 1.25 m/day
Time to travel 4 km downstream:
t = 4.(1000m) / (1.25m/day) = 3200 days or 8.77 years
.
This example shows that water moves very slowly underground.
Storage Coefficient(1)
Relates to the water-yielding capacity of an
aquifer
It is defined as the volume of water that an
aquifer releases from or takes into storage
per unit surface area per unit change in
piezometric head - used extensively in pump
tests
• For confined aquifers, a storage
coefficient S values range between
0.00005 to 0.005
• For unconfined aquifers, S values range
between 0.07 and 0.25, roughly equal to
the specific yield
Storage Coefficient(2)
Unconfined Aquifer Confined Aquifer
Ss = S y S s = ρ g (α + nβ )
Basic Equations
of Ground Water Flow
Water Flow
Darcy’s Law
Continuity Equation
Dupuit approximations
Water Flow (Darcy’s law)
Darcy’s law relates the discharge (q) to head (h)
in an aquifer
dh
q = − k .I = − K .
dl
∂h
qx = −K x .
∂x
∂h
qy = −K y .
∂y
∂h
qz = −K z .
∂z
Water Flow (Continuity Equation,1)
• Continuity equation provides an additional
equation related to the system
• Control volume of dimensions ∆x, ∆y, ∆z
• Completely saturated with a fluid of density ρ
Mass flux in Mass flux out

∆z ∂ ( ρ .q x ) ∆x
∂ ( ρ .q x ) ∆x ρ .q x +
ρ .q x − . ∂x
.
∂x 2 2
z y
∆y
∆x
∆x ∆x
x− x x+
x 2 2
• Mass flux = Mass in - Mass out:
∂ ( ρ .q x )  ∂ ( ρ .q x ) ∆x   ∂ ( ρ .q x ) ∆x 
− .∆V =  ρ .q x − . .∆y.∆z −  ρ .q x + . .∆y.∆z
∂x  ∂x 2  ∂x 2
• Fluid mass in the volume:

∆m = n.ρ .∆V
• Continuity:Mass flux = change of mass
∂ (n.ρ .∆V ) ∂ ( ρ .q x )
=− .∆V
∂t ∂x
• Elastic porous medium (α) with a compressible fluid (β)
• Medium is deforming due to a change in fluid pressure
(pumping)
∂ ( n.ρ .∆V ) ∂ ( ρ .q x )
=− .∆V
∂t ∂x
∂ ( n.ρ .∆V ) ∂h
• Change in mass: ∂t
= ρ .S .
∂t
.∆V
• Continuity: ∂ ( ρ .q x ) ∂h
− = ρ .S .
∂x ∂t
∂ρ ∂ρ
• For incompressible fluid → ρ = const. ,
∂x
=
∂t
=0
∂q x ∂h ∂h
− = S. ,where qx = − K x .
∂x ∂t ∂x
• For 1-D flow ,continuity equation
∂  ∂h  ∂h
 Kx.  = S.
∂x  ∂x  ∂t
∂  ∂h  ∂  ∂h  ∂h
 x
K .  +  K .  = S .
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂t
y

∂  ∂h  ∂  ∂h  ∂  ∂h  ∂h
 Kx. +  K y .  +  Kz.  = S.
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z  ∂t
Flow in Aquifers
Confined Aquifer Flow
n = 0.35
q
v =
n
Unconfined Aquifer Flow
Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer
 Dupuit approximations Ground surface
• Slope of the water table Water table
is small
• Velocities are horizontal h Qx
Unconfined aquifer
• Slopes of the free surface z K

y
and hydraulic gradient are x
equal Bedrock
∆x
 ∂h 
Qx = q x .h =  − K x . .h
 ∂x 
∂Qx ∂h ∂  ∂h  ∂h
− = Sy. ,  K x .h.  = S y .
∂x ∂t ∂x  ∂x  ∂t
Well Hydraulics
Steady flow and unsteady flows(1)
 Imagine a farmer using a deep tube or a dug well as
a source of water for irrigating his field.
 The well may be fitted with a submergible pump or
a centrifugal pump to draw
out water and discharge at
the head of a channel leading
to the fields
 As long as the pump is not in
operation, the water in the well
remains at a steady at a level,
at that of the water table Pump not started
 When the pump is just started, it starts drawing
out water from the well and the level of water in
the well decreases
 The water table surrounding the well also gets
lowered
Q
Pump just started

 The water table gets lowered and forms a conical
depression much like that shown in figure
Cone of depression
 It may be observed that the surface of the
water table, shaped now in the form of a cone,
is steepest where it meets the well
 Farther away from the well, the surface is
flatter and beyond a certain distance, called
the radius of influence, the surface of the cone
is almost as flat as the original water table
 As pumping continues (at the rated capacity of
the pump), the water table gets lowered further
until it becomes steady
 At this position the water surface is called the
draw down curve
Q
Steady state drawdown
Q
 In must be observed that the water that is
being pumped up from the well is being
replenished by water traveling through the
saturated formation towards the well
 Further, if the capacity of the pump amount
of water being in thrown from aware would
be a lowered still
 Corresponding figure of a steady state draw
down curve in a confined aquifer would be
as shown in following figure
Q
Steady state potentionetic surface for confined aquifer

