Advanced Production Engineering Chapter # 1: Fall 2021

‫بسم اهلل الرحمن الرحیم‬
Advanced Production Engineering
Chapter # 1
Introduction
Fall 2021
Oil and gas production System
The main functions of an oil and gas production system are to:
1- provide a conduit for the flow of fluids from the reservoir to the off take point
at surface, and sometimes also from the surface to the subsurface,
2- separate the produced reservoir fluids from each other,
3- minimize the production or the negative effects of by-products,
4- store the produced fluids if they cannot immediately be exported
5- measure the amounts of fluids produced and control the production process
6- provide a part of the energy required to transport fluids through the system.
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Production System
Production System
Production System
Surface facilities & flow-line

calculations,
Surface Engineering
Inflow
calculations,
Reservoir
characterization. Outflow
calculations,
Fluid
mechanics.
5
Production System
The basic elements of a production system are:
1- The near-wellbore area of the reservoir, i.e. a zone of several meters in radial
direction around the wells at the depth of the reservoir,
2- The wells from the reservoir to the well head at surface,
3- The flow-lines from the well heads to the surface facilities,
4- The surface facilities, consisting of separators, pumps, compressors and other
equipment for treatment and measurement
5- Storage tanks and pipelines up to the off take point or sales point, which can e.g. be
a valve at the entrance of a gas transport pipeline or the off-loading point of an oil
terminal supplying tankers.
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Production system Component
A production system is thus composed of the flowing major components:
 Porous medium (reservoir).

 Completion (stimulation, perforations,
and gravel pack).
 Vertical conduit with safety valves and
chokes.
 Artificial lift system such as pumps, gas
lift valves, etc.
 Horizontal flow-lines with chokes, and
other piping components e.g. valves,
elbows, etc.
Production System
Each element of the system can be subdivided in sub-elements. In
particular, the flow path through the wellbore may consist of:
1- perforations in the formation (i.e. the rock) and the cement around the casing, and
in the casing itself,
2- sand control equipment consisting of densely packed gravel (well sorted sand) or
metal screens at the bottom of the well,
3- the tubing, a pipe running from the bottom of the well to surface,
4- a surface-controlled subsurface safety valve (SCSSV) to close-in the well if surface
control is accidentally lost, and
5-the well head, a collection of manually or remotely-controlled valves to shut-in the
well and allow access to the well with wire-line tools, and a choke or bean, a
variable-size restriction to control the flow from the well. Well heads are often called
Christ-mas trees (Xmas trees).
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Production System
System models:
• The inflow into the wells,

• The flow within the wells,
• The flow through chokes and flow-lines
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Production System
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Production System
Petroleum Production Consist of two general system:
1- Reservoir (with unique storage and characterization)

2- Artificial Structures
(well, bottom-hole, wellhead assemblies, surface gathering, separators and storage facilities)
Reservoir: Artificial Structure:

- Reservoir (black oil, saturated oil, dry gas, volatile oil, gas - Well schematic Configuration
condensate) - Casing & Tubing String size; ID, OD,
- Porosity (φ) Length
- Pump & Gas lift Valve
- Reservoir Height (h)
- Gravel pack, Packer
- Reservoir Permeability (kr, kh, kv) - Well-head Assemblies
- Fluid Saturations (Sw, So, Sg) - Separators
- Fluid Properties (Bo, μo, γo, …) - Stock Tank
- Areal Extent (VHC, N, G) 11

The Objective Of Production Engineering
• The main goal is:
• Calculation of all pressure drop (∆P) in the system.

• Optimize all ∆P → to obtain Optimum Flow Rate!
Production Engineering attempt to Maximize production/injection in

a cost-effective manner.
Productivity index
• All of the components of the petroleum production systems can
be condensed into the productivity index (PI or J).
• Understanding & measuring the variables that control PI (well

diagnosis) become vital & imperative.
= f(reservoir properties; rock & fluid)

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The Objective Of Production Engineering
• According to PI or J equation, following criteria must be
considered: (important points of view)
• Increasing the drawdown (PR-Pwf) by lowering Pwf is the other option

available to the production engineer to increase PI.
• Stabilized Flow Condition (continuous & optimize production)
• Critical Drawdown (Maximum Allowable Drawdown) versus reservoir natural

drawdown (ΔP = PR-Pwf) in order to preventing :
• Sand Production (Geo-mechanical parameters)
• Water / Gas Production (Coning Problem)
 Then, there should be a critical rate (q ) for each well which must be calculated.
C
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The main task of production engineer
• The main task of production engineer is:
• Production Surveillance and Maintenance
• To do that there should be exist some data:

 Reservoir Data
 Petro physical data (full-set, image , DSI, FMI , … Logs)
 PVT Analysis
 Core Analysis (SCAL and Routine tests)
 Reservoir Model
 Etc.
 Drilling and Completion data
 Mud-loss volume & rate versus depth in each casings
 RPM
 Strings Specifications.
 MWD, LWD
 Etc.
 Production History Data
 Rate-Monitoring
 Flowing & Static tests
 PI tests
 Production Logging Tests
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Well performance
• Well performance evaluation & enhancement are the primary charges of

the production engineer.
• Three major tools for well performance evaluation:
• Measurement of the rate versus pressure drop relationships for the flow paths from the
reservoir to the separator
• Well-testing, Evaluating reservoir potential to flow and find parameters like skin,
restrictions of flow near well-bore, permeability, reservoir model,… .
• Production logging, description of flow into the wellbore, as well as diagnose other
completion-related problems.
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Well performance
With diagnostic information in hand
Focus on the part or parts of production engineering flow system
May be Optimized to enhance productivity.

Reservoir System
(Inflow Performance Relationship- IPR)

Reservoir System
• Instructional Objectives:
Plot of Pwf vs. q

• Calculate the IPR for oil wells
• Calculate the IPR for gas wells
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Reservoir System
• Oil Well Inflow Relationship:

An operational/practical Model is Well PI Model, q/(PR-Pwf)
1- Darcy’s equation, Steady state (S.S.)
2- Darcy’s equation, Pseudo-steady state (P.S.S.)
3- Darcy’s equation, Transient
4- Vogel’s Equation
5- Joens’s Equation (pressure equation for liquid phase)
6- Forchheimer’s Equation (non-darcy flow, same as joens’s equation)
7- Hydraulic Fracture Model (induced fractured well)
8- Joshi Equation (Distributed PI and steady state condition), horizontal well.
9- Babu & Odeh Equation (Distributed PI and p.s.s condition), horizontal well.
10- Joshi Equation (Single point PI and S.S. condition) horizontal well.
11- Babu & Odeh Equation (Single Point PI and p.s.s condition), horizontal well.
12- Darcy equation (S.S.) + Vogel’s equation for Bubble Point Correction)
13- etc. 20
Reservoir System
• Gas Well Inflow Relationship:

- An operational/practical Model is Well PI Model, q/(PR-Pwf)
1- Darcy’s equation, Steady state (S.S.)

2- Darcy’s equation, Pseudo-steady state (P.S.S.)
3- Darcy’s equation, Transient
4- Back pressure equation (C , n)
5- Joens’s Equation (pressure equation for gas phase)
6- Joens’s Equation (pressure squared equation for gas phase)
7- LIT (laminar inertial turbulent) or Pseudo-pressure Model (general solution for gas well)
8- Forchheimer’s Equation (non-darcy flow, same as joens’s equation)
9- Hydraulic Fracture Model
10- Joshi Equation (Distributed PI and steady state condition), horizontal well.
11- Babu & Odeh Equation (Distributed PI and pseudo steady state condition), horizontal well.
12- Joshi Equation (Single point PI and steady state condition), horizontal well.
13- Babu & Odeh Equation (Single Point PI and pseudo steady state condition), horizontal well.
14- etc.
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Reservoir System
Three common inflow relationship which is widely used in petroleum

engineering:
• 1- Well-PI Model (q & pwf from flowing test, pR from static test), Using data
from operational jobs
• 2- Steady state (S.S.), darcy equation (simple mathematical model), Using data
from well-testing analysis results
• 3- Vogel’s equation (for reservoir below pb)
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Reservoir System
2- Darcy’s Law (simple model, steady state)

• Liquid flow in Laminar Flow through a permeable medium is described by
Darcy’s Law
7.08*103 k h  p  pwf 
q
  re  
o B o  ln    0.75  s 
  rw  
S = Skin factor (dimensionless):
k   ra 
s    1 ln  
 ka   rw 
Reservoir System
Productivity Index in Terms of Darcy’s Law
3
7.08  10 k h
J
  re  
o Bo  ln    0.75  s 
  rw  
Reservoir System
3- Vogel’s Equation (multi-phase reservoir)
• “IPR Curve – Vogel”, plotted the data using the following

dimensionless variables
pwf q
and
p qmax
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Reservoir System
• Vogel Curve
1
0.8
0.6
pwf/pr
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
q/qmax
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Reservoir System
• Mathematical model for Vogel’s curve
 q  
2
 pwf   pwf 
   1  0.2    0.8   
 qmax    p   p  
• Mathematical relationship between Vogel (qmax) and Darcy (AOF)
AOF J  p
qmax  
1.8 1.8
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Reservoir System
Finding Vogel qmax

1
0.8
0.6
pwf/pr
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
q/qmax
Reservoir System
• Multiphase flow, How to find qmax:
for q  qb , Darcy's law applies : q  J  p  pwf 


  pwf  pwf  
2
for q  qb then : q  qb  qmax  qb  1  0.2 p  0.8  p  

  b  b  
J pb
qmax  qb 
1.8
Reservoir System
Combination Darcy/Vogel (Multi-phase flow)
pb
Pressure
pwf
J pb
qb
1.8 qmax
O
O Rate q
Reservoir System
Reservoir System
Reservoir System
Reservoir System
Reservoir System
Well Completion Effects

• These effects are shown in terms of skin factor:
• Hawkins Equation is (as mentioned before) :
k   rd 
s    1 ln  
 kd   rw 
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skin factor
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skin factor
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skin factor
• Each Di on slide has their own relation based on Dg

and DL. 40
• Flow in Pipes & Restrictions
(TPR/VLP/OPR)
Outflow Performance Relationship- OPR

Flow through the Wellbore String system
• The objective is :
• Calculation of pressure drop (∆P) in the wellbore
• From Pwf to Pwh
• The main types of fluid are:
1- Single phase, oil
2- Single phase, gas
3- Two phase, oil & gas
4- Two phase, oil & water
5- Two phase, gas & water
6- Three phase, oil & gas & water
Two-phase flow is an extension of single-phase flow!

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• A specific ∆P is needed to lift fluid from bottom-hole to the well-head.
• The best ∆P is not the minimum one, but is the one which result in qMax, then ∆P
must be optimized.
• There are two typical restrictions:
• Pwh (is set/constrained due to surface facilities)

• Pwf (is set/ constrained due to reservoir capability, it is determined
from inflow calculations.)
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The boundary conditions Pwf & Pwh are now obvious, then we should
just calculate and determine:
• Pressure drop due to each factors (acceleration, elevation, friction) in the

wellbore strings. (using charts and tables)
• Based on string size, length, type, flow rate and etc., we calculate pressure
from Pwh to Pwf iteratively until these two values become equal. This point is
operating point for production.
• It should be pointed out that, our variables are in the wellbore (string size,
length, type, flow rate and etc.) and well-head pressure in a restriction!!!
• It means that we can not start from bottom-hole and calculate pressure
to obtain any well-head pressure, because the constraint operational
factors are in surface facilities conditions.
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• So, pressure drop along the strings can be calculated and the
resulting Pwf at the other end of the string can be determined.
• We need the knowledge of:

• Fluid mechanics (single & two-phase) for OPR.
• Thermodynamic (energy balance in wellbore) for OPR.
• Reservoir Engineering related to production engineering for IPR.
• Well-testing analysis for reservoir characterization and IPR plot.
• Conventional pipe-flow equations to calculate ∆P for single phase.
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Flow in Pipes & Restrictions
Conventional equation:
For Gas well with GOR > 7000 no producing water. (Katz et al, 1959, vertical flow of gas)
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•Flow Types, Modeling & Regimes:

• Single flow characteristics
• Multi-phase flow characteristics
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• Single Phase flow:
• (first feature)
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• Three factors are to be considered in Single phase flow:

• Flow lamination or turbulence (Reynolds's number, ρ.v.d/μ)
• Velocity & velocity profile (v & v(r))
• Friction factor (moody diagram-(f) & roughness-(ε))
• ∆Pwellbore of Single phase flow calculation is simpler and

straight-forward rather than multi-phase flow.
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Single-Phase Oil Flow (Formulation)
It happens if Pwh>Pb, which is usually not a reality.
It is helpful for establishing the concept of fluid flow in oil wells where multiphase flow usually dominates.
The law of conservation of energy for flow along a tubing string yields:
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Single-Phase Oil Flow
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Friction
Factor
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Example
Single-Phase Oil Flow
Suppose that 1,000 bbl/day of 40 API, 1.2 cp oil is being produced through 2 7⁄8 in., 8.6
lbm/ft tubing in a well that is 15 degrees from vertical. If the tubing wall relative
roughness is 0.001, calculate the pressure drop over 1,000 ft of tubing.
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• 1- Single phase & laminar flow for the parameter friction factor :
• f = 64/Nre
• 2- Single phase & turbulent flow use different correlations for the parameter
friction factor :
• (dependent to pipe roughness, ε, first of all guess for ε, use any of below correlation to solve for F)
• Darcy-wiesbach & Hagen-Poiseuille
• Dreww- koo- macAdams (as initial guess)
• Blasius
• Nikurade
• Colebrook
• Colebrook & White
• Jain (explicit friction factor equation)
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• Single-phase and turbulent flow :
• 1- Blasius Correlation: f = 0.316 NRe-0.25 , Re > 100,000
• 2- Nikuradse’s Correlation: 1/√f = 1.74 – 2 Log(2ε/d) , rough pipes
• 3- Colebrook & White (1939): 1/√f = 1.74 – 2 Log[2ε/d + 18.7/(NRe √f )] , modern method
• Rearranging the equation and then: fc = 1/{1.74 – 2 Log[2ε/d + 18.7/(NRe √fg)]}
• For initial guess fg = 0.0056 + 0.5 NRe-0.32 for 3000≤NRe≤3×106, (Drew, Koo, McAdams), use
iteration to calculate fc until the tolerance between fc & fg become low and reasonable. ( |fc-fg| → 0)
• 4- Jain Correlation: 1/√f = 1.14 – 2 Log[ε/d + 21.25/(NRe0.9)] , in the wide range of ε 10-6-10-2
and Reynolds number 5×103-108 , the error in comparison to Colebrook correlation is within ±1%.
• 5- Moody Diagram
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• Moody Diagram: ff vs. (NRe & ε/d), ε/d: we have it or we can use next figure.
64
• ε/d may be affected by : paraffin deposition, erosion, corrosion. Thus, we should consider
some external critical parameters!.
• If no information exist: ε = 0.0006 ft is recommended. To calculate ff from moody diagram.
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In gas wells, there is inter-dependence between:

