FUEL FURNACE AND REFRACTORIES

LAB MANUAL
(FOR B.TECH IN METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS ENGG.)

DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING

VSSUT BURLA, 768018

 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. To determine the calorific value of coal using Bomb Calorimeter.

Equipment/Materials: Different grades of coal, Kbr press and Bomb

calorimeter

2. To determine the calorific value of coke using Bomb Calorimeter.

Equipment/Materials: Different grades of coke, Kbr press and Bomb

calorimeter

3. Proximate Analysis of coal and coke.

Equipment/Materials: coal, coke and Muffle furnace

4. To determine flash point and fire point of diesel, Pensky-Martins

Apparatus.

Equipment/Materials: diesel and Pensky-Martins Apparatus

5. To determine flash point and fire point of petrol, Pensky-Martins

Apparatus

Equipment/Materials: petrol and Pensky-Martins Apparatus

6. To determine the effect of temperature on Kinematic Viscosity of

glycerine by Redwood Viscometer.

Equipment/Materials: glycerine and Redwood Viscometer

BOMB CALORIMETER

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine the water equivalent of the calorimeter using the given sample of solid or liquid
fuel of known calorific value (or) To determine the calorific value of the given solid or liquid
fuel if the water equivalent of the calorimeter known.
APPARATUS
Bomb, water jacket, stirrer, calorimeter vessel, combined lid, sensitive thermometer, analytical
balance with weight box, oxygen cylinder with pressure gauge, fuse wire, cotton thread, firing
unit, regulating valve and crucible hand pellet press (KBr press).
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
A Bomb Calorimeter will measure the amount of heat generated when matter is burnt in a
sealed chamber (Bomb) in an atmosphere of pure oxygen gas. A known amount of the sample
of fuel is burnt in the sealed bomb, the air in the bomb being replaced by pure oxygen under
pressure. The sample is ignited electrically. As the sample burns heat is produced and rises in
the temperature. Since the amount of heat produced by burning the sample must be equal to
the amount of heat absorbed by the calorimeter assembly, and rise in temperature enables the
determination of heat of the combustion of the sample. If
W = Water equivalent of the calorimeter assembly in calories per degree centigrade.
T = Rise in temperature (registered by a sensitive thermometer) in degrees centigrade.
H = Heat of combustion of material in calories per gram.
M = Mass of sample burnt in grams.
Then W ×T = H ×M
If the water equivalent of the calorimeter is to be determined, a substance like Benzoic acid has
a stable calorific value can be burnt in the bomb. Assuming the calorific value of Benzoic acid
and water equivalent can be determined.
CALORIFIC VALUE
Gross or higher calorific value: The total amount of heat produced when one unit mass of
fuel has been burnt completely and the products of combustion have been cooled to room
temperature.
Net or Lower Calorific Value: The net heat produced when unit mass of fuel is burnt
completely and the products are permitted to escape.
LCV = HCV – Latent heat of water vapour formed
DESCRIPTION
I. BOMB
The bomb consists of three parts i.e. bomb body, lid and the cap. Bomb Body and the lid are
made of corrosion resistant stainless steel containing Chromium, Nickel and Molybdenum. The
bomb body is cylindrical vessel having a capacity of 300 ml . The walls are strong enough to
withstand the normal operating pressure (30atm) to extreme high pressures (300 atm.). During
burning at high pressure the nitrogen and sulphur contents are oxidized to nitric acid and
sulphuric acid respectively. The corrosion resistant nature of the bomb material protects it from
corrosive vapors. The bomb has lid, which is provided with two terminals. The metallic rods
pass through the terminals one of which are provided with a ring for placing the crucible with
a small hook and the other with a groove. Each rod is also provided with a ring to press the
fuse wire attached to it. The upper side of the lid also provided with a small hook rod lifting
and with a Schrader valve for filling oxygen in the bomb.
II. WATER JACKET
The water jacket is made of copper and is highly chromium plated on the inside and outside to
minimize radiative losses. The jacket is filled with water.
III. STIRRER UNIT
A stirrer is provided which is driven directly by an electric motor. The stirrer is immersed in
the water. The water is continuously stirred during the experiment for uniform heat distribution.
IV. COMBINED LID
This is made of Borolite sheet and is provided with a hole for to keep the stirrer unit in fixed
position and hole to insert the temperature sensor. It has also another hole to take out the
connecting wires from the terminals on the bomb lid to firing unit.
V. HAND PELLET PRESS
It is used for pressing the powder into a pellet.
VI. CRUCIBLE
It is made of stainless steel. The fuel to be burnt is weighed in this crucible.
VII. IGNITION WIRE
It is recommended that platinum wire used but an alternative nichrome wire is also being
offered.
VIII. FIRING UNIT
It consists of the firing key, provision to give power to the stirrer motor, a switch for operating
the stirrer motor, two indicating lamps. When the circuit is completed the indicating lamp
glows. After the firing key is closed on, the fuse wire burns, the indicating lamp stops glowing
indicating the burning of the fuse wire.
PROCEDURE
 About 0.5 to 1 grm of finely ground benzoic acid (Preferably compressed into a pellet)
is accurately weighed and taken into crucible.
 Place the bomb lid on the stand provided and stretch pieces of fuse wire across the
electrodes (metal rods) provided in the lid tie about 5 cm of sewing cotton round the
wire.
 Place the crucible in position and arrange the loose end of the cotton thread to contact
the Benzoic acid pellet in the crucible.
 About 10 ml of distilled water are introduced into the bomb to absorb vapors of
sulphuric acid and nitric acids formed during the combustion and lid of the bomb is
screwed
 Charge the bomb slowly with oxygen from the oxygen cylinder to a pressure of 25 atm.
close the value and detach the bomb from the oxygen supply. Fill the calorimeter vessel
with sufficient water to submerge the cap of the bomb to a depth of at least 2mm leaving
the terminals projecting lower the bomb carefully in the calorimeter vessel and after
ascertaining that it is gas tight, connect the terminals to the ignition circuit.
 Adjust the stirrer and place the temperature sensor and cover in position. Start the
stirring mechanism, which must be kept in continuous operation during the experiment after
stirring for 5 minutes note the temperature reading of the calorimeter. Close the circuit
momentarily to fire the charge and continue the observations of the temperature at an interval
of one minute till the rate of change of temperature becomes constant.
 Afterwards stop the stirrer and remove the power supply to the firing unit. Remove
the bomb from the calorimeter and relax the pressure by opening the value. Verify that the
combustion is complete and washout the contents of the bomb clean and dry.
 Calculate the calorific value of the fuel or water equivalent of the calorimeter.
OBSERVATIONS:
Weight of the empty crucible W1 = gm
Weight of the empty crucible + Benzoic acid pellet W2 = gm
Weight of the benzoic acid pellet W2-W1 = gm
Weight of water taken in the calorimeter W3 = gm
0
Temperature of the water just before firing t1 = C
 0
Temperature of the water after firing t3 = C
CALCULATIONS
Heat produced by burning of benzoic acid + Heat produced by burning of fuse wire
and cotton wire etc = Heat absorbed by calorimeter.