 The following sections explain the mathematical
relation between the water pumped and the
location of the draw down. It must be
remembered that the flow towards the wells is
actually taking place radially
 Hence, we shall be predominantly using the
ground water flow equations using the
cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z, w) .in contrast to
the ones using Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) as
used in the previous lessons
 Steady and unsteady flow situations may further
be classified as being confined or unconfined,
depending on the relative positions of ground
water conveying strata and the water table
 The following sections describe each of these
conditions individually
Steady Flow to a Well:
Confined Aquifer(1)
• Consider the case of a Q
pumped well completely
penetrating a confined
aquifer
• The corresponding steady

state piezometric down
surface is also shown for
the assumed constant
pumped discharge Q
Definition of terms
Confined Aquifer(2)
• The well is assumed to have a radius rw and the
radius of influence is thought to be R where the
potentiometric surface is nearly equal to the original
undisturbed value H, measured from a datum
• At the well, the depth of water is designated by hw,
which is also measured from a common datum
• In general, at a certain radius r measured from the
center of the well, the potentiometric surface stands
at a height ‘h’ measured above the datum
• The yield from the well Q may be expressed in terms
of Darcy’s law as,
Confined Aquifer(3)
Q = K .I . A (1)
where
K is the coefficient of permeability of
the formation,
I is the hydraulic gradient that is, the slope
of the potentiometric surface at the well
bound and,
A is the surface area of the well
through which the flow is converging
the well from the aquifer. Thus,
Confined Aquifer(4)
dh
Q = K. .(2.π .rw .b) (2)
dr r = rw
• In the above equation, b is the Thickness of the

aquifer
• Naturally, the same amount of water also
travels through the aquifer at a radial distance
r from the center of the well. Thus, yield would
also be
dh
Q = K. .( 2.π .r.b) (3)
dr
Confined Aquifer(5)
• The above expression is true if the aquifer
thickness b is assumed to be constant
throughout
• The above equations give us a value of the
yield, Q, of the well but for that a measure of
the gradient of the potentiometric surface is
essential
• This may be done by inserting a piezometer
penetrating into the aquifer and noting the
water level there
Confined Aquifer(6)
Q
Water vise in piezometer

Confined Aquifer(7)
• Integrating (3) between the limits of rw and
r1, one obtains the following expressions:
Q r1
h1 − hw = ln (4)
2.π .K .b rw
2.3Q r1
h1 − hw = log (5)
2.π .T rw
• This equation is known as equilibrium
equation and can be used to determine
variation of the potentiometric head radially
outward from the well
Confined Aquifer(8)
• The drawdown S at a radial Q
distance r from the well is
given by
2.3Q R
S = H1 − h1 = log (6)
2.π .T r1
where H1 is the undisturbed

initial potentimetric surface and
and R is the radius of influence Definition of drawdown : S
Confined Aquifer(9)
If the drawdown S at distance r from the well
known it is possible to work out T or K as
2.3Q R
K= log (7)
2.π .S1 r1
Confined Aquifer(10)
• In case two piezometers Q
are inserted near a well

and the piezometric head
these two places are
given as h1 and h2, then
the following expression
is arrived at (Thiems method):
2.3Q r2
K= log (8)
2.π .b.(h2 − h1 ) r1
Definition of terms
Example(1)
Q
Ground surface
• Q = 400m3/hr
• b = 40m. Pumping
well
• Two observation wells,
r 1 = 25m ; h 1 = 85.3m Confining Layer
r 2 = 75m ; h 2 = 89.6m H
r1 hw
b
• Find: Transmissivity (T ) Confined
h2 h1
r2 Q
aquifer
Bedrock
2rw
Solution:
2.3Q r2 2.3Q r2
K= log ⇒ T = K .b = log
This image cannot currently be displayed.
2.π .b.( h2 − h1 ) r1 2.π .( h2 - h1 ) r1
2.3 × 400 75
T= log = 16.25m 2 / hr
2 × π × (89.6 - 85.3) 25
Example(2)
Q
• 1-m diameter well Ground surface
• Q = 113m3/hr Drawdown Pumping

well
• b = 30m
• h0 = 40m Confining Layer
• Two observation wells, H

r1 hw
b h2 h1
r 1 = 15m ; h 1 = 38.2m Q
Confined r2
r 2 = 50m ; h 2 = 39.5m aquifer
• Find: Head and drawdown in Bedrock

2rw
the well
Solution:
2.3Q R
S (r ) = log( )
2.π .T r
2.3Q r 2.3 × 113 50
T= log( 2 ) = log( ) = 16.64m 2 / hr
2.π .( S1 − S 2 ) r1 2.π .(1.8 − 0.5) 15
Example(2),cont.
Q
Ground surface
Drawdown Pumping
well
Confining Layer
H
b h2 r1 hw
h1
Q
Confined r2
aquifer
Bedrock
2rw
2.3Q r
h2 − h1 = log( 2 )
2.π .T r1
2.3Q r 2.3 × 113 0.5

hw = h2 + log( w ) = 39.5 + × log( ) = 34.50m
2.π .T r2 2 × π × 16.64 50
S w = h0 − hw = 40 − 34.50 = 5.50m
Unconfined Aquifer(1)
 For the case of a pumped well located in an
unconfined aquifer the steady state discharge
conditions are similar to that of confined aquifer
Q
Assumption for Dupuit’s theory

 The flow at radial distance r from the well is
given by the following equation under the
simplifying assumptions made by Dupuit
dh
Q = 2.π .r.K .h1. (9)
dr r = r1
where h denotes the height of the water take at

a distance r above a datum, which may be the
bedrock. Integrating between the limits of rw
and r1
2.3Q r
h1 − hw =
2 2
log 1 (10)
π .K rw
 By knowing the values of the water table at two
places located at distances r1 and r2 from the
centre of the well with corresponding heads h1
and h2 the value of the coefficient of permeability
K can be worked out from the equation
 The water table head at any radial distance r can
also be expressed in terms of H, the head at
undisturbed initial water table before pumping
as:
2.3Q R
H −h =
2 2
log (11)
π .K r
 In the above expression, R is the radius of
influence of the radial distances where the water
table head is nearly equal to H
 Since (9) was derived with Dupuit’s assumption,
the actual free surface will be slightly higher than
the predicted free surface
 This is because the gradient of the cone of
depression is larger towards the well where the
curvature of streamlines is most marked
 The free surface of water table will actually
meet the periphery of the well at some height
above the water level in the well as shown in
figure
Q
Example – Two Observation Wells in an Unconfined
Aquifer
Q
• Given: Prepumping
Ground surface
– Q = 300 m3/hr Water level

Pumping
– Unconfined aquifer
Water Table well
Observati
– 2 observation wells, on wells
• r1= 50m , h = 40m H hw

r1
• r2= 100m , h = 43m h2
h1
• Find: K Unconfine r2 Q
d aquifer
Bedrock
Solution: 2rw
2.3Q r2
K = log( )
π .( h2 − h1 )
2 2
r1
2.3 × 300 100

K= × log( ) = 0.0001m / s
3600 × π × ((43) − (40) )
2 2
50
Water Table Contours
and Flow Lines(1)
Water Table Contours
and Flow Lines(2)
Well Development
and Efficiency
Domestic Hand Pumped Well
Domestic dug
well with rock
curb, concrete
seal, and hand
pump
~20 m depth
> 1 m diameter
< 500 m3/day
Augers
Hand-driven augers
~15 m depth
> 20 cm diameter
Power-driven augers
~30 m depth
> 1 mdiameter
Power Auger
• Auger drilling is done
with a helical screw
driven into the ground
with rotation; cuttings
are lifted up the
borehole by the screw
~ 30 m depth
< 15-90 cm diameter
< 500 m3/day
Drilled Well - Cable Tool
• Traditional way of
drilling large diameter
water supply wells.
• The Rig raises and
drops the drill string
with a heavy carbide
tipped drill bit that
chisels through the
rock and pulverizes the
materials.
• 8 – 60 cm
• 600 m
Mud/Air Rotary
• Rotary drilling relies on
continuous circular motion
of the bit to break rock at
the bottom of the hole.
• Cuttings are removed as
drilling fluids circulate
through the bit and up the
wellbore to the surface.
Drilling Mud Circulation
• Lift soil/rock cuttings from the bottom of
the borehole and carry them to a settling
pit;
• Allow cuttings to drop out in the mud pit
so that they are not re-circulated
(influenced by mud thickness, flow rate in
the settling pits and shape/size of the
pits);
• Prevent cuttings from rapidly settling
while another length of drill pipe is being
added (if cuttings drop too fast, they can
build-up on top of the bit and seize it in
the hole);
• Create a film of small particles on the
borehole wall to prevent caving and to
ensure that the upward-flowing stream of
drilling fluid does not erode the adjacent
formation;
• Seal the borehole wall to reduce fluid loss
(minimizing volumes of drilling fluid is
especially important in dry areas where
water must be carried from far away);
• Cool and clean the drill bit; and
• Lubricate the bit, bearings, mud pump and
drill pipe .
Well Completion
• After drilling, must
“complete” the well
– Placement of casing
– Placement of well screen
– Placement of gravel
packing
– Open hole
Rotary Drill Well Construction
• Well casing
– Lining to maintain
open hole
– Seals out other water
(surface, formations)
– Structural support
against cave-in
Rotary Drilled Well in Limestone
• Surface casing
– From ground
surface through
unconsolidated
upper material
Unconsolidated Aquifers
• Pump
chamber
casing
– Casing
within which
pump is set
Consolidated Aquifer
• Cementing
– Prevent entrance
of poor quality
water
– Protect casing
against corrosion
– Stabilize
formation
Well in Confined, Consolidated Aquifer
Well Screen
• Head loss through perforated well section
– Percentage of open area (minimum 15%)
– Diameter depends on well yield and aquifer
thickness
– Entrance velocities must be limited
• Vs = entrance velocity
• Q = pumping rate
• c = clogging cefficient
• Ds = screen diameter
• Ls = screen length
• P = Percent open area
Entrance Velocity vs Conductivity
Well Screens
• May or may not be required
• Proper screen improves yield
• Slot size
– Related to grain-size
• Other considerations
– Mineral content of water,
presence of bacteria, and
strength requirements
– Excess convergence of flow
Well Design, Completion and Development
• Gravel Pack
– Installed between screen
and borehole wall
– Allows larger screen slot
sizes
– Reduces fine grained
sediment entering
• Development
– Washing fines out of the
aquifer near the well
– Cleaning the well with
water
– Air-lifting, surging,
pumping, or backwashing
Placing the Pack
Well Installation
Recovery Well Well Screen
Installation
Centralizer
Wire-Wrapped
Well Screen
Sand-Gravel
Filter Pack
Well Development
• After completion, wells are
developed to increase specific
capacity and improve economic
life.
• Remove finer materials from the
formation.
• Pumping
• Surging
• Compressed air
Pumps
Motor
• Shallow Wells
– Hand-operated
– Turbine
– Centrifugal (shallow, high
volume)
• Deep Wells Motor
– turbine, submersible
turbine submersible
Spring Box
Wellhead Protection
• Grout seal, concrete
slab, and well seal for
sanitary protection.
Well Design, Completion and Development
• Well diameter
– Dictated by size of pump
– Affects cost of the well
– Must ensure good
hydraulic efficiency
• Well depth
– Complete to the bottom
of the aquifer
• More aquifer thickness
utilized
• Higher specific capacity
(Q/s, discharge per unit
of drawdown)
Collector Well
Sonoma County Water Agency collector well along Russian

River near Wholer Bridge. The water agency operates five
similar wells on the Russian River. All use the Raney design
with laterals extending beneath the river bed in a radial
pattern from the main caisson. Each of these wells are
capable of producing between 15 and 20 million gallons of
water per day. The river water is naturally filtered as it
moves through the river bed sediments to the collector
wells.
Well Diameter vs Pumping Rate
(max 5 ft/sec in casing)
Well Yield Well Casing

max gpm in. (ID)
100 6
175 8
300 10
700 12
1000 14
1800 16
3000 20
3800 24
6000 30
Groundwater and Wells, Driscoll, 1986

Drawdown in a Well
• Drawdown in a pumped
well consists of two
components:
• Aquifer losses
– Head losses that occur in
the aquifer where the
flow is laminar
– Tme-dependent
– Vary linearly with the
well discharge
• Well losses
– Aquifer damage during
drilling and completion
– Turbulent friction losses
adjacent to well, in the
well and pipe
Well Losses
• Excess drawdown due to well
design, well construction, or
the nature of the aquifer

Specific Capacity
• Specific capacity = Q/sw
– Yield per unit of drawdown
– gpm/ft, or m3/hr/m
• Drawdown in the well
• Specific capacity - linear function

of Q This image cannot currently be displayed.
• Observing change in sw as Q is
increased – select optimum
pumping rate
Step Drawdown Test
• To evaluate well losses
• Pump a well at a low rate
until drawdown stabilises
• Increase pumping rate
• Pump until drawdown
stabilises again
• Repeat at least three times
Step-Drawdown Test
Discharge Drawdown
500 1.0
1000 2.6
2000 8.9
2500 14.0
2750 18.6
Step Drawdown Test
• Plot sw/Q vs Q
• Fit straight line
• Slope = a1 = C
• Intercept = a0 = B
Step-Drawdown Test (Example)
Discharge Drawdown • Plot sw/Q versus Q
500 1.14 • Fit straight line
1000 2.66 0.008
1500 5.57 0.007 y = 1.597E-06x + 1.307E-03
2000 8.82 0.006
2500 13.54
sw/Q (day/m2)
0.005
3000 18.79 0.004
3500 23.67 0.003
0.002
0.001
C = 1.597x10-6 day2/m5 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Severe deterioration or clogging Well Discharge, Q (m3/day)
Losses: Formation, Well, Total
Well Efficiency
• Specific capacity = Q/s = relationship between
drawdown and discharge of a well
• Describes productivity of aquifer and well
• Specific capacity decreases with
– Time
– Increasing Q
• Well efficiency = ratio of aquifer loss to total
loss This image cannot currently be displayed.
Pumping System
Aquifer Water Quality
and Ground Water
Contamination
Polluted air
Sources of Ground
Water Pollution
Pesticides Hazardous
and fertilizers waste
injection
Deicing
Coal strip well
road salt Buried gasoline
mine runoff
and solvent tanks
Cesspool,
Pumping Gasoline septic tank
well station
Water
Waste lagoon pumping well
Sewer
Landfill
Accidental Leakage
spills from faulty
casing
Discharge
Confined
aquifer
Groundwater
flow
Aquifer Water Quality
 Helps us understand the hydrogeologic
system
 Indicates comingling of groundwater and
surface water
 Helps us interpret groundwater flow
dynamics
 Delineates groundwater contamination
Sampling and Analysis Plan
• Document written in advance of sampling
that defines:
Sampling locations and frequency
How field parameters are measured
How samples are collected
Quality control and assurance measures
• Do NOT go to the field without a plan!
Field Measured Parameters
 pH
 Specific Conductance
 Salinity
 Turbidity
 DissolvedOxygen
 Temperature
pH
• pH = -log [H+] , based on

dissociation of water where
[H+] x [OH-] = 10-14
• Measures hydrogen ion
concentration
• Logarithmic scale, from 0
(acidic) to 14 (basic)
• Influences the solubility of many
elements important in surface
and ground water
• Most aquatic species (fish,
insects) sensitive to pH with
limited range that they can live in
Alkalinity
 “acid neutralizing capacity”
 Important because it buffers the water
against changes in pH
 For most waters, alkalinity includes the
bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
 Other ions such as orthophosphate
(HPO4-), borates, may contribute to
alkalinity but in small amounts
Specific Conductance
 Measures the electric
conductivity of water
 Higher conductance means
the water is a better
electrical conductor
 Conductance increases
when more salt (e.g., NaCl)
is dissolved in water
 Often used as an indirect
measure of the salt
concentration in water
 Indirect measure of salinity
and TDS
 Units are μ mhos/cm at 25oC
or μ siemens/cm
Salinity
• Classification of Ground Water
• Composition Based on Total Dissolved Solids Content
Dissolved salt content

Type of Water (mg/l)
Fresh water < 1000
Brackish water 1000 - 3000
Moderatly saline water 3,000 - 10,000
Highly saline water 10000 - 35000
Sea water > 35000

Abundance of Dissolved Constituents
in Surface and Ground Water
• Major Constituents (greater than 5 mg/l)
– Ca, Mg, Na, Cl, sulfate, silicon, carbonic acid,
bicarbonate
• Minor Constituents (0.01-10 mg/l)
– B, K, F, Sr, Fe, carbonate, nitrate
• Trace Constituents (generally less than 0.1 mg/l)
– Al, As, Ba, Br, Cd, Co, Cu, Pb, Mn, Ni, Se, Ag,
Zn and others
Dissolved Oxygen
 Amount of gaseous
oxygen (O2) dissolved in
water
 Oxygen gets into water by
diffusion from the
surrounding air, by
aeration, and through
photosynthesis
 DO range from 0-18 mg/l
 Need 5-6 mg/l to support
a diverse population
 DO < 2 mg/l - Hypoxia
Turbidity
• Measured in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU)
• Estimates light scattering by suspended particles
• Photocell set at 90o to the direction of light beam to estimate
scattered rather than absorbed light
• Good correlation with concentration of particles in water
Aquatic Freshwater Protection
Criteria (USA EPA Guidelines)
Criteria Recommended Standard
pH 6.5 - 9.5
Alkalinity 20 mg/L or more
30 day average 5.5 mg/L

Dissolved Oxygen
(warm water fish)
Should not reduce

Suspended Solids Photosynthesis by more than
10% in the water
Example Drinking Water Criteria
Recommended
Criteria Reason
Standard
Coliform
0 colonies/ml Health
Bacteria
pH 6.5 - 8.5 Aesthetic
Health
Barium 2 mg/l
Nitrate 10 mg/l Health
Total Dissolved
500 mg/l Taste
Solids(TDS)
Hot Water Underground
• Hot springs: springs in which the water
is warmer than human body
temperature
• Water can gain heat in two ways while
underground:
ground water may circulate near a magma
chamber or a body of cooling igneous
rock
ground water may circulate unusually
deep in the earth
Hot Water Underground, contd
• geyser: a type of hot spring that
periodically erupts hot water and stream;
the water is generally near boiling (100oC)
1
4
Geothermal Energy
Electricity can be generated by harnessing
naturally occurring stream and hot water in
areas that are exceptionally hot underground
(geothermal areas);
Nonelectric uses of geothermal energy
include space heating, as well as paper
manufacturing , ore processing, and food
preparation
Groundwater Sampling
Important points
 Be sure to take a representative sample
 Make sure water bottles are properly rinsed
 Filter and preserve samples in the field
 Take field measurements with proper equipment
 Store on ice at 4o C
 Send to a certified water chemistry laboratory
within 24 hours of sampling
 Have a quality control program with duplicates,
blanks, field blanks, or spiked samples
Well Sampling
 Calculating Well Volume: After determining
static water level, the volume of water in
the well casing must be calculated
 A minimum of three casing volumes is

recommended, however, wells should be
purged until field water chemistry
parameters stabilize
Analysis of Water Samples
• Field:
– pH, specific conductance, temperature,
dissolved oxygen, and alkalinity
• Laboratory:
– Cations: sodium, calcium magnesium,
potassium, and iron
– Anions: bicarbonate, carbonate, sulfate,
and chloride
– Trace Metals, and Radioactivity
Sodium and Irrigation
 Low-sodium water (S1) can be used for irrigation on almost all soils
with little danger of developing harmful levels of exchangeable
sodium
 Medium-sodium water (S2) will present an appreciable sodium hazard
in certain fine-textured soils, especially under poor leaching
conditions. This water may be safely used on coarse-textured or
organic soils having good permeability
 High-sodium water (S3) may produce harmful levels of exchangeable
sodium in most soils and will require special soil management such
as good drainage, thorough
leaching, and additions of organic
matter
 Very high sodium water (S4) is
generally unsatisfactory for
irrigation unless special action
is taken, such as addition of
gypsum to the soil
Salinity and irrigation
 Water of low salinity (C1) can be used for irrigation of most crops
on most soils with little likelihood that soil salinity will develop
 Water of medium salinity (C2) can be used if a moderate amount of
leaching occurs. Crops having moderate salt tolerances, such as
potatoes, corn, wheat, oats, and alfalfa, can be irrigated with C2
water without special practices
 Water of high salinity (C3) cannot be used on soils having restricted
drainage
 Water of very high salinity (C4) can be used only on certain crops
and then only if special practices are followed
Arsenic in Groundwater
 Long-term exposure to arsenic from drinking
water is directly linked to:
• Cancer of the skin, lungs, urinary bladder and
kidneys
• Acute gastrointestinal and cardiac damage as
well as vascular disorders such as blackfoot
disease
• Sub-lethal effects include diabetes, keratosis,
heart disease and high blood pressure
 Toxicity is dependent on diet and health, but is
cumulative. Arsenic is excreted very slowly by the
body through deposition in the hair and nails
Sources of Groundwater
Contamination(1)
 Dissolved contamination travels with ground water flow
 Contamination can be transported to water supply
aquifers down flow
 Pumping will draw contamination into water supply
 Groundwater contamination can come from a number of
natural and human-made sources. These can include:
 Leaks and spills at factories and commercial facilities
 Improper hazardous waste disposal
 Improper use and disposal of pesticides
 Leachate from landfills
 Septic systems
 Saline Intrusion
 Salts and chemicals used to deice roads
Sources of Groundwater
Contamination(2)
 Liquid waste storage lagoons
 Fertilizers
 Animal wastes
 Leaking underground storage tanks
 Pipeline breaks
 Inadequately sealed wells or abandoned wells
 Underground injection wells
 Radon contamination
Leaks and spills
at factories and commercial facilities
• Spills and leaks can result from accidents, lack of
employee training, improper planning, and
inadequate maintenance
• They are especially problematic if proper Procedures
are not in place to clean them up once they occur
• Materials which can cause
problems if spilled, gasoline,
other petroleum products,
hazardous chemicals, and
a variety of other materials
Improper hazardous waste disposal
 Improper industrial waste disposal can come from a
variety of sources, including major industrial plants
and small businesses
 The local dry cleaner uses of solvents and
hazardous chemicals for cleaning clothes, and these
must be handled as carefully
as any other hazardous waste
to prevent ground water conta-
mination
 Industrial wastes can create
groundwater pollution proble-
ms that take years to resolve
Improper use and disposal of pesticides
 Pesticides used on farms and even on individual lawns
can create serious groundwater pollution
 Improper pesticide use can cause people and animals to
become ill, kill plants, and have adverse effects on
aquatic life in nearby streams.
 Improper pesticide use
can include excessive
or ill- timed application,
improper storage, or
improper disposal of
excess pesticides
Improper use and disposal of pesticides,cont.
• If you overuse pesticides on your yard, you could be
polluting your own ground water
• Its been estimated that individuals use over 100 times as
much pesticides and fertilizer on their yards as farmers
use on the same amount of land
• Avoiding pesticide pollution of groundwater is relatively
easy. Follow instructions carefully
 Reduce pesticide use in areas known to be recharge
areas for groundwater
Use natural pest control methods rather than
chemicals
Homeowners can substitute biocontrol agents, like
praying mantises or ladybugs, for pesticides
Other natural insect repellents include plants like mint
(which discourages ants), garlic, and marigolds
Leachate from landfills
o If landfills are not properly constructed, liquid from
decomposition of materials, or leachate, can leak
out of the landfill into an aquifer
o Leachate can contain high levels of bacteria, hazardous
chemicals, metals, and ammonia
o Runoff water from landfills after rains can also carry
pollution to groundwater recharge areas and hence into
groundwater
Leachate from landfills,cont.
o New landfill construction methods are designed
to prevent pollution of groundwater
o Landfills are now built with liners to prevent
leachate from seeping through soil into aquifers
o Leachate collection systems store the liquid
away from the water table
o Clay caps prevent rainwater runoff from
carrying pollutants from the landfill into the
groundwater
Septic systems
• Septic systems can be a source of groundwater pollution
if too many systems are located in an area, if a system is
overloaded or not working properly, or if a system is
improperly used for disposal of chemicals or other
materials
Septic systems,cont.
• If a septic system is not working properly, it can
contaminate groundwater with bacteria, viruses, and
hazardous cleaning materials or household chemicals
• Even properly working well-maintained septic systems
can contribute nitrates to groundwater
• These can show up in well water around the septic
system
Septic systems,cont.
• Methods of preventing groundwater pollution from
septic systems include proper system installation
and maintenance
• If the concentration of households in an area is
too great, then a public sewer and waste treatment
system may be necessary
• Dumping hazardous chemicals into septic systems
should also be avoided
Saline Intrusion
 In coastal areas, too much demand on potable

groundwater can create induced recharge from
ocean waters, resulting in saline intrusion into
groundwater supplies
Saline Intrusion,cont.
 This can also happen in times of severe drought.

(Induced recharge can not only contaminate
groundwater, but enough induced recharge has
been known to dry up wetland areas and
destroy habitats for wildlife)
Saline Intrusion,cont.
 Careful planning of coastal communities and
water conservation are ways to avoid saline
intrusion into ground water supplies
Salts and chemicals used to deice roads
 In northern climates, tons of salt and other
chemicals are used for deicing roads, and these can
create groundwater contamination problems
 Runoff from storage areas and highways can seep
into the ground and cause high levels of chlorides in
well water
 Prevention of pollution
from this source can be
through protection of
storage areas, minimal
salt use, and substitution
of other materials, such
as sand or gravel
Liquid waste storage lagoons
 Storage lagoons are used by industries, farms,
cities, and mines as a way of preventing pollution
by allowing solid wastes to settle before
wastewater is released
 However, storage lagoons can cause ground
water pollution if they leak or overflow
 They can be sources of bacterial or chemical
ground water pollution
 Groundwater contamination from lagoons can be
avoided through proper installation and
maintenance and by locating lagoons away from
sensitive groundwater areas
Fertilizers
 Like pesticides, misuse of fertilizers can cause
groundwater pollution
 Overuse can allow nitrates from fertilizer to seep
into the water table
 In sensitive groundwater
areas, rainfall seepage
can cause fertilizer to
migrate and contaminate
an aquifer
 Careful use can avoid or
minimize these problems
Animal wastes
 Animal wastes are sources of bacteria and
nitrates
 They can contaminate groundwater if too many
animals are located in too small a lot, or if the lot
has improper drainage
 Lagoons used to trap animal wastes can be a
source of groundwater pollution if they leak or if
the water table is too close to the land surface
Animal wastes, cont.
Proper sitting of animal lots, along with regular

cleaning and avoiding overloading, can prevent
animal waste pollution
Wastes can be recovered and used as fertilizer
Leaking underground storage tanks
• Leaking underground tanks are a potentially
large groundwater pollution problem
• And no one is really sure how large the problem
will be
• It's been estimated that the locations of only
half of all the underground storage tanks are
known in the U.S.
• Many of these are old, corroded, and beginning
to leak and cause problems
• Underground storage tanks are commonly found
at service stations, where gasoline pollution is a
potential problem
Leaking underground storage tanks, cont.
• Many stations have replaced old steel tanks and

piping, with fiberglass tanks and piping that don't
corrode
• Federal law now requires that owners/operators
of USTs prevent the release of product into the
environment
• This may require the owner/operator to install
storage tanks that have a secondary containment
system should the primary tank fail
Leaking underground storage tanks, cont.
• Careful monitoring of tank inventories can be
used to detect leaks and correct them, and
tanks that are no longer in use must be closed
by either removing them or filling them with inert
materials
Pipeline breaks
 Pipeline breaks can be sources of localized
groundwater pollution
 Breaks can be severe enough so that they are
immediately detected, or they may be small and
cause significant groundwater contamination
before they are noticed
 Pipeline breaks can cause pollution from
sewage, petroleum products, or other chemicals
 They can occur around roadways due to
vibration from vehicles, or they can even be
caused by plant roots, which slowly crack pipes
and cause leaks
Pipeline breaks, cont.
 Careful inspection of pipelines and regular
maintenance can reduce pollution problems
from this source
Inadequately sealed wells or abandoned wells
It's sometimes difficult to imagine wells, our
chief way of tapping into groundwater supplies,
as a source of groundwater pollution, but they
can be pathways for pollutants to enter the
groundwater system
If a well isn’t sealed or cased properly, polluted
water from runoff can enter at the well cover or
along its walls and be channeled directly into
groundwater
Open abandoned wells can be a significant
source of groundwater pollution
Inadequately sealed wells or abandoned wells, cont.
And if a well is deep enough to reach a layer of
groundwater that is otherwise protected by
impermeable soil from pollution from surface
seepage, it can create severe contamination of
an otherwise pure water source
Groundwater pollution from wells can be
prevented by properly sealing wells which will no
longer be used with concrete or earth
Well covers and tight casings are used as
temporary measures
Procedures have also been developed to
properly seal and plug abandoned wells
Underground injection wells
• Underground injection wells are a method of
waste disposal
• Wastes disposed by this method include
industrial chemicals, sewage effluent, cooling
water, storm water, and salt water
• Typically, injection wells inject wastes below
sources of drinking water, but if injection wells
have leaks or are used improperly, they can
inject wastes directly into a usable groundwater
supply
Underground injection wells,cont.
• Injection wells must be carefully monitored by state
and governmental regulations to prevent pollution
• Businesses using injection wells are required to
have permits for their use and to comply with
permit conditions
Radon contamination
 Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive
element that has been linked to cancer in
humans
 It occurs in certain geologic areas, and can be
an air or water pollutant
 Radon can collect as a gas in a basement, or it
can contaminate well water
 Test kits for radon detection are available for
individual use
 Once detected, radon can be removed from a
home or a water well
Reservoirs
What is a Reservoir?
It is an area developed by water body due to construction of dam
Tarbela Dam(Pakistan) Jung Hua Dam (Taiwan)

Classification of Reservoirs
• Storage Reservoirs: Storage reservoirs are also called conservation
reservoirs because they are used to conserve water. Storage
reservoirs are constructed to store the water in the rainy season and
to release it later when the river flow is low
• Flood Control Reservoirs: A flood control reservoir is constructed
for the purpose of flood control. It protects the areas lying on its
downstream side from the damages due to flood
• Retarding Reservoirs: A retarding reservoir is provided with
spillways and sluiceways which are ungated. The retarding reservoir
stores a portion of the flood when the flood is rising and releases it
later when the flood is receding
• Detention Reservoirs : A detention reservoir stores excess
water during floods and releases it after the flood. It is similar
to a storage reservoir but is provided with large gated spillways
and sluiceways to permit flexibility of operation
Classification of Reservoirs
• Distribution Reservoirs: A distribution reservoir is a small storage
reservoir to tide over the peak demand of water for municipal
water supply or irrigation. The distribution reservoir is helpful in
permitting the pumps to work at a uniform rate. It stores water
during the period of lean demand and supplies the same during the
period of high demand
• Multipurpose Reservoirs: They are constructed for more than
single purpose
• Balancing Reservoirs: A balancing reservoir is a small reservoir
constructed d/s of the main reservoir for holding water released
from the main reservoir
Basic Terms and Definitions
(Flood Storage)
(Live Storage)
 Full reservoir level (FRL): The full reservoir level (FRL) is the
highest water level to which the water surface will rise during
normal operating conditions
 Maximum water level (MWL): The maximum water level is the
maximum level to which the water surface will rise when the design
flood passes over the spillway
 Minimum pool level: The minimum pool level is the lowest level
up to which the water is withdrawn from the reservoir under
ordinary conditions
 Dead storage: The volume of water held below the minimum pool
level is called the dead storage. It is provided to cater for the
sediment deposition by the impounding sediment laid in water.
Normally it is equivalent to volume of sediment expected to be
deposited in the reservoir during the design life reservoir
 Live/useful storage: The volume of water stored between the full
reservoir level (FRL) and the minimum pool level is called the useful
storage. It assures the supply of water for specific period to meet
the demand
 Flood/Surcharge storage: is storage contained between
maximum reservoir level and full reservoir levels. It varies with
spillway capacity of dam for given design flood
 Bank storage: is developed in the voids of soil cover in the
reservoir area and becomes available as seepage of water when
water levels drops down. It increases the reservoir capacity over
and above that given by elevation storage curves
 Valley storage: The volume of water held by the natural river
channel in its valley up to the top of its banks before the
construction of a reservoir is called the valley storage. The valley
storage depends upon the cross section of the river
 Yield from a reservoir: Yield is the volume of water which can be
withdrawn from a reservoir in a specified period of time
 Safe yield (Firm yield): Safe yield is the maximum quantity of
water which can be supplied from a reservoir in a specified period
of time during a critical dry year
 Secondary yield: is the quantity of water which is available during
the period of high flow in the rivers when the yield is more than the
safe yield
 Average yield: The average yield is the arithmetic average of the
firm yield and the secondary yield over a long period of time
 Design yield: The design yield is the yield adopted in the design of
a reservoir. The design yield is usually fixed after considering the
urgency of the water needs and the amount of risk involved
Reservoirs,
How much to store?
Qout = Qused + Qspill + Qevaporation + Qleakage + Qseapage + ......
Q=
n Qin − Qout
=
Qin Qstream + Q precipitation
Q precipitation ≈ AP
Storage Capacity of Reservoirs
 Whatever may be the use of a reservoir, its most important
function is to store water during floods and to release it
later
 The storage capacity of a reservoir is, therefore, its most
important characteristics
 The available storage capacity of a reservoir depends upon
the topography of the site and the height of dam
 To determine the available storage capacity of a reservoir
up to a certain level of water, engineering surveys are
usually conducted
 The storage capacity and the water spread area at different
elevations can be determined from the contour map
 (a) Area-Elevation Curve: From the contour plan, the water
spread area of the reservoir at any elevation is determined by
measuring the area enclosed by the corresponding contour.
Generally, a planimeter is used for measuring the area. An
elevation-area curve is then drawn between the surface area
as abscissa and the elevation as ordinate
 (b) Elevation-Capacity Curve: The storage capacity of the
reservoir at any elevation is determined from the water
spread area at various elevations. An elevation-storage
volume is plotted between the storage volume as abscissa
and the elevation as ordinate. Generally, the volume is
calculated in Mm3. The following formulae are commonly
used to determine the storage capacity
=h f=
(V 3 ) f ( A2 )
It is the usual practice to plot both the elevation-area
curve and the elevation- storage curve on the same paper
 The following formulae are commonly used to
determine the storage capacity
1. Trapezoidal formula: According to the trapezoidal formula,
the storage volume between two successive contours of areas
A1 and A2 is given by
where h is the contour interval. Therefore the total storage

volume V is
where n is the total number of areas.

2. Cone formula: According to the cone formula, the storage volume
between two successive contours of areas A1 and A2 is given by
3. Prismoidal Formula: According to the prismoidal formula, the

storage volume between three successive contours is given by
The prismoidal formula is applicable only when there are odd numbers of
areas (i.e. n should be an odd number).
In the case of even number of areas, the volume up to the second last area is determined by
the prismoidal formula, and that of the last segment is determined by the trapezoidal formula
4. Storage Volume from cross-sectional areas:
 In the absence of adequate contour maps, the storage
volume can be computed from the cross-sectional areas of
the river
 Cross-sectional areas (a1, a2 ... etc) are obtained from the
cross sections of the river taken upstream of the dam up to
the u/s end of the reservoir at regular interval d
 The volume is determined from the prismoidal formula
 The formula is applicable for odd number of sections
Environmental Impacts of
Reservoirs
 Loss of land
 Habitat Destruction :
• The area that is covered by the reservoir is destroyed,
killing whatever habitat existed there beforehand
 Loss of archeological and histrorical places
 Loss of mineral deposits
 Loss of special geological formations
 Aesthetic view reduction
 Sedimentation
 Change in river flow regime and flood effects
 Reservoir induced seismicity
 Change in climate and plant species
Reservoir Sedimentation
 Reservoir sedimentation is filling of the reservoir
behind a dam with sediment carried into the reservoir
by streams
 The flow of water from the catchment upstream of a
reservoir is capable of eroding the catchment area and
of depositing material either upstream of the reservoir,
or in the still water of the reservoir
 The nature of the material in the catchment area and
the slope of the catchment area and the inlet streams
are a factor, as is the nature of the ground cover
 Heavy rainfall falling on erodible material on a steep
slope with little ground cover resulting from overgrazing
or wildfire is a recipe for substantial sediment transport
and significant reservoir sedimentation
Negative Effects
 Decrease both the flood-control storage and the live storage
of a reservoir. Affect the efficiency of flood control,
electricity generation, navigation, irrigation and fishery
 The decrease of the longitudinal slope results in the rising of
water level in the upper reach and deposition extension
headwater. As a result, nearby cities, factories, mines, and
farm land have to face the threatening of flooding
 The deposition extension headwater may also result in the
rising of ground water, salinization of top-layer soil, and
deterioration of eco-environment
 Negative effects of deposition in the movable backwater
reach on the navigation
Negative Effects
 Sedimentation in the front area of the dam may affect the
safe operation of the hydraulic project, including ship locks,
navigation channel, the entrance of turbines, the entrance
of water diversion intakes, the erosion of turbine blades,
and the screen rack clogging
 Pollutants attached in the surface of sediments may affect
the water quality of the reservoir
 Clear water released from the reservoir may cause severe
erosion downstream and affect the channel stability and the
applicability of existing hydraulic projects such as water
diversion intakes
 The elimination of nutrients carried by the fine sediment
Reservoir Sedimentation Profiles
 Reservoir Sedimentation Profiles generally
 include three types:
Delta Sedimentation
Conical Sedimentation
Banded Sedimentation
Delta Sedimentation
 Formation Reasons: usually occurs in the reservoir with
relatively stable and high operational water level, as well as
a long backwater area
 Characteristics: consists of two parts: delta body and delta
front
Conical Sedimentation
 Formation Reasons: small-sized reservoir, low operational
water level, short back water area, hyper-concentrated
flow, and very fine suspended sediment
 Characteristics: gradually increase of the sedimentation
thickness along the longitudinal channel bed
Banded Sedimentation
 Formation Reasons: big variation of operational water level,
long variable back water zone, the dual characteristics of
river and reservoir in the variable backwater zone
 Characteristics: nearly uniform thickness of sedimentation
along the longitudinal channel bed
• The loss of storage is only one deleterious effect of
sedimentation in reservoirs; others are
– Increased flood levels upstream of the reservoirs
– Retrogression of river bed and water levels
downstream of the dam
– The elimination of nutrients carried by the fine
sediment
– Effect on reservoir water quality
• The reservoir capacity can be preserved by
– Minimizing the sediment input into the reservoir
– Maximizing the sediment through flow
– The recovery of storage
Sediment Management
• The reservoir capacity can be preserved by
Minimizing the sediment input into the reservoir
Maximizing the sediment through flow
The recovery of storage
Sediment Management
 Catchment Vegetation
Sediment Management
 Construction of coffer dams/low height barriers
Sediment Management
 Stepped watershed for sediment control
Sediment Management
 Flushing and desilting of sediments
Sediment Management
 Low level outlets / sediment sluicing

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Yarmouk Private University

CEE 315:WATER RESOURCES

Dr.Eng.Youssef Saed Marai

Water resources systems analysis:

Water Resources are sources of water that

The oceans are the largest reservoirs of water, but since it is

The fresh water distribution is highly uneven, with

Equitable and sustainable management

is concerned with the

is concerned with the occurrence

is concerned with the chemical

deal with the effects of sediment

are concerned with the political,

The hydrologic cycle is defined as the

A description of the hydrologic cycle can start

Precipitation on land surfaces is partially

Human Impacts on the Hydrologic Cycle

In some extreme cases, where the consequences

It should be noted that these

Urban storm water control systems are

 There are several factors to be considered to

Without Shield With Shield

Windshields may reduce the loss due to turbulence

Pi - precipitation magnitude in the ith station

Solution: from first data

m=5 100 x 35.04

Agriculture – what to plant in certain areas,

Horticulture/viticulture – how and when to

Scientists – hydrological modelling of catchments

• in as many places as possible

Two types of standard storage

Recording Mechanism of Weighing

Recording from a siphon

If there is no rainfall, the pen traces a horizontal line.

• Tipping actuates an electrically driven pen to

 The Analysis of Precipitation Data includes:

 Estimation of Missing Data

• Given the annual precipitation values, P1, P2,

• The average annual precipitation given by N1,

• It is required to find the missing annual Pxat a

180.30 153.00 145.10 

Accumulated Annual Rainfall of 10 stations Mean ΣP in units of l03 cm

Pcx – Corrected precipitation at any time period t1 at station X

 Return Period (Frequency):

• Applicable rarely for practical purpose

 Connect each station by

where A1,A2,.........Am are the areas of the Thiessen polygons

P1, P2, P3, …. , Pn – the values of the isohyets

A typical Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) curve

A typical Intensity – Duration – Frequency (IDF) curve

• During a precipitation event, some of the

• The Hydraulic conductivity can be expressed as the

Pear shaped catchment with narrow

A typical hydrograph requiring

The hydrograph after separating

A typical unit hydrograph

 The following assumptions are made while

3. The direct runoff hydrograph for a given

4. The ordinates of the unit hydrograph are

• This effective rainfall hyetograph is