 Flow rate
 Flow velocity
 Density
 Pressure
• In general, increasing gas rate results in increasing total
pressure loss
68
69
Single-Phase Gas Flow
(Formulation)
70
Single-Phase Gas Flow: Average T and Z Method
71
Single-Phase Gas Flow: Average T and Z Method
72
Example
Average T and Z Method
Suppose that a vertical well produces 2 MMscf/d of 0.71 gas-specific gravity gas through
a 2 7/8 in. tubing set to the top of a gas reservoir at a depth of 10,000 ft. At tubing head,
the pressure is 800 psia and the temperature is 150 F; the bottom-hole temperature is 200
F. The relative roughness of tubing is about 0.0006.
Calculate the pressure profile along the tubing length and plot the results.
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Solution
Calculation procedure:
Assume a BHFP, a good initial guess is
Compute average P and T

Calculate average z and gas vis. using average P and T
Calculate Reynolds number and then the friction factor
Calculate Pwf, iterate on step 2 through 5 until Pwf converge
74
Solutio
n
Calculated Tubing Pressure Profile
75
Single-Phase Gas Flow (Formulation): Cullender and Smith Method
76
77
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Example
Cullender and Smith Method
Suppose that a vertical well produces 2 MMscf/d of 0.71 gas-specific gravity gas through a
27⁄8 in. tubing set to the top of a gas reservoir at a depth of 10,000 ft. At tubing head, the
pressure is 800 psia and the temperature is 150 F; the bottom-hole temperature is 200 F. The
relative roughness of tubing is about 0.0006.
Calculate the pressure profile along the tubing length and plot the results.
79
Solution
Calculation procedure:
- Calculate the right-hand side of Integral Equation
- Calculate the gas vis. at flowing wellhead pressure
- Calculate Reynolds number and then the friction factor
- Evaluate the Integral I at the wellhead P and T. call Ihf
-Compute the midpoint pressure of the production string

For the initial estimate assume Ihf=Imf
-Then Iterate with new value of Imf for each new estimate of Pmf
Stop when Pmf converge
80
Solution
Calculation procedure (cont.)

- Compute the bottom-hole flowing pressure, Pwf
- For the initial estimate assume Iwf=Imf
- Then Iterate with new value of Imf for each new estimate of Pwf
Stop when Pwf converge
Use the Simpson’s rule to obtain a more accurate value of Pwf
81
Solution
The pressures at depths of 5,000 ft and 10,000 ft are 937 psia and 1,082 psia, respectively.
These results are exactly the same as that given by the Average T and Z Method
82
Mist Flow in Gas
wells
Almost all gas wells produce certain amount of liquids. These liquids are formation water
and/or gas condensate (light oil).
Depending on pressure and temperature, in some wells, gas condensate is not seen at surface,
but it exists in the wellbore.
Some gas wells produce sand and coal particles.
These wells are called multiphase-gas wells.
The four-phase flow model can be applied to mist flow in gas wells.
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85
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• Acceleration term of an expanding fluid is usually insignificant when compared
with the other losses and therefore neglected in most design calculations.
• Single-liquid-phase;
• ρ is assumed constant, then pressure gradient (▼Phydrostatic) is a constant.
• Friction loss, is rate-dependent. Characterized by two flow regime:
• Laminar Re ≤ 2000
• Transition zone 2000 ≤ Re ≤ 4000
• Turbulent Re ≥ 4000
•At low q, flow is laminar, pressure gradient changes linearly with q or flow
velocity.
•At high q, flow is turbulent, pressure gradient increases more than linearly with
increasing flow rate.
In single-liquid-phase:
both gravitational and friction pressure gradients are constant along the string
and therefore the pressure traverse is linear with depth. 87
Multi-Phase Flow
• For Multi-phase flow we have to use related equations and

correlations or gradient curves, so;
88
• The General Energy Equation:
• Divided by m, to obtain per unit mass balance, writing in differential form,

so we have;
89
90
Multi-Phase Flow
• Multi-phase flow:
• The general form of energy balance equation is complicated than single phase model.
91
Multi-Phase Flow
• In multi-phase mixtures:
• Friction-related and hydrostatic pressure losses vary with rate in a

much more complicated manner than for gas.
• Increasing rate may change the governing pressure-loss-mechanism

from predominantly gravitational to predominantly friction.
• The result of this shift is a change of trend in the TPR-curve.
92
Multi-Phase Flow in Oil
Wells
 Almost all oil wells produce a certain amount of water, gas, and sometimes sand.
 The TPR equation for single phase flow is not valid for multiphase oil wells.
 Multiphase flow is much more complicated than single phase flow because of the
variation of flow regime (or flow pattern).

 In multiphase flow, due to density difference between phases the areal ratio of a phase is
often different from its proportion of the total volumetric flow rate. The density difference
causes the lighter phase moves faster than the denser phase (dense phase to slip down in
an upward flow)
93
Multi-Phase Flow
Models
TPR models for multiphase flow wells fall into two categories:
1-Homogeneous flow models and
2-Separated-flow models.
94
Multi-Phase Flow
Models
Homogeneous models treat multiphase as a homogeneous mixture

They do not consider no-slip assumption. Therefore, these models are less accurate .
The major advantage of these models comes from their mechanistic nature.
They can handle gas-oil water and gas-oil-water-sand four-phase systems.
It is easy to code these mechanistic models in computer programs.
Separated-flow models are more realistic than the homogeneous-flow models.

They are usually given in the form of empirical correlations.
The effects of liquid holdup (slip) and flow regime are considered.
The major disadvantage of the separated flow models is that it is difficult to code them
in computer programs because most correlations are presented in graphic form.
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Multi-Phase Flow
• Some Correlations, tables & charts for pipes pressure drop calculation:
• Gilbert Experimental chart:
• APIo = 25-45
• Tubing size: 1.66- 1.9- 2.875- 3.5 in
• qoil = 50 – 600 STBD
• GOR = 0 – up
97
98
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100
Multi-Phase Flow
• Two-phase friction factor calculation:
• Each model has its own method to determine:
• 1- flow pattern/regime
• 2- hold-up factors
• 3- friction factors
• 4- total pressure drop
• There are three common equations to calculate friction pressure drop;
• (dP/dL)f-L = fL ρL vSL2/(2.gc.d)
• (dP/dL)f-g = fg ρg vsg2/(2.gc.d)
• (dP/dL)f-2P = f2P ρ2P vm2/(2.gc.d)
• Based on the flow pattern the related equation is used.
• For example:
• for mist flow pattern: assume the main flow is gas and use the (dP/dL)f-g
• for bubble flow pattern: assume the main flow is liquid and use the (dP/dL)f-L
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• It should be noted that based on correlations or moody diagram and relation of f with NRe :
• In laminar region: when NRe is increased the f is decreased.
• In turbulent region: when NRe is increased the f is decreased until it reaches to constant.
• Result: high flow rates is desirable to decrease friction part of total pressure drop.
104
Multi-Phase Flow
• Multi-phase flow:
• Calculation of pressure gradients requires values of flow conditions such as:
• velocity
• fluid properties (density, viscosity, and, in some cases, surface tension)
• When these variables are calculated for two-phase flow

• certain mixing rules and definitions unique to this application are encountered.
• We will define and analyze some of the more important properties that must be
understood before adapting the previously derived pressure gradient equation for
two-phase conditions. Multi-phase types are:
• oil & gas
• oil & water
• gas & water
• oil & gas & water
• First we define some factors!
105
Multi-Phase Flow
• 1- Liquid Hold-up:
• HL is defined as the fraction of an element of pipe that is occupied by liquid at
some instant. that is
• HL = Volume of Liquid in a Pipe Element /Volume of the Pipe Element

• Hg = 1- HL
• We don’t have any simple method and straight forward equation to calculate Hold-up
factor.
• We should calculate HL for calculation of:
• mixture density
• actual gas and liquid velocities
• effective viscosity
• heat transfer
• In the case of fluctuating flows, such as slug flow, the liquid hold-up at a point
changes periodically and is taken as the time-averaged value.
106
Multi-Phase Flow
• Hold-up Measurement, Experimentally by several methods such as:
• resistivity or capacitance probes
• nuclear densitometers
• by trapping a segment of the flow stream between quick-closing
valves and measuring the volume of liquid trapped.
• The amount of holdup factor cannot be calculated analytically.
• It must be determined from empirical correlations and is a function of

variables such as:
• gas and liquid properties
• flow pattern
• pipe diameter
• pipe inclination
107
Multi-Phase Flow
• 2- No-Slip Liquid Holdup.
• λL, sometimes called input liquid content, is defined as:
• the ratio of the volume of liquid in a pipe element that would exist if the
gas and liquid traveled al the same velocity (no slippage) divided by the
volume of the pipe element.
• It can be calculated directly from the known gas and liquid in-situ flow rates
from:
• λL = qL/(qL + qg)
• λg = 1 - λL = qg/(qL + qg)
• where qL is the sum of the in-situ oil and water flow rates and qg is the. in-situ gas
flow rate.
108
Multi-Phase Flow
• 3- Density.
• All fluid flow equations require that a value of the density of the fluid be available.
 The density is involved in evaluating the total energy changes due to potential energy and
kinetic energy changes.
• Calculation of density changes as pressure and temperature change requires an

equation of state for the fluid under consideration, But equations of state are
readily available for single phase fluids and are presented later.
 When two immiscible liquids such as oil and water flow simultaneously, the definition of
density becomes more complicated.
• The density of a flowing gas/liquid mixture is very difficult to evaluate because of

the gravitational separation of the phases and the slippage between the phases.
 The density of an oil/water mixture may be calculated from the oil and water densities and flow
rates if no-slippage between the oil and water phases is assumed.
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Multi-Phase Flow
• Calculation of Density:
• Oil/water system:
• ρL = ρo.fo + ρw.fw
• fo = qo/(qo+qw)
• fw = 1- fo
• Gas/ liquid system:
• Equation-1: ρt = ρL.HL + ρg.Hg
• Equation-2: ρt = ρL.λL + ρg. λg
• Equation-3: ρt = ρL.λL2/HL+ ρg. λg2/Hg
• Equation-1 is used by most investigators to determine the pressure gradient due to elevation
change.
• Some correlations are based on the assumption of no-slippage and therefore use Equation-2 for
two-phase density.
• Equation-3 is used by some investigators to define the mixture density used in calculating the
friction-pressure-loss term and Reynolds number.
110
Multi-Phase Flow
• 4- Velocity.
• Super-facial Velocity (Vsg)
• Actual Velocity (Vg)
• Many two-phase flow correlations are based on a variable called superficial

velocity. The superficial velocity of a fluid phase is defined as:
• the velocity that phase would exhibit if it flowed through the total cross sectional area of the
pipe alone. The superficial gas velocity is calculated from:
• Vsg = qg/A
• The actual area through which the gas flows is reduced by the presence of the
liquid to AHg. Therefore, the actual gas velocity is calculated from:
• Vg = qg/(A.Hg)
• where A is the pipe area.
111
Multi-Phase Flow
• The superficial and actual 1iquid velocities are similarly calculated from:
• VsL = qL/A
• VL = qL/(A.HL)
• Since Hg and HL are less than one, the actual velocities are greater than the superficial velocities.
• Vactual > Vsuperfacial
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• The two-phase or mixture velocity: Vm = Vsg + VsL
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• The slip velocity: The gas and liquid phases may travel at different velocities in the pipe.
Some investigators prefer to calculate the degree of slippage and thus the liquid holdup by
determining a slip velocity vs.
• Vs = Vg - VL = Vsg /Hg - VsL /HL
• Using the previous definitions for the various velocities, alternate forms of the equations for
no-slip hold-up and actual liquid hold-up are:
• λL = vsL/vm
• λg = vsg/vm
112
Multi-Phase Flow
• 5- Viscosity.
• The viscosity of the flowing fluid is used in determining a NRe as well as other
dimensionless numbers used as correlating parameters. The concept of a two-phase
viscosity is rather unclear and is defined differently by various investigators.
1- The following equations have been used by various investigators to calculate two
phase, gas/liquid viscosity:
• μt = μL.HL + μg.Hg
• μt = μL.λL + μg. λg
• μt = μLHL × μg Hg
2- The oil/water viscosity is usually calculated by using the fractions of oil and water
flowing in the mixture as weighting factors. The mast commonly used equation is:
• μL = μo.fo + μw.fw
• fo = qo/(qo+qw)
• fw = 1- fo
• This equation is not valid if an oil/water emulsion is formed.

• The viscosities of natural gas, crude oil and water may be estimated from empirical
correlations, described in the next section, if measured viscosities are no available.
113
Multi-Phase Flow
• Any multi-phase flow model, is used the aforementioned
(previous) parameters (which are the main factors) and based on
their own correlations and methods, calculate the results:
• 1- λg & λL (using available rates)

• 2- Vsg & VsL (using available rates and strings ID)
• 3- ρo, ρg, ρw, μo, μg, μw (bottom-hole to surface, from laboratory data/ correlations.)
• 4- ρtwo-phase, μtwo-phase (available correlations)
• 5- Flow Regimes (based on Vsg & VsL and different available plot/ correlations)
• 6- HL & Hg (each model uses its own correlation based on determined flow regime)
• 7- ∆P (pressure drop along strings) (using the basic equation)
114
Multi-Phase Flow
115
Multi-Phase Flow
116
Multi-Phase Flow
117
Multi-Phase Flow
118
Multi-Phase Flow
• Notes:
• 1- pressure drop due to “elevation”:
• Vertical well: ∆Pe ≈ (80-95)% ∆Pt
• Horizontal well: ∆Pe ≈ negligible
• Inclined well: ∆Pe ≈ ∆Pf
• 2- pressure drop due to “acceleration”:

• Velocity change in fluid flow
• Considerable if, there is Compressible fluid & flow at low
pressure
• 3- pressure drop due to “friction”:

• Flow shear stress along pipes.
• Vertical well: ∆Pf ≈ (5-20)% ∆Pt
• Horizontal well: ∆Pf ≈ ∆Pt
119
Multi-Phase Flow
In brief:
Many correlations have been developed in the last 30-40 years for predicting two-phase flowing pressure
gradients in producing wells. A list of the many methods and a brief review of each can be found in:
*Brown, K. E. and Beggs, H. D.: The Technology of Artificial Lift methods, Vol. 1, 1977*
Some investigators chose to assume that the gas and liquid travel at the same velocity so that the
mixture density can be calculated based on the no-slip liquid holdup λL. In this case a correlation for HL
would not be necessary, and if acceleration is ignored, only a correlation for two-phase friction factor is
necessary.
This is, of course a gross over-simplification of the problem and generally does not give good results.
No methods presently exist for analytically evaluating either liquid holdup or friction factor. Therefore it
has been necessary to develop empirical correlations for these two parameters as functions of variables
that will be known or can be calculated from known data. This requires an experimental facility from
which values of HL and two-phase friction factor fTP can be measured under a wide range of flow
conditions and flow geometries.
A general procedure for accomplishing this is described that will aid in the understanding of how the
various correlations were developed. An experimental facility is required from which measurements can be
made of qL, qg, ∆p, HL, and in some cases flow pattern. The experimental data are then obtained by the
following procedure:
120
121
Homogeneous models treat multiphase as a homogeneous mixture
They do not consider no-slip assumption. Therefore, these models are less accurate .
The major advantage of these models comes from their mechanistic nature.
They can handle gas-oil water and gas-oil-water-sand four-phase systems.
It is easy to code these mechanistic models in computer programs.
Gas-Oil-Water-Sand Flow Model: Guo and Ghalambor (2005)
123
Example
Gas-Oil-Water-Sand Flow Model
For the following data, estimate bottom-hole pressure
124
Solution
125
Single Phase
Flow Through
Chokes
Multiphase flow
Single phase liquid
Compressible gas - Ideal gas

Chokes (a kind of restriction)
• A general equation for flow through restrictions can be derived by combining:
• the Bernoulli equation and
• equation of state.
• The pressure drop through a restriction is based on the following;
• Fluid properties computed from upstream pressure
• Heat capacities of the two phases computed from the upstream conditions
• The sonic velocity if the fluid is then computed from the heat capacity
• ratio, Cp/Cv.
• If the actual throat velocity is greater than the sonic velocity then the
• flow is critical. If it is less then it is sub-critical.
• The correlations used in each regime can be selected.
• Note: The downstream pressure can not be determined in the case of

• critical flow. If critical flow is determined in the case where the outlet
• pressure has been specified then the choke downstream pressure is
• computed from the flow-rate and the outlet pressure.
128
129
130
Chokes correlations: (pipesim software)
*Sub-critical equations:
- API 14 B(is mechanistic and like beggs-brill equation)
- Ashford-Pierce (1975)
- Mechanistic Model (beggs-brill)
*Critical equations:
- Ashford-Pierce (1975)
- Omana (1969)
- Gilbert (coefficients: a , b , c)
- Ros (coefficients: a , b , c)
Similar Equations - Achong (coefficients: a , b , c)
- Baxendall (coefficients: a , b , c)
- Pilehvari (coefficients: a , b , c)
- PDVSA (coefficients: a , b , c & d)
Ali Zareiforoush, Senior Petroleum Production
131
Engineer
WELL DELIVERABILITY
Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis
Introduction to Nodal Analysis Instructional Objectives
1. Explain the concept of Nodal Analysis.
2. List 4 segments in the reservoir/well system where

pressure loss occurs.
3. Define the following terms: inflow performance curve,

outflow performance curve, system graph, solution node.
133
Nodal Analysis
NODAL Analysis
• A node is any point in the production system between :
• The drainage boundary and
• the separator
• where the pressure can be calculated as a function nodes in

the complex production of the flow rates.
• NODAL systems analysis is used as a method of combining all

these component system design procedures to help design and
optimize the total system.
134
Production System
Pressure Losses in Well System
P4 = (Pwh - Psep)

Gas
Sales line
Pwh Psep Liquid
Stock tank
P1 = Pr - Pwfs = Loss in reservoir

P3 = Pwf - Pwh P2 = Pwfs - Pwf = Loss across completion
P3 = Pwf - Pwh = Loss in tubing
P4 = Pwh - Psep = Loss in flowline
PT = Pr - Psep = Total pressure loss
Pwf Pwfs Pr Pe
P1 = (Pr - Pwfs)

P2 = (Pwfs - Pwf)
135
Production System
Nodal Analysis

Gas
Sales line
Pwh Psep Liquid
Stock tank

Pwf Pwfs Pr Pe
P1 = (Pr - Pwfs)

136
Adapted from Mach et al, SPE 8025, 1979.
Production System
Outflow Performance Curve
3500
Outflow (Tubing) Curve

3000
Flowing bottomhole pressure, psi
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Production rate, STB/D 137
Production System
System Graph
3500
Inflow (Reservoir) Curve
3000 Outflow (Tubing) Curve
Flowing bottomhole pressure, psi
2500
1957.1 psi
2000
1500
1000
500
2111 STB/D
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Production System
Solution Node At Wellhead

Gas
Sales line
Pwh Psep Liquid
Stock tank

Pwf Pwfs Pr Pe
P1 = (Pr - Pwfs)

139
Adapted from Mach et al, SPE 8025, 1979.
Production System
System Graph - Wellhead Node
1600
Inflow Curve
1400 Outflow Curve
Flowing wellhead pressure, psi
1200
1000
800
500 psi
600
400
200 2050 STB/D
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Natural Flow determined by Choke and
Wellhead Performance Relations
Well Performance
Establishing a relationship between tubing

size, production rate, fluid properties and
well head and bottom hole pressure called
Tubing Performance Relation or TPR.
Natural oil production rate is determined

by combining IPR and TPR which is
depends on production string
characteristics.
TPR for single phase wells is different from

multiphase wells
TPR can be established as a mathematical
model or by using pressure gradient
curves(Pressure Traverses).
144
Gas Well: Bottom-Hole Node
Analysis
145
Example: Gas Well-Bottom-Hole Node Analysis
Suppose that a vertical well produces 0.71 specific gravity gas through a 2 7⁄8 in tubing set
to the top of a gas reservoir at a depth of 10 000 ft At tubing in. tubing set to the top of a gas
reservoir at a depth of 10,000 ft. At tubing head, the pressure is 800 Pisa and the temperature
is 150 8F, whereas the bottom-hole temperature is 200 F. The relative roughness of tubing is
about 0.0006. Calculate the expected gas production rate of the well using the following data
for IPR:
-- Reservoir pressure: 2,000 psia

-- IPR model parameter C: 0.1 Mscf/d-psi^2n
-- IPR model parameter n: 0.8
146
Solution
147
Solution
148
Gas Well: Wellhead Node Analysis
149
Gas Well: Wellhead Node Analysis
150
Example: Gas Well-Wellhead Node Analysis
151
Solution
152
Solution
153
Oil Well
Bottom-Hole Node Analysis: Poettmann-Carpenter TPR-Simple IPR
Parameters in the next slide
154
Oil Well
Bottom-Hole Node Analysis: Poettmann-Carpenter TPR-Simple IPR
155
Example:
156
Solution
157
Oil Well
Bottom-Hole Node Analysis: Guo-Ghalambor Method-Single Phase Vogel IPR
158
Example
:
159
Solution
160
Oil Well
Bottom-Hole Node Analysis: Guo-Ghalambor Method-Two Phase Vogel IPR
161
Oil Well
Well Head Node Analysis: Poettmann-Carpenter TPR-Gilbert CPR-Single Phase Vogel IPR
162
Example:
Well Head Node Analysis: Poettmann-Carpenter TPR-Gilbert CPR-Single Phase Vogel IPR
163
Solution
164
Oil Well
Well Head Node Analysis: Guo-Ghalambor TPR-Gilbert CPR-Two Phase Vogel IPR- Pr<Pb
165
Oil Well
Well Head Node Analysis: Guo-Ghalambor TPR-Gilbert CPR-Two Phase Vogel IPR-Pr>Pb
166
Future Production
 Producing GLR varies with time as the reservoir is produced

 VLP curve will shift downwards with time
 IPR curve will also shift with time
Declining IPR – Fixed VLP –Incompressible

Declining IPR and VLP –Compressible Fluid
Fluid

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‫بسم اهلل الرحمن الرحیم‬

Advanced Production Engineering

Surface facilities & flow-line

The basic elements of a production system are:

A production system is thus composed of the flowing major components:

 Porous medium (reservoir).

• The inflow into the wells,

Petroleum Production Consist of two general system:

1- Reservoir (with unique storage and characterization)

Reservoir: Artificial Structure:

- Areal Extent (VHC, N, G) 11

• The main goal is:

• Calculation of all pressure drop (∆P) in the system.

Production Engineering attempt to Maximize production/injection in

• Understanding & measuring the variables that control PI (well

= f(reservoir properties; rock & fluid)

• Increasing the drawdown (PR-Pwf) by lowering Pwf is the other option

• Stabilized Flow Condition (continuous & optimize production)

• Critical Drawdown (Maximum Allowable Drawdown) versus reservoir natural

• To do that there should be exist some data:

• Well performance evaluation & enhancement are the primary charges of

• Three major tools for well performance evaluation:

With diagnostic information in hand

Focus on the part or parts of production engineering flow system

May be Optimized to enhance productivity.

(Inflow Performance Relationship- IPR)

Plot of Pwf vs. q

• Oil Well Inflow Relationship:

• Gas Well Inflow Relationship:

1- Darcy’s equation, Steady state (S.S.)

Three common inflow relationship which is widely used in petroleum

2- Darcy’s Law (simple model, steady state)

Productivity Index in Terms of Darcy’s Law

3- Vogel’s Equation (multi-phase reservoir)

• “IPR Curve – Vogel”, plotted the data using the following

• Mathematical model for Vogel’s curve

Finding Vogel qmax

• Multiphase flow, How to find qmax:

for q  qb , Darcy's law applies : q  J  p  pwf 

for q  qb then : q  qb  qmax  qb  1  0.2 p  0.8  p  

Combination Darcy/Vogel (Multi-phase flow)

Well Completion Effects

• Each Di on slide has their own relation based on Dg

Outflow Performance Relationship- OPR

Two-phase flow is an extension of single-phase flow!

• A specific ∆P is needed to lift fluid from bottom-hole to the well-head.

• There are two typical restrictions:

• Pwh (is set/constrained due to surface facilities)

• Pressure drop due to each factors (acceleration, elevation, friction) in the

• We need the knowledge of:

•Flow Types, Modeling & Regimes:

• Multi-phase flow characteristics

• Three factors are to be considered in Single phase flow:

• ∆Pwellbore of Single phase flow calculation is simpler and

It happens if Pwh>Pb, which is usually not a reality.

• 2- Nikuradse’s Correlation: 1/√f = 1.74 – 2 Log(2ε/d) , rough pipes

In gas wells, there is inter-dependence between:

Compute average P and T

-Compute the midpoint pressure of the production string