English for Medicine and Health

Sciences

Shehdeh Fareh, PhD

Professor in Linguistics and TEFL, Director of the English Language
Center, Department of English Language and Literature, Author of a series
of books for TEFL, University of Sharjah

Inaam A.F. Hamadi, MA

Applied Linguistics, Certificate of Competency in Teaching and Learning
from the Institute of Academic Leadership, Department of English
Language and Literature, University of Sharjah
Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Reviewers

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

1. Medical terminology
Language of medicine

Medical terms

Spelling of medical terms

Pronunciation of medical terms

 Focus on reading

Vocabulary development

Focus on grammar

Oral skills

Focus on writing

Pronunciation exercise

Review exercises

Self-assessment

2. Suffixes
Medical terms

Suffixes

Focus on reading

Vocabulary development

Focus on grammar

Case report

Oral communication skills

Focus on writing

Pronunciation of medical terms

Review exercises

Self-assessment

3. Prefixes
Medical terms

Prefixes

Focus on reading

Vocabulary development
 Focus on grammar

Oral communication skills

Focus on writing

Pronunciation of medical terms

Review exercises

Self-assessment

4. Body structure
Body structure

Principal body systems

Planes of the body

Orientation and directional terms

Body positions

Body cavities

Focus on reading

Vocabulary development

Focus on grammar

Oral communication skills

Focus on writing

Review exercises

Self-assessment

5. Body systems
Body systems

Focus on reading

Vocabulary development

Focus on grammar
 Oral communication skills

Focus on writing

Pronunciation of medical terms

Review exercises

Self-assessment

Glossary

Index
Copyright

Elsevier Limited

7th Circle, Zahran Plaza, 7th Floor, PO Box 140825, Amman, 11814,
Jordan

English for Medicine and Health Sciences, by Shehdeh Fareh and

Inaam A.F. Hamadi

Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Limited.

ISBN: 978-0-7020-7550-6
e-ISBN: 978-0-7020-7551-3

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and
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on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected

under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience
and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods,
compounds or experiments described herein. Because of rapid advances in
the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses
and drug dosages should be made. To the fullest extent of the law, no
responsibility is assumed by Elsevier, authors, editors or contributors for
any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any
methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Content Strategist: Rasheed Roussan

Sr Project Manager—Education Solutions: Shabina Nasim
Content Development Specialist: Amani Bazzari
Project Manager: Nayagi Athmanathan
Cover Designer: Milind Majgaonkar

Printed in India
Dedication

This book is gratefully dedicated to:

Our sincere wives and children for their patience
and encouragement,
our wonderful readers and colleagues,
all those who helped us produce this book.
Reviewers
Hussam Rajab, PhD, Professor, Head of Research Unit, English
Language Institute (ELI), King Abdulaziz University (KAU), Jeddah,
Saudi Arabia
Ghada A. Abdel-Hamid, MD, Associate professor of anatomy, Faculty
of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Egypt
Sesin Kocagoz, PhD, Professor, Acıbadem University School of
Medicine, Head of Department of Infectious Diseases and Clinical
Microbiology, Co-Coordinator of Medical English, Istanbul, Turkey
Foreword
PROF QUTAYBA HAMID, MD, PhD, FRCP, FRS, Dean, College of Medicine, University of
Sharjah

There is an urgent need for a comprehensive book such as English for

Medicine and Health Sciences. This book is one of the few to address the
specific needs of non-native speakers who are attending medical education
institutes.
One of the book’s landmark features is its ability to communicate
complex structures of medical English in a clear and engaging manner,
with the learner at the core of the pedagogical context of the book.
With an array of key terminologies, medical roots, and illustrative
examples, the book is an essential reference that brings together medical
knowledge and language skills indispensable to medicine and health
sciences students today.
Offering relevant and cutting-edge literature pertaining to medical
English, including an English–English–Arabic Glossary, the book is a
hands-on tool for leveraging the students’ understanding of the basic
principles of written and spoken English required to start a career in
medicine and health care.
Moreover, the book is equally invaluable to medical English instructors
who are keen to provide the most relevant linguistic material to their
students.
I believe that this book offers an opportunity for the students to develop
a comprehensive and up-to-date understanding of medical English, offered
by a team of highly experienced medical English instructors.
Preface

English for medical and health

sciences
In order to be successful professionals, students in the fields of medicine
and health sciences need to be competent in using medical terminology.
They need to familiarize themselves with as many medical terms as
possible in order to function properly in their study and future careers.
This means that students should know the meanings of medical terms used
in their fields and how they are composed. Furthermore, they need to
enhance their essential language skills including reading, writing and
speaking. English for Medical and Health Sciences is especially designed
to meet these basic needs. It consists of five chapters that cover the
structure of medical terms, prefixes, suffixes, body structure, and body
systems. Each chapter consists of at least 10 basic components as follows:

• Medical terms: Lists of terms relevant to the content of each chapter are
provided and their meanings are also given. Prefixes and suffixes are
also explained in detail with illustrative examples.

• Practice exercises: Activities are provided after each section to check the
students’ understanding. Teachers can use these activities as formative
assessment tools.

• Focus on vocabulary: This part of each chapter provides students with

two lists of academic vocabulary that are essential for developing
students’ lexical competence. Furthermore, this part provides students
with 20 medical collocations with illustrative examples and practice
activities. Students are also introduced to medical idioms commonly
used in their fields.
• Focus on reading: This section aims at promoting students’ abilities to
handle and comprehend medical texts. It also familiarizes them with
medical terms used in context.

• Focus on grammar: Each chapter handles a certain grammatical notion

that is common in medical and scientific texts.

• Focus on speaking: This part aims at enhancing the students’ oral

communication skills. Students are trained to speak in clinical contexts
with each other, with their instructors, and with patients.

• Focus on writing: Writing is a complex skill that needs to be developed

through a systematic training. Students are given practice in writing
definitions of terms and in writing referral letters throughout the five
chapters of the book.

• Pronunciation list: New medical terms in each chapter are listed at the
end of the respective chapters for students to pronounce. They are also
encouraged to know their meanings. Students can listen to the proper
pronunciation from their instructors or from a CD especially prepared
for this purpose.

• Review exercises: These exercises provide students with more practice

activities on all the components of the chapter. Teachers can also use
them as summative assessment tools.

• Case studies: Each chapter provides one or two case studies for students
to learn from. Case studies present clinical descriptions and diagnoses
of certain medical cases.

• Glossary of medical terms and their meanings in English and Arabic for
Arab students.

• Teacher’s manual: This guidebook offers teachers with answers to the

practice activities and review exercises in each chapter. It also contains
quizzes and tests that the teacher can use. Finally, it contains a number
of reading comprehension texts that can be used in tests and quizzes,
and for training as well.
The distinctive features of English for Medical and Health Sciences can be
summed up as follows:

• Provides exhaustive lists of medical roots, combining forms, prefixes,

and suffixes with illustrative examples.

• Offers an integrated course that combines medical knowledge with

essential language skills.

• Focuses on developing students’ reading skills in medical contexts.

• Develops students’ oral communications skills necessary for interaction

in their fields.

• Reinforces students’ academic vocabulary needed for effective

communication.

• Promotes students’ awareness and competence of medical collocations

and idioms.

• Enhances students’ writing skills in their medical fields.

• Develops students’ grammatical competence in areas relevant to their

medical majors.

• Provides ample and frequent practice and review exercises in each

chapter.

• Provides teachers with sample quizzes, tests, and answer keys for each
chapter.

• Provides a glossary of the major medical terms.

The outstanding features of this well-organized book help students

develop their medical knowledge and linguistic competence as well. These
integrated skills can hardly be found in any existing textbook in this field.
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, all thanks and praise goes to Allah, who granted us the
knowledge and power to write this book.
We wish to express our thanks and gratitude to all those who helped us
in producing the first edition of English for Medical and Health Sciences.
Thanks to the development team and Amani Bazzari who were keen to
produce the book in its best shape.
Thanks are also due to the book reviewers for their valuable feedback
that improved the quality of the book.
Special thanks and appreciation are due to our students in the medical
colleges who volunteered to read the chapters of the book and give us their
feedback that was highly appreciated since it reflected the students’ views
regarding the contents of the book.
Dr Mustafa Hammadeh, from Twam Hospital, was our consultant in all
medical issues. His assistance was invaluable.
We would also like to thank Mr Rasheed Roussan and his team for their
follow-up and encouragement.
CHAPTER 1

Medical terminology

CONTENTS
Language of Medicine 1
Medical Terms 3
Roots 3
Suffixes 9
Prefixes 12
Combining Forms 3
Spelling of Medical Terms 19
Pronunciation of Medical Terms 27
Focus on Reading 29
Vocabulary Development 33
Medical Collocations 33
Academic Words 35
Focus on Grammar 37
Oral Communication Skills 41
Focus on Writing 45
Pronunciation Exercise 48
Review Exercises 51
Self-Assessment 63

Learning outcomes
 At the end of this chapter, students are expected to be able to:
1. explain the need for medical terms
2. define the constituents of medical terms: root, suffix, and prefix
3. define medical combining forms
4. analyze medical terms into their constituents
5. construct medical terms by applying general rules
6. use certain medical collocations and academic words properly
7. pronounce medical terms properly
8. skim and scan medical texts for main ideas and details
9. paraphrase a sentence or a paragraph
10. prepare an oral presentation

Language of medicine
Terminology is the set of terms, expressions, or symbols associated with a certain
discipline of study, profession, or activity. Developing a functional competence in
terminology is an essential component of being able to work in a given field or
profession. Medical terminology is the variety of language that health care
professionals and providers use in practicing their careers. Medical terms
constitute a standardized means of communication among health care providers
because all such specialists use special terminology to describe human body,
diseases, symptoms, diagnostic procedures, drug administration, and treatment in
the fields of medicine, nursing, pharmacy, dentistry, physiotherapy, medical lab
sciences, clinical nutrition, and dietetics, environmental health sciences, and
medical diagnostic imaging. Medical terms are used in both speaking and writing
during the process of communication between health care professionals and their
clients. Therefore, it is essential for students in any medical profession to learn
the meanings of medical terms pertaining to each one’s career. It is also necessary
to learn how to pronounce and spell medical terms properly because mistakes in
such fields are intolerable. The significance of learning medical terms stems from
the following reasons:

■ Medical terms enable health care workers to communicate efficiently with each
other and with their patients in one language.

■ They ensure complete and mutual understanding of patients’ issues, including

diagnosis and treatment procedures.
■ Medical terms help us decipher complex information because they are made up
of roots, prefixes, and suffixes that generally have fixed meanings to all
workers in health care careers.

■ Medical terms facilitate the process of documentation and make it easy and fast
due to the frequent use of abbreviations in recording medical information.

It has become clear that possessing an adequate functional knowledge of

medical terms is indispensable to all people working in health-related disciplines.
Knowledge of medical terms involves a number of aspects such as knowing the
meaning/s of a medical term, its structure, its derived forms, spelling, and
pronunciation.
Medical terms are almost universal because most of them are derived from
Latin or Greek origins. Table 1.1 provides samples of modern medical terms and
their Latin or Greek origins. Learning medical vocabulary is a strenuous and
highly demanding process because it is always changing and developing. Although
most medical terms are based on classical Latin and Greek roots, they are no
longer restricted to such origins. Many medical terms nowadays have been
borrowed from ordinary English words such as scanning, screening, and bypass
operation. In order to learn the meanings of medical terms, students need to
familiarize themselves with the way medical terms are structured and created. A
medical term is usually composed of a root that carries the basic sense of the term
to which prefixes and suffixes may be added.

Table 1.1
Latin and Greek Origins of Some Current Medical Terms

Current Term Origin

artery Latin arteria; Greek arteria
cardi(o) the heart Greek kardia
cell Latin cella
ligament Latin ligamentum
nephropathia Greek nephros
ventricle Latin venter
umbilicus Latin umbilic
tendon Latin tendo
sinus Latin sinus
vein Latin vena
nerve Latin nervus
hernia Latin hernia
gastr Greek gaster (stomach)
ovary Greek oophor
cancer Greek carcin
Medical terms
Constituents of medical terms: Roots, suffixes,
prefixes, and combining forms
Roots
The primary constituent of each medical term is the root that carries its basic
meaning. Prefixes and suffixes can be added to the root to modify its meaning.
A root is the part of a word that carries its basic meaning. The root in medical
terms cannot stand alone to give a complete meaning. A prefix or a suffix may be
added to it in order to make a full term that has meaning. This is due to the fact
that most medical roots are borrowed from different source languages such as
Latin and Greek. In the word gastroscopy, for example, the root is gastr (stomach)
and -scopy is a suffix (visual examination). Adding the meaning of the suffix to
that of the root will make up the entire meaning of the medical term gastroscopy
(visual examination of the stomach).
 FIGURE 1.1 Gastroscopy: visual examination of the stomach.

A medical term may consist of one or more roots but only one suffix, as shown
in Table 1.2. We can only add a prefix whenever we need to modify the meaning of
the root.
Table 1.2
Medical Terms with One or More Roots

One root hem/o/globin

Two roots electr/o/cardi/o/gram
Three roots ot/o/rhin/o/laryng/o/logy
Four roots esophag/o/gastr/o/duoden/o/jejun/o/stomy

It is worth noting that certain body parts have more than one word root, because
one root comes from Latin and the other from Greek. You should be familiar with
both roots because you may encounter both of them in your study. Table 1.3
provides some illustrative examples.

Table 1.3
Body Parts/Organs that Have Two or More Roots
 FIGURE 1.2 Colonoscopy: visual examination of the large intestine.

Common combining forms

 FIGURE 1.3 Otorhinolaryngology: study of ear, nose, and larynx.

Suffixes
A suffix is a letter or group of letters added to the end of a word to change its
meaning or to produce a new word (part of speech). For example, if the suffix -
tomy (cutting into) is added to the root gastr, the resulting term gastrotomy will
mean incision into the stomach. However, if the suffix -ectomy is added to the
same root, the resulting term gastrectomy will mean excision of the stomach.
Moreover, adding -al to the root dent (noun) produces dental (adjective).
Notice the difference between neuralgia, neuritis, and neuroplasty. The
meaning of each term differs from that of the other because of the different
suffixes added to the same root neur which means nerve. The suffix -algia means
having pain; -itis means inflammation; and finally -plasty means plastic repair.
The first word means condition of having pain in the nerve; the second means
inflammation of the nerve and third means plastic repair of the nerve. Table 1.4
provides examples of commonly used but confused suffixes.

Table 1.4
Commonly Used but Confused Suffixes
 FIGURE 1.4 Adenectomy excision of a gland.

It is worth noting that medical terms are briefly defined throughout the entire
book.

FIGURE 1.5 Gastroduodenostomy: communication between the stomach and

first part of the small intestine.
Table 1.5

Terms Using the Suffix -Scopy (Visual Examination of)

Medical Term Meaning

bronchoscopy visual examination of the bronchial tubes
laryngoscopy visual examination of the larynx
laparoscopy visual examination of the abdomen
gastroscopy visual examination of the stomach
arthroscopy visual examination of joints
cystoscopy visual examination of the urinary bladder
ophthalmoscopy visual examination of eyes
otoscopy visual examination of ears
sigmoidoscopy visual examination of the sigmoid colon
rhinoscopy visual examination of the nose
uroscopy visual examination of the urinary tract
colonoscopy visual examination of the large intestine
esophagoscopy visual examination of the esophagus

Table 1.6

Terms Using the Suffix -Logist

Medical Term Meaning

cardiologist specialist in the study and treatment of the heart diseases
dermatologist specialist in the study of skin
oncologist specialist in the study of tumors
nephrologist specialist in the study of the kidneys
gynecologist specialist in the study of women’s diseases
trichologist specialist in the study of hair
urologist specialist in the study of the urinary system
hematologist specialist in the study of the blood
biologist specialist in the study of living tissues
otorhinolaryngologist specialist in the study of the ear, nose, and larynx
ophthalmologist specialist in the study of eyes
endocrinologist specialist in the study of the endocrine system
gastroenterologist specialist in the study of the stomach and intestine

Commonly used suffixes

 FIGURE 1.6 Erythrocyte: red blood cells.

It is worth noting that sometimes there might be two or more suffixes that have
the same meaning but they are not interchangeable. That is to say, where one is
used, the other cannot. For example, the suffixes -opsia and -opia mean vision, but
we can only say diplopia (double vision) not diplopsia.

Prefixes
A prefix is a letter or a group of letters attached to the beginning of a root to
modify its meaning. For example, the term hyperglycemia consists of a prefix
(hyper), a root (glyc), and a suffix (-emia).
Consider the following examples and note the different meaning that results
when a new prefix is added to the same root.

Prefix Medical Term Meaning

hemi- hemiplegia paralysis of one side of the body
para- paraplegia condition of having lower half paralysis
quadri- quadriplegia condition of having paralysis in the four limbs
pan- panplegia condition of having total paralysis
pseudo- pseudoplegia condition of having false paralysis
 FIGURE 1.7 Quadriplegia: paralysis of the four limbs of the body.

The root cardi may be preceded by two different prefixes. The addition of
brady- (slow) and tachy- (rapid) to the same root results in two different terms:
brady/card/ia (having slow heart rate) and tachy/card/ia (rapid heart rate).
Similarly, the root later can be preceded by the prefixes bi- and uni- as in
bi/later/al, which means pertaining to both sides, and uni/later/al, which means
pertaining to one side.

Commonly used prefixes

 FIGURE 1.8 Sublingual (under the tongue).

When a suffix starting with a consonant is added to a root ending with a

consonant, a vowel is added between the root and the suffix in order to ease the
articulation of the resulting form. This vowel is referred to as the combining
vowel. The root plus the combining vowel are called the combining form. The
term cystoscope, for example, consists of the root cyst-, a combining vowel -o-
and the suffix -scope. However, the combining vowel is omitted if the suffix starts
with a vowel as in gastrectomy (gastr + ectomy), cephalic (cephal + ic), adenitis
(aden + itis), neuralgia (neur + algia), carcinoma (carcin + oma), and hematuria
(hemat + uria).

Examples
cyst (root): urinary bladder
o (combining vowel): does not add anything to meaning.
scope (suffix): instrument to examine a body organ visually
Cystoscope is an instrument to visually examine the urinary bladder.

Notice that the combining vowel is omitted because the suffix -ic begins with a
vowel as in:
 Similarly,

In this context, it is worth noting that the combining vowel is retained if a root
is added to another root even though the second root begins with a vowel as in:
 FIGURE 1.9 Cystoscope: instrument to visually examine the urinary bladder.

Practice 1.1 Form medical words from the following prefixes, combining forms,
and suffixes. Delete unnecessary components.

a. electr/o/encephal/o/gram _________________________________________

b. enter/o/itis _____________________________________________________

c. nephr/o/ectomy _________________________________________________

d. ophthalm/o/scope _______________________________________________

e. trans/urethr/o/al __________________________________________________

f. retro/gastr/o/ic __________________________________________________

g. bi/o/opsy _______________________________________________________
h. hyper/thyroid/o/ism ______________________________________________

i. arthr/o/algia _____________________________________________________

j. cerebr/o/vascul/o/ar ______________________________________________

Reading medical terms

Reading a medical term in order to get its meaning is quite easy. You should
always start from the end, then move to the beginning, and across the term. A
word such as electr/o/encephal/o/graphy consists of two roots, two combining
vowels and a suffix. We start reading from the last part (-graphy), which means
act of recording; then we move to the first part (electr/o), which means electricity;
and finally (encephal/o), which means brain. The entire word means the act of
recording the electrical activity in the brain.
Notice that if you read medical terms backward, you will change the whole
meaning of the term. Consider the meaning of the following two words (reading
from the suffix, back to the beginning of the term).
If the word hemat/o/ur/ia is read backward, it will mean condition of having
urea in the blood, which is wrong because this condition is called ur/o/em/ia.
Therefore, a medical term has to be read from the end and then to the beginning
and across not backward. Thus, the meaning of hematuria is a condition of having
blood in the urine, whereas uremia means a condition of having urea in the blood.
A medical term may not always consist of prefix + root + suffix. In fact, it can
be made up of different combinations as shown in the Tables 1.7–1.12:

Table 1.7
Terms Using One Root + Suffix
Table 1.8
Terms Using One Root + Combining Vowel + Suffix

Table 1.9
Terms Using Root + Combining Vowel (V) + Root + Combining Vowel +
Suffix

Table 1.10
Terms Using Root + Combining Vowel + Root + Suffix
Table 1.11
Terms Using Prefix + Root + Suffix

Table 1.12
Terms Using Prefix + Root + Combining Vowel (V) + Suffix

It is worth noting that the combining vowel is retained when a root is added to
another root even though the second root starts with a vowel as can be noticed in
the examples in Table 1.9.
 FIGURE 1.10 The anatomy of a kidney.

In conclusion, a medical term may consist of one or more of the preceding

combinations. In brief, the major constituents of a medical term are as follows:

1. Root: the part of the term that conveys its basic meaning.

2. Prefix: a letter or a group of letters attached to the beginning of a term to

modify its meaning.

3. Suffix: a letter or a group of letters attached to the end of a term to produce a

new word form in general or to modify the meaning of the root.

4. Combining form: a root with a combining vowel.

5. Combining vowel: a vowel inserted between a root and a suffix that starts with
a consonant or a root and another root to ease pronunciation.

Practice 1.2 Write the medical term for each of the following definitions.

a. The study of women’s diseases is called ______________________________.

b. Record of electricity in the brain is called ___________________________.

c. Low level of hormone from a gland in the neck is called _______________.

d. An instrument that examines the patient’s eye is called ____________

_______________________.

e. Pertaining to behind the stomach __________________________________.

Practice 1.3 Divide the following terms into their component parts and provide
the meaning of the whole term.

Spelling of medical terms

Correct spelling to writing is as important as correct pronunciation to speaking.
Misspelling medical terms may lead to wrong meanings or to life-threatening
situations such as death or serious injury to patients. Therefore, it is necessary that
you learn the correct spelling of the terms you use in your field. When in doubt
about the spelling of a term, you should not hesitate to consult your medical
dictionary.
Table 1.13

The “rh” Rule

When a suffix beginning with the letters “rh” is added to a root, the
letter “r” is doubled.

Table 1.14

The “x” Rule

In nouns ending with “x” preceded by a consonant, change the “x”
into “g” when you derive an adjective from those nouns, or when a
suffix is added to them.
FIGURE 1.11 Laryngectomy: excision (removal) of the larynx.
 When adjectives are derived from nouns ending with “x” that is preceded with a
vowel, the “x” is changed into “c.”

Word Adjective Meaning

cervix cervical pertaining to the neck
thorax thoracic pertaining to the chest

Basic medical terms

The following terms are frequently used in health care fields.

Diagnosis: The act or process of identifying or determining the nature and cause
of a disease or injury through evaluation of patient history, examination, and
review of laboratory data (state of complete knowledge).

Prognosis: A prediction of the probable course and outcome of a disease (state of

prior knowledge).

Sign: Objective evidence of disease or the physical manifestation of injury,

illness, or disease. Objective means that the sign can be evaluated or measured
by the patient or others.

Symptoms: Subjective evidence of disease or what the patient experiences about

the injury; subjective means that it can be evaluated or measured only by the
patient.

Syndrome: A group of symptoms and signs that collectively indicate or

characterize a disease, psychological disorder, or other abnormal condition.

Acronym: A word formed by combining the initial letters of a multipart name or

major parts of a compound term, such as GERD from Gastro Esophageal Reflux
Disease.

Abbreviation: A shortened form of a word or phrase used chiefly in writing to

represent the complete form, such as AMI, for Acute Myocardial Infarction.

Eponym: One whose name is or is thought to be the source of the name of

something such as a disease, structure, operation, or procedure named for the
person who discovered it first, for example, Marfan syndrome, Fallopian tube,
Rinne test, Huntington disease.
Acute disease: Rapid, severe, and of relatively short duration.

Chronic disease: Lasting for a long period of time or marked by frequent

recurrence, as certain diseases, may be controlled but almost never cured.

Relapse: A return of a disease or its symptoms after partial recovery from it.

Exacerbation: An increase in the severity of the disease or any of its symptoms.

Remission: The period during which the symptoms of a disease abate or subside
without having achieved a cure.

Differential diagnosis: The differences between diseases in terms of clinical

signs and epidemiological parameters; used as a basis for selecting as a
diagnosis the one with the best fit to those seen in the subject. It is also known
as to rule out (R/O).

Sarcoma: A cancerous tumor of fleshy tissue.

Carcinoma: A cancerous tumor of epithelial tissue.

Malignant: Tending to become progressively worse and to result in death; having

the properties of anaplasia, invasiveness, and metastasis; said of tumors. You
can also simply define it by a cancerous tumor that spreads like fire.

Benign: Not malignant; not recurrent; favorable for recovery. You can also define
it by a non-cancerous tumor that does not spread.

Myocardial infarction (MI): Death of the cells of an area of the heart muscle as
a result of oxygen deprivation, which in turn is caused by obstruction of the
blood supply; commonly referred to as a “heart attack.”

Cerebrovascular accident (CVA): An abnormal condition of the brain

characterized by occlusion by an embolus, thrombus, or cerebrovascular
hemorrhage or vasospasm, resulting in ischemia of the brain tissues normally
perfused by the damaged vessels, commonly referred to as a “stroke.”

Ischemia: A condition in which blood supply is held back from a part of the body.

Commonly confused terms

Many medical terms may look alike because they have similar pronunciation or
they may be slightly different in spelling. Students are advised to spell these terms
correctly and differentiate between their meanings in order to avoid undesirable
consequences.
Examples:

ilium: one of the bones of each half of the pelvis

ileum: third part of the small intestine

intervertebral: pertaining to lying between two vertebrae (intervertebral disc)

intravertebral: situated or occurring within a vertebra (intravertebral vacuum)

FIGURE 1.12 Intervertebral: situated between vertebrae.

 FIGURE 1.13 Images of the spinal column: vacuum cleft.

peritoneum: membrane that surrounds the abdomen and holds the abdominal
organs in place

perineum: the area between the anus and the scrotum (or vulva in females)

mucous: (adjective) pertaining to membrane that secretes mucus

mucus: (noun) secretion from mucous membrane

palpation: process of touching and feeling

palpitation: having the heart throb, a feeling that your heart is beating too hard or
too fast

albumen: the white of an egg

albumin: protein molecule in the blood

humerus: (noun) bone of upper arm

humorous: (adjective) a general English word that means amusing or funny

humeral: (adjective) pertaining to bone of upper arm

humoral: pertaining to immunity to infection from antibodies in blood

contraction: normal tensing and shortening of muscle from nerve impulse

contracture: abnormal, fixed position of permanently flexed muscle

reflex: involuntary, automatic response of muscular–nervous pathway

reflux: backward flowing of fluid

ureter: (noun) tube that connects kidney to bladder

ureteral: (adjective) ureteral obstruction, ureteral stent, ureteral catheter

urethra: tube that connects bladder to outside of body

urethral: adjective of urethra

 FIGURE 1.14 Ureteral stent: mesh tube that is placed in the ureter to prevent
wall collapsing.

vesical: pertaining to the urinary bladder

vesicle: small fluid-filled blister on skin

prostate: gland that surrounds urethra in males

prostrate: lying in a face-down position

breath: (noun) air that flows in and out of lungs

breathe: (verb) action of inhaling and exhaling

FIGURE 1.15 Prostate exanimation: checking the enlargement of the prostate

to confirm benign or malignant tumor.

arteri/o: artery

ather/o: plaque or fatty substance

arthr/o: joint
fissure: groove or crack-like sore of the skin; it also describes normal folds in the
contour of the brain

fistula: abnormal passage between two internal organs

infection: the invasion of the body by a pathogenic organism

inflammation: localized response to an injury or destruction of tissues

FIGURE 1.16 Infection: the invasion of the body by a pathogenic organism.

 FIGURE 1.17 Inflammation: a localized response to an injury or destruction of
tissues.

laceration: torn, ragged wound

lesion: a pathologic change of the tissues to disease or injury

myc/o: fungus

myel/o: bone marrow or spinal cord

my/o: muscle

pyel/o: renal pelvis

py/o: pus

pyr/o: fever or fire

supination: the act of rotating the arm so that the palm of the hand is forward or
upward

suppuration: the formation of discharge or pus

trauma: wound or injury

tumor: a swelling of a part of the body caused by an abnormal growth of tissue

viral: pertaining to a virus

virile: possessing masculine traits

Some words are the same in spelling, but have more than one meaning according
to the context in which they are used.

Examples

lithotomy: incision to remove the stones from the kidney

lithotomy: an examination position in which the patient is lying on back with the
feet and legs raised and supported in stirrups

FIGURE 1.18 Lithotomy: an examination position.

calculus: kidney stone

calculus: a name of heel bone

colic: spasm of smooth muscle around ureters and bladder

colic: spasm of smooth muscle around intestines

pelvis: funnel-shaped area in kidney

pelvis: hipbones with sacrum and coccyx

scler: whitening of the eye

scler/o: hardening

myel/o: spinal cord

myel/o: bone marrow

cyst/o: urinary bladder

cyst: filled sac or pouch

Pronunciation of medical terms

Pronouncing medical terms is rather difficult because many terms are
multisyllabic and some of them have silent letters or have unusual pronunciation.
Some differences between spelling and pronunciation are shown in Table 1.15.

Table 1.15
Irregular Spelling and Pronunciation
Table 1.16

Silent Letters

Term Silent letter/s Meaning

rhinoplasty h plastic repair of the nose
ptosis p drooping
pneumonia p lung infection
gnathic g pertaining to the jaw
psychiatrist p specialist in the treatment of the mind
euthanasia e painless killing of a patient suffering from an incurable disease

The difficulty in pronouncing medical terms is aggravated by the fact that

certain letters have more than one corresponding sound. For example, the letter
“c” may be pronounced as “s” that is referred to as the soft “c,” or as “k” that is
referred to as the hard “c” as can be noticed in Table 1.17.

Table 1.17
Soft and Hard “c”

Soft c (s) Hard c (k)

cerebral cardiology
hyperglycemia arthroscope
encephalogram cardiac
cytology gastric
leukocyte electrical
septicemia endocrinology
amniocentesis pericardium
cell medical
incision pharmacology

Rule: when the letter “c” is followed by “i, e, or y,” it is usually pronounced “s”;
otherwise it is pronounced “k.”

Similarly, the letter “g” also has two different

pronunciations. The soft “g” is pronounced “j” as in
large; whereas the hard “g” is pronounced “g” as in
“good” as can be noticed in Table 1.18.
Table 1.18
Soft and Hard “g”

Soft “g” (large) Hard “g” (egg)

hematology hypoglycemia
enlargement electrocardiogram
surgical organ
salpingitis malignant
pharyngitis inguinal
arthralgia mammography
angioplasty ligament
meningitis gallbladder
menorrhagia gastric

Rule: when the letter “g” is followed by “i, e, or y,” it is soft “g” as in large;
otherwise it is hard “g” as in egg.

Practice 1.4 Identify whether each of the following words has a soft or hard “c” or
“g.”

Focus on reading
Prereading: Answer the following questions.

1. Name some early Arab and Muslim scholars.

2. In which fields did they excel?

3. Select a scholar and prepare a short oral presentation on his achievements.

Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.

1. Many of us owe more of a debt than we might suspect to the Islamic scientists
of the Middle Ages. Muslim chemists, physicians, astronomers, mathematicians,
geographers, and others not only kept alive the disciplines of Greek science but
also extended their range, laying and strengthening the foundations on which
much of modern science is built. Scientific terms with Arabic roots, from algebra
to zenith, reflect a period when Islam’s activity significantly widened knowledge
and ameliorated human suffering.

2. Al-Razi, known in the west by his name Rhazes, one of the most celebrated of
Islam’s early physicians, lived from 865 to 925. His importance was so great that
his colleagues called him “the Experienced.” The finest clinician of the age, he
has been compared to Hippocrates for his originality in describing diseases. He is
said to have written more than 200 books, ranging in subject matter from
medicine and alchemy to theology and astronomy. About half the books are on
medicine, including a well-known treatise on smallpox. In his discussion of
smallpox, Al-Razi was the first to differentiate a specific disease from among
many eruptive fevers that attacked man. By giving the clinical symptoms of
smallpox, he enabled doctors to diagnose it correctly and to predict the course of
the disease.

3. While Al-Razi knew nothing about bacteria, the theory of which was not to be
discovered until the early seventeenth century, he had an instinctive sense of
hygienic principles far ahead of medieval standards. To appreciate his insights, it
must be remembered that he lived in a world where contamination and filth were
so common as to go unnoticed, and infections and contagious diseases killed
millions. Against this unsanitary background, he was once asked to choose the site
for a new hospital in Baghdad. To do so, he suspended pieces of meat at various
points around the city, and at the location where the meat decomposed most
slowly, he recommended building the hospital.

4. The high point of Al-Razi’s career was an encyclopedia in which he compiled

Greek, Syrian, Persian, Hindu, and early Arabic knowledge, as well as anecdotal
evidence based on his own extensive clinical experience. This book contributed a
great deal to shaping European medicine.
5. Another great Medieval Muslim physician was Ibn Sina, better known in the
West by his Latin name, Avicenna. Called “the Prince of Philosophers” by his
contemporaries, he is still recognized as one of the great minds of all times. He
wrote some 170 books on various subjects and is said to have memorized the
entire Qur’an when he was only ten years old. Ibn Sina’s most renowned
achievement was the Canon of Medicine, an encyclopedia that dealt with virtually
every phase of the treatment of disease. From the twelfth to the seventeenth
centuries, it served as the chief guide to medical science in European universities.
Ibn Sina is credited with such personal contributions as recognizing the
contagious nature of tuberculosis and describing certain skin diseases and
psychological disorders. He also observed that certain diseases can be spread by
water and soil, an advanced view for his time.

6. Muslim physicians also helped develop the science of surgery and performed
many remarkably complex operations for their time, including brain and blood
vessel surgery and operations for cancer. Islamic physicians were especially
skilled in treating eye diseases, perhaps because such ailments were so widespread
in the Middle East. They wrote textbooks on ophthalmology and invented an
ingenious method of operating on soft cataracts of the eye, using a tube to suck
out the fluid that filled the capsule of the eye lens.

7. In the treatment of patients in hospitals, Muslims were progressive. As early as

the start of the ninth century, there were thirty-four surprisingly modern hospitals
throughout the Muslim world. Some of these hospitals had different wards for the
treatment of different illnesses. They also had outpatient clinics for the immediate
treatment of minor injuries, while patients with more serious complaints were
admitted to a ward. In the eleventh century, peripatetic clinics served areas beyond
the hospitals’ reach. These were moved from place to place on the backs of camels
and were generally run by one or more doctors. These mobile clinics were also
used in time of epidemics when hospitals were filled to overflowing.

A. Read the following statements and write “T” for true and “F” for false.

1. ______ Al-Razi’s encyclopedia had no influence on

European medicine.

2. ______ Muslim physicians were able to perform

complex operations.
 3. ______ Both Al-Razi and Ibn Sina were Latin by birth.

4. ______ Muslim physicians did not know how to

perform operations.

5. ______ Muslims had outpatient clinics in the tenth

century.
B. Circle the letter of the correct answer.

1. What is an appropriate title for this text?

a. Mobile clinics in the Middle Ages

b. The influence of Islamic scientists on modern

medicine

c. Scientific terms with Arabic roots

d. The clinical symptoms of smallpox

2. In the ninth century, Al-Razi, “the Experienced,” was

the first to describe specific symptoms of a disease.
This was important because doctors could then
_________________.

a. write books about it

b. relate it to many eruptive fevers

c. diagnose it and predict its course

d. include them in their dairy

3. Al-Razi wrote an enormous encyclopedia that included

medical knowledge from _________________.

a. Greece and India

b. Persia and Syria

c. his own clinical observations

d. all of the above

4. One of Ibn Sina’s views that was advanced for his time
was that certain diseases _________________.

a. are spread by water and soil

b. are contagious

c. can result in loss of weight

d. cannot be cured

5. Islamic doctors were especially good in the field of

________________.

a. psychiatry
b. ophthalmology

c. cardiology

d. psychology

6. Ninth-century Muslim hospitals were

_________________.

a. quite similar in organization to modern ones

b. quite different in organization from modern ones

c. simple tents with all patients placed together

d. nonexistent; doctors made house calls instead

7. In the eleventh century, the Muslim solution to caring

for patients in remote areas was _________________.

a. the creation of pharmacies in all small towns and oases

b. traveling clinics that moved on the backs of camels

c. an emergency service that brought patients to the

doctor’s house

d. hiring doctors forever in those areas

 8. The underlined pronoun “They” (paragraph. 7) refers
to ____________.

a. patients

b. Muslim people

c. hospitals

d. different wards

9. Find a medical term in the reading text and analyze it

into its components _________________.
C. Guessing meaning from context

Match the words in column A with their appropriate

meanings in column B. Write the number of the correct
answer next to each word. Base your decisions on the
reading passage above.
A B
a. ameliorated (para. 1) _________ 1. noticed in personal experience; not researched
b. predict (para. 2) _____________ 2. traveling from place to another
c. decomposition (para. 3) ______ 3. to foresee an outcome
d. anecdotal (para. 4) ___________ 4. made better; improved
e. peripatetic (para.7) ___________ 5. break down of organic matter

D. Find words in the text that mean:

1. A noun meaning “a subjective indication of a disorder

or disease such as pain, nausea or weakness.” (para. 2)
_______________________
___________________________________________

2. An adjective meaning “conducive to good health.”

(para. 3)

_______________________
___________________________________________

3. A verb meaning “to produce (a book, a report, or the

like) by collecting information from various sources.”
(para. 4)

_______________________
___________________________________________

4. A noun meaning “existing, occurring, or living at the

same time; belonging to the same time.” (para. 5)

_______________________
___________________________________________

5. An adverb meaning “notably or conspicuously

unusual; extraordinary.” (para. 6)

_______________________
___________________________________________

6. A noun meaning “affecting many persons at the same

time, and spreading from person to person in a locality
 where the disease in not permanently prevalent.” (para.
7)

_______________________
___________________________________________
E. Word building

Complete the following table as required.

Vocabulary development
Medical Collocations

Practice 1.5 Match the word in column A with its complement in column B.
Write the letter of the correct answer on the line provided.
 A B
1. ticklish _______________ a. a drug
2. administer ____________ b. blood pressure
3. dislocated _____________ c. skin
4. sound ________________ d. shoulder
5. nutritious _____________ e. food
6. weak _________________ f. pain
7. sensitive ______________ g. advice
8. high __________________ h. eyes
9. watery ________________ i. heart
10. deep _________________ j. cut

Practice 1.6 Complete the following sentences using collocations from Practice
1.5.

1. I fell through a window once and suffered a ______________ in my arm.

2. I asked the nurse what to do and she gave me some really

__________________.

3. I thought I had broken my arm but the X-ray showed I had a

________________.

4. My grandfather had a ________________ all his life but he still lived into his
90s.

5. The doctor told me I had ________________ and should not eat any salty food.

6. I had a ________________________ in my back. It was the worst pain I had

ever experienced.

7. I always eat plenty of fruit and vegetables. It is important to eat

______________.

8. The doctor will ___________________ to the patient.

9. Can we go inside? This wind is giving me ____________________ and I can’t

see properly.

10. I have a _________________. I always put on sun block cream before I go

outside.
Practice 1.7 Match the words in column A with their collocates in column B.
Write the right answer next to the correct term in column A.

A B
1. terminally _____________ a. medical attention
2. excruciating _____________ b. weight
3. seek ___________________ c. tooth
4. life ____________________ d. surgery
5. contract _______________ e. consumption
6. regain _________________ f. consciousness
7. alcohol ________________ g. antibiotic
8. gain ___________________ h. intervention
9. splitting _______________ i. threatening
10. prescribe ______________ j. pain
11. surgical ________________ k. ill
12. primary _______________ l. malaria
13. plastic _________________ m. headache

Practice 1.8 Use six collocations from Practice 1.5 and Practice 1.7 in meaningful
sentences.

1. ____________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________

4. ____________________________________________________________

5. ____________________________________________________________

6. ____________________________________________________________

Practice 1.9 What can the following words collocate with?

1. bedside _______________________

2. gain __________________________

3. clinical _______________________

4. biological ____________________
5. balanced _____________________

Academic Words
Study the following academic lists.

Academic List 1

Words Definitions
1. in-depth covering many or all important points of a subject
2. authority the power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience
3. assess to evaluate or estimate the nature, ability, or quality of
4. factor a circumstance, fact, or influence that contributes to a result
5. vary to differ in size, amount, degree, or nature from something else in the same general class
6. body the physical structure
7. campaign work in organized and active way toward a goal
8. derive to obtain something from a specified source
9. significant sufficiently great or important to be worthy of attention; noteworthy
10. respond do something as a reaction to someone or something

Academic List 2

Words Definitions
1. specifics concerned specifically with the item or subject named
2. theory a set of principles on which the practice of an activity is based
3. definition what is meant by a word, text, concept, or action
4. methodical done according to a systematic or established procedure
5. requirement a thing that is compulsory, a necessary condition
6. constituent a part of a whole
7. data facts and statistics collected together for a reference or analysis
8. underestimate estimate something to be less important than it really is
9. contextualize to place or study in context
10. major important, serious, or significant

Practice 1.10 Match the words in column A with their definitions in column B by
writing the letter of the correct answer next to the word in column A.
 A B
1. authority a. do something as a reaction to someone or something
____________
2. vary b. work in organized and active way toward a goal
_______________
3. campaign c. estimate something to be less important than it really is
__________
4. significant d. done according to a systematic or established procedure
_________
5. respond e. being a part of a whole
___________
6. methodical f. the power or right to give orders, make decisions and enforce obedience
________
7. constituent g. sufficiently great or important to be worthy of attention; noteworthy
________
8. contextualize h. to differ in size, amount, degree, or nature from something else in the same
_______ general class
9. in-depth i. to place or study in context
___________
10. underestimate j. covering many or all important points of a subject
______

Practice 1.11 Complete each of the following sentences using the correct word
from the box.

1. The court held that the Ministry of Health has the _____________ to dismiss
medical doctors for malfunctions.

2. Scientists made an _____________ analysis of the cause of the disease.

3. His most _________________ medical achievement was the invention of a new

drug for Parkinson disease.

4. I’m going to a _____________ concert to support AIDS victims in Africa.

5. The new technique is being tried in medical laboratories to

_________________ the effects it may have on cancer patients.

6. One of the most important risk ________________ for breast cancer is age.
7. Colds do not ___________________ to antibiotics.

8. The patient’s case was very serious. Therefore, it was referred to an expert
advisory _________________ for further investigation.

9. One can ____________________ some important conclusions using the results

of a proper set of experiments.

10. Medical treatments _______________ greatly from state to state.

Practice 1.12 Complete each of the following sentences using the correct word
from the box.

1. You have to _______________ the remark in the overall discussion to fully

understand what was meant in the medical conference about the treatment.

2. We need to draw up some general guidelines for the project before we start
getting down to ______________.

3. The nurse is very slow and _______________ in her work, but she certainly
does an excellent job.

4. Breaking medical words into their _______________ can help students with the
pronunciation of new and difficult words.

5. Well recognized hospitals should establish a method for exchanging

__________ for the benefits of their patients.

6. Our hands are recognized by medical professionals as a _____________ source

for spreading flu and cold germs.

7. Medical researches show that people usually _______________ the amount of

time it takes them to learn a new habit.
8. Obviously, one of the first _______________ to be a medical doctor is that you
be in an excellent physical shape.

9. According to anthropologists, there appears to be a universal _______________

of human beauty.

10. Current _______________ state that some types of cancer could be prevented
by taking certain precautions.

Focus on grammar
Singular and plural forms of medical terms
Most medical terms are derived from Latin or Greek origins. Most of them
maintain their original plural forms, a matter that adds an additional challenge in
learning these terms. Fortunately, plurals generally follow some basic rules that
enable learners, once they have mastered them, to quickly form proper plurals for
most medical terms that they may encounter. However, every rule has its own
exceptions. The following are some rules for changing medical terms from
singular to plural.

1. Words ending in “is”: change “is” to “es”

Singular Plural Meaning

diagnosis diagnoses determination of the cause of the disease (condition of complete knowledge)
analysis analyses separation of substances into their component parts
metastasis metastases spreading of the cancer
psychosis psychoses abnormal condition of the mind
prosthesis prostheses artificial part attached to the body

Exception: Sometimes the plural of a word ending in “-is”

is formed by dropping the “is” and adding “ides.”

Example: “epididymis” becomes “epididymides” (a highly

convoluted duct behind the testis, along which sperms
pass to the vas deferens)
2. Words ending in “us”: change “us” to “i”
Singular Plural Meaning
calculus calculi stone
bronchus bronchi bronchial tubes
nucleus nuclei nucleus
bacillus bacilli rod-shaped bacteria
stimulus stimuli something that evokes a response or a reaction

Exceptions
Singular Plural Meaning
fetus fetuses baby (second month of gestation)
sinus sinuses hollow cavity
virus viruses an ultramicroscopic infectious agent
viscus viscera an internal body organ
corpus corpora a dead body

3. Words ending in “ix,” “ex”: change “ix” or “ex” to “ices”

Singular Plural Meaning

apex apices pointed ends of an organ
appendix appendices a supplementary part of an organ
cortex cortices outer part of an organ
varix varices swollen veins
matrix matrices background substance mold

4. Words ending in “um”: change “um” to “a”

Singular Plural Meaning

bacterium bacteria bacteria
omentum omenta abdominal membrane
ovum ova egg cells
serum sera liquid
ilium ilia hip bone

5. Words ending in “a”: retain the “a” and add “e”

Singular Plural Meaning

vertebra vertebrae backbone
conjunctiva conjunctivae membrane over the front of the eye
bursa bursae sacs of fluid near a joint
patella patellae kneecap
pleura pleurae one of the two membranes around the lungs

6. Words ending in “oma”: retain “oma” and add “ta”

 Singular Plural Meaning
adenoma adenomata benign tumor of a gland
carcinoma carcinomata cancerous tumor of a gland
fibroma fibromata cancerous tumor of a fibrous tissue
sarcoma sarcomata cancerous tumor of a fleshy tissue
angioma angiomata a tumor composed chiefly of lymph and blood vessels

7. Words ending in “on”: change “on” to “a”

Singular Plural Meaning

spermatozoon spermatozoa sperm cells
ganglion ganglia group of nerve cells
protozoon protozoa single-celled animals

8. Words ending in “nx”: change “nx” to “nges”

Singular Plural Meaning

pharynx pharynges throat
larynx larynges voice box
phalanx phalanges bone of fingers or toes

9. Words ending in “ax”: retain the “a,” drop the “x” and add “ces”

Singular Plural Meaning

thorax thoraces chest

10. Words ending in “en”: change the “en” to “ina”

Singular Plural Meaning

foramen foramina opening passageways
lumen lumina central opening

11. Words ending in “itis”: change the “is” only to “ides”

Singular Plural Meaning

meningitis meningitides inflammation of the membrane surrounding the brain and spinal cord
arthritis arthritides inflammation of the joint

12. The following terms are general exceptions.

 Singular Plural Meaning
pons pontes a band of nerve fibers in the brain
os ora (when referring mouth
(mouth) to mouths)
os ossa (when referring a bone (used chiefly in Latin names of individual bones, e.g., os
(bone) to bones) trapezium).
femur femora thigh bone
paries parietes hollow organ
cornu cornua • a horn-shaped projection of the thyroid cartilage or of certain bones
(such as the hyoid and the coccyx)
• either of the two lateral cavities of the uterus, into which the fallopian
tubes pass
paries parietes a wall of a body part, organ, or cavity, as of the chest or abdomen

In addition to correct spelling, students also need to know how to derive nouns
and adjectives from medical terms. Table 1.19 provides examples of suffixes used
to derive nouns.

Table 1.19
Noun Forming Suffixes
Table 1.20

Adjective Forming Suffixes

Practice 1.13 Complete the table with the required form.

Noun Adjective
psychosis
abdominal
epilepsy
anatomical
biology
cancer

Practice 1.14 Write the singular or the plural form as required.

 Singular Plural
bacterium
vertebrae
carcinoma
testes
ganglion
apices
bronchus
appendices
foramen
larynges

Oral skills
Students in health care professions need to develop their oral communication
skills in order to be able to efficiently communicate with each other and with their
patients. Oral presentation skills are essential for professional success. Students
need to be trained in how to make effective presentations. When you prepare for
an oral presentation, you are supposed to be aware of the following presentation
modes:

1. The manuscript delivery

■ Speech is written out word for word on sheets of paper.

■ The language is usually intended to be read rather than

listened to.

■ Speaker reads speech word for word with little or no eye

contact with the audience.

■ Audience generally loses interest.

2. The memorized delivery

■ Speakers write out a speech (or parts of a speech) and

memorize it word for word.
■ Memorized speeches can be effective if the lines are
presented the way a good actor would deliver them.
However, more often they sound mechanical and stiff.

■ Speakers who rely on memory for their entire speech run

the risk of forgetting their lines.

■ It is more practical to memorize short segments of a

speech (the introduction, any brief quotes, and the
concluding remarks).
3. The impromptu delivery

■ Speaker is generally taken by surprise, has only a few

minutes to prepare, and must gather his/her thoughts
quickly.

■ Speaker does not usually have notes prepared in advance.

■ Delivery is typically spontaneous and conversational.

■ Speech may seem disorganized, but it can also be very

effective.
4. The extemporaneous delivery

■ Speech is carefully planned organized and practiced.

■ Speaker uses an outline which includes main points, key

words, phrases, and quotes.
■ Speaker maintains eye contact with the audience.

■ Speaker uses voice expressively, delivering content in a

dynamic way.
Presenters should be aware of the following oral presentation skills.

Pre-presentation skills
General information
1. Describe the essential components and basic structure of an oral presentation.
Prepare an outline for the presentation.

2. Gather information about the topic of the oral presentation.

3. Prioritize the data gathered such that only relevant information is presented and
irrelevant information is omitted.

4. Write the presentation in a presentable form.

5. Rehearse the presentation in advance to yourself or to your friends or

classmates.

6. Select the relevant visual aids and the relevant technological tools you need in
your presentation.

While-presentation skills
1. Deliver an oral presentation that is stylistically polished and fluent.

2. Avoid reading the presentation as much as possible.

3. Speak clearly and legibly, and pause at important points.

4. Use relevant body language and establish eye-contact with the audience.

5. Inform the audience of the objectives of the presentation.

6. Sum up the main points of your presentation at the end.

7. Make the presentation enjoyable by changing the delivery speed and tone of
speech as needed.

8. Speak clearly and loudly enough to be heard by all students.

9. Stand in a position where you can be seen properly, without blocking the chalk
board, or the screen.

10. Always keep a hard copy of your presentation. Technology may fail you.

11. Adhere to the time allotted to you and leave a few minutes for discussion.
Post-presentation skills
1. Thank your audience for listening to you.
2. Give them a chance to ask questions or give feedback.

3. Be honest with yourself and audience. If you cannot answer a question, admit it,
and promise to look for an answer.

Practice 1.15 Select a topic and start preparing for making an oral presentation.
Get the topic approved by your teacher and proceed according to the guidelines
mentioned above.

Focus on writing
Health care professionals very often need to communicate in writing with each
other and with their clients. They need to write the patient’s history, physical
examination, progress note and discharge summary, research papers, and grant
proposals. Unfortunately, many of them encounter difficulty in communicating
effectively in writing. Therefore, teaching writing skills should be accorded
special attention in medical schools and programs in order to build up the
students’ writing competence. Each chapter in this book will focus on one writing
skill or more. In this chapter, students will be taught how to paraphrase
information from different sources.
Paraphrasing means borrowing the ideas of others and putting them in your
own words. To paraphrase means to re-write a phrase, a sentence, or more with the
same meaning but in different words. The skill of paraphrasing is essential for all
language skills: listening, speaking, writing, and reading. Furthermore, it
improves the quality of writing, its flow and readability. It also helps the student
to understand what he reads before he can convey the ideas of others into his own
words. In other words, it improves students’ comprehension because they cannot
paraphrase without prior understanding of the original text.
In the process of writing, students can benefit from a number of skills and
strategies. The following are some essential steps for effective paraphrasing.

1. Read the original text once or twice until you fully grasp its meaning.

2. Write the idea in your own words.

3. Make sure that your paraphrase accurately reflects the meaning of the original.

4. Put the words or phrases that you directly quote in quotation marks in order to
avoid plagiarism.
5. Write the author’s name, year of publication, and page number of the original
text.

Consider the following examples.

a. Original: “Paraphrasing is a very important skill for all language skills.”

Paraphrase: Being skillful in paraphrasing is essential for

learning listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

You can clearly notice the difference between the original

and the paraphrased version. The word “important” was
changed into “essential” and the phrase “language skills”
was replaced with four language skills. Furthermore, the
word order in the sentence was also changed.
b. Original passage:

“Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking

notes, and as a result they overuse quotations in the final
paper. Probably only about 10% of your final manuscript
should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you
should strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of
source materials while taking notes” (Lester, James D.
Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed., 1976: 46–47).

An acceptable paraphrase:

In research papers students often quote excessively, failing

to keep quoted material down to a desirable level. As the
problem usually originates during note taking, it is
 essential to minimize the material recorded verbatim
(Lester, 1976: 46–47).

This is an acceptable paraphrase because:

■ The phase “overuse direct quotation” was paraphrased

into “quote excessively.”

■ The original word order was changed. The paraphrase

starts with the phrase “In research papers....”

■ The meaning of the second original sentence was restated

in the writer’s own words.

■ The source and the page numbers from which the

paraphrase is taken are indicated at the end of the
paraphrase.

A plagiarized version:

Students often use too many direct quotations when they

take notes, resulting in too many of them in the final
research paper. In fact, probably only about 10% of the
final copy should consist of directly quoted material. So
it is important to limit the amount of source material
copied while taking notes.
This version is plagiarized because the same word sequence is used with almost
the same words. A few original words were replaced with their synonyms. No
citation is given to indicate the source of information.
What techniques can you use in order to paraphrase properly?
1. Replace some words in the original text with words that have similar
meanings (synonyms). However, be careful. Synonyms do not always have exact
meanings. For example, it is acceptable to say “large intestines” but not “big
intestines” although “big” and “large” are often given as synonyms.

2. Change the word order of a sentence by preposing certain parts and moving
others to the end of the sentence. You can, for example, start a sentence with the
main clause or the subordinate clause.

Example:

a. Students can improve their writing skills if they

receive adequate practice.

b. If students receive adequate practice, they can improve

their writing skills.

You have to make sure that the resulting sentence is

grammatically correct.
3. Change the part of speech of certain words.

Example:

a. The most effective way to become a skillful physician

is to receive adequate training on a regular basis.

b. The most effective way of becoming a skillful

physician is receiving adequate training regularly.

Can you see the changes? Describe the differences between

“a” and “b.”
4. Change active voice sentences into passive voice and vice versa.

Example:

a. To become a skillful physician, you must receive

adequate training.

b. To become a skillful physician, you must be trained

adequately.

Practice 1.16 Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. The student requested that the professor excuse her absence, but the professor
refused.

________________________________________________
_____________________

________________________________________________
_____________________
2. There will be a music concert next to Vienna coffee shop. Would you like to go?

________________________________________________
_____________________

________________________________________________
_____________________
3. International Center is hosting English Conversation classes. They help non-
native speakers of English practice their English speaking skills.
________________________________________________
_____________________

________________________________________________
_____________________
4. The office of International Students and Scholars at Purdue University is
located in Schleman Hall.

________________________________________________
_____________________

________________________________________________
_____________________
5. The car that was pulled over by the police officer yesterday just had an
accident. That driver is not careful.

________________________________________________
_____________________

________________________________________________
_____________________

Practice 1.17 Go back to the reading comprehension passage and paraphrase the
following paragraphs.

Paragraph 1

________________________________________________
_____________________
________________________________________________
_____________________

________________________________________________
_____________________

________________________________________________
_____________________
Paragraph 2

________________________________________________
_____________________

________________________________________________
_____________________

________________________________________________
_____________________

________________________________________________
_____________________

Pronunciation exercise
The following are the medical terms introduced in this chapter. You are supposed
to read them aloud as many times as you need to master their pronunciation. In
this activity, you are also required to give the meaning of each term in order to
retain them active in your memory.
Read the following medical terms and find out their meanings.

abdominal
abnormal

adduct

adenectomy

adenocarcinoma

amenorrhea

amniocentesis

analgesia

anemia

anesthetist

angiogram

antenatal

antibiotic

apnea

arteriorrhaphy

arthralgia

arthritis

arthroscope

arthroscopy

autopsy

bilateral

biologist

biopsy
bradycardia

bronchoscopy

carcinoma

cardiac

cardiologist

cardiomegaly

cardiomyopathy

cardiopathy

celiac

cephalic

cerebral

cerebrosclerosis

cerebrovascular

cerebrum

cervical

chronic

coccyges

colonoscopy

colostomy

colposcopy

coronary

cutaneous
cystitis

cystoscopy

cytologist

dermatitis

dermatologist

dermatosis

diagnosis

diameter

diarrhea

duodenojejunostomy

duodenoscope

duodenum

dysentery

dysmenorrheal

dyspnea

dysuria

electrocardiogram

electroencephalogram

electroencephalography

encephalitis

endocrine glands

endocrinologist
endometrium

endoscope

epithelial

erythema

erythrocyte

esophagoscopy

eupnea

euthanasia

exocrine glands

gastric

gastritis

gastroenteritis

gastroenterologist

gastroenterology

gastroscopy

gingivitis

gnathic

gynecologist

gynecology

hematologist

hematoma

hematorrhagia
hematuria

hemigastrectomy

hemiplegia

hemoglobin

hemorrhage

hepatitis

hepatoma

hepatomegaly

hyperglycemia

hypertension

hypoglycemia

hypotension

hypothyroidism

hysterectomy

laparoscope

laparoscopy

laparotomy

laryngectomy

laryngoscopy

leukemia

leukocyte

leukocytosis
macroscopic

mammogram

mammoplasty

mastectomy

megacolon

menorrhea

metric

microtome

multicellular

muscular

myalgia

myoma

myorrhexis

myosarcoma

myositis

myringotomy

nasal

nephrologist

nephroma

neuralgia

neurology

ocular
oncologist

oophorectomy

ophthalmologist

ophthalmoscope

optician

oral

orthopedics

osteoarthritis

osteomyelitis

otalgia

otorhinolaryngology