PRECAUTIONS
Sample should not exceed 1 gms .
Don’t charge with more oxygen than is necessary.
Don’t fire the bomb if gas bubbles are leaking from the bomb when it is submerged
in water.
RESULT
Water equivalent of calorimeter WE = gm
Calorific value of sample CV = gm
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF SOLID FUEL
AIM
To determine the proximate analysis and calorific value of coal and coke
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
The proximate analysis of coal and coke comprises of determination of the moisture,
ash, volatile matter and fixed carbon.
Moisture
Free water may exist in the coal as adsorbed on the surface, condensed inside fine
capillary network and as bound to the coal molecule by chemisorptions and hydrogen bonding.
Volatile Matter
A volatile product obtained by the pyrolysis of coal in the absence of air is known as
volatile matter. The product may contain hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, higher hydrocarbons, tar, water vapors, nitrogen, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide etc.
The pyrolysis temperature of coal may lie in the range from 600-800oC. The yield of volatile
can be taken as a measure of its rank. Volatile matter will be much less in coke than that of
coal as pyrolysis had occurred during coking at around 1000oC. Volatile matter does not
contain the moisture of coal but it contains water that is formed from the hydrogen and oxygen
of coal during the decomposition.
Ash
Coals are associated with certain mineral or inorganic matter, which gets deposited along
with vegetable matter or gets into coal by subsequent infiltration. The ash consists mainly of
silica, alumina, iron oxide and lime. When heated, coal as does not melt sharply at any
temperature, but begins to soften at much lower temperature than that required melting. The
ash content in coke is much higher than in coal.
Fixed carbon
Fixed carbon is obtained by deducting the sum of moisture, ash and volatile matter
percentage from 100.
PROCEDURE
Moisture determination:
(1) Dry the silica dish in an oven and weigh.
(2) Spread out about 1 gm of 20 mesh coal sample on the dish.
(3) Weigh the dish again to find the exact mass of the sample.
(4) Heat the dish without any cover in the oven at about 105±5oC for 1 hour.
(5) Take out the dish from the oven, cover it with the lid and cool.
(6) Weigh the dish to find the loss in weight of coal due to presence of moisture.
Volatile matter:
(1) Heat a clean crucible and its lid at 900±15oC for 7 minutes in muffle furnace.
(2) Allow the crucible and lid to cool on a metal plate for a minute and in dessicator for 10
minutes. (3) Weigh the crucible and lid together.
(4) Put near 1 gm sample and weigh again to know the exact mass.
(5) Insert the crucible with the lid on it into the furnace at 900oC and keep there for a period
of 7 minutes.
(6) Weigh the crucible with the lid to know the weight loss due to expulsion of volatile matter.
OBSERVATION:

Sl.No. Amount Volatile Ash (gm) Fixed carbon

Moisture(gm) Matter (gm) (gm)

Coal

Coke

CONCLUSION:
REDWOOD VISCOMETER I
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT
To determine the viscosity in Redwood seconds of the given sample of oil and to plot the
variation of Redwood seconds, kinematic and dynamic viscosity with temperature.
APPARATUS
 Redwood viscometer-I,
 Stopwatch,
 Thermometer (0-1100C)
 Measuring flask. (50 c.c.)
THEORY
The viscosity of given oil is determined as the time of flow in Redwood seconds. The viscosity
of a fluid indicates the resistance offered to shear under laminar condition. Dynamic viscosity
of a fluid is the tangential force on unit area of either of two parallel planes at unit distance
apart when the space between the plates is filled with the fluid and one of the plate’s moves
relative to the other with unit velocity in its own plane. The unit of dynamic viscosity is dyne-
sec/cm2. Kinematic viscosity of a fluid is equal to the ratio of the dynamic viscosity and density
of the fluid. The unit of kinematic viscosity is sec cm2.
DESCRIPTION
Redwood viscometer-I consists of a water bath and oil bath, both provided with two
thermometers inside them. There is a ball valve, which is located at center of oil bath to flow
of oil through the orifice. A heater with regulator is fixed for heating purpose.
PROCEDURE
1. Clean the oil cup with a suitable solvent thoroughly and dry it using soft tissue paper.
2. Keep the ball valve in its position so as to keep the orifice closed.
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE FUELS & LUBRICANTS LAB
REDWOOD VISCOMETER-I
3. The water is taken into the water bath and the oil whose viscosity is to be determined is taken
into the oil cup up to the mark.
4. Note down the time taken in Redwood seconds for a collection of 50 cc .of oil with a
stopwatch at the room temperature without supply of electric supply.
5. Heat the bath and continuously stir it taking care to see that heating of the bath is done in a
careful and controlled manner.
6. When the desired temperature is reached, place the cleaned 50 c.c. Flask below the orifice
in position.
7. Remove the ball valve and simultaneously start a stopwatch. Note the time of collection of
oil up to the 50 c.c. Mark.
8. During the collection of oil don’t stir the bath. Repeat the process at various temperatures.
OBSERVATION:
Sl.No. Oil Time for Kinematic Density() Absolute
TemperatureC collecting viscocity gm/sec Viscocity μ =
50c.c of oil V =(A× 𝑡) − v× 
sec (𝐵/𝑡)
cm2/sec

Where
A = 0.0026 2cm2/sec
B = 1.72 cm2
GRAPHS TO BE DRAWN

1. Redwood secondsVs .temperature

2. Kinematic ViscosityVs .temperature
3. Absolute ViscosityVs .temperature
PRECAUTIONS
1. Stir the water continuously so that the temperature of the oil and water are equal.
2. Before collecting the oil at a temperature, check whether the oil is up to the Indicator in the
oil cup.
3. Always take the readings at a stable temperature
4. Ensure proper setting of the ball valve to avoid leakage
RESULT
Variation of Redwood seconds, absolute viscosity and Kinematic viscosity with temperature,
were observed and found to be decreasing with temperature.
CONCLUSION:
 PENSKY MARTEN’S FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine the flash and fire point of the given sample of oil using Pensky Marten’s
apparatus by both open and closed cup methods.
APPARATUS
1. Pensky Marten’s apparatus,
2. Thermometer (0-1100C).
THEORY
This method determines the closed cup and open cup flash and fire points of petroleum products
and mixtures to ascertain whether they give off inflammable vapours below a certain
temperature.
Flash Point: It is the lowest temperatures of the oil at which application of test flame causes
the vapour above the sample to ignite with a distinct flash inside the cup.
Fire point It is the lowest temperature of the oil, at which, application of test flame causes
burning for a period of about five seconds.
DESCRIPTION
The apparatus consists of a brass cup and cover fitted with shutter mechanism without shutter
mechanism (open cup), test flame arrangement, hand stirrer (closed cup), thermometer socket,
etc., heated with energy regulator, a thermometer socket made of copper.
PROCEDURE
1. Clean the oil cup thoroughly and fill the oil cup with the sample oil to be tested up to the
mark.
2. Insert the thermometer into the oil cup through a provision, which measures the rise of oil
temperature.
3. Using the Energy regulator, control the power supply given to the heater and rate of heating
4. The oil is heated slowly when temperature of oil rises, it is checked for the flash point for
every one degree rise in temperature.
5. After determining the flash point, the heating shall be further continued. The temperature at
which time of flame application which causes burning for a period at least 5 seconds shall be
recorded as the fire point.
6. Repeat the experiment 2 or 3 times with fresh sample of the same oil
7. Take the average value of flash and fire points.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Stir the oil bath continuously to maintain the uniform temperature of sample oil.
2. The bluish halo that some time surrounds the test flame should not be confused with
true flash.

OBSERVATIONS

RESULT

The flash point is observed at ------------------- C

The fire point is observed at ..........................C

CONCLUSION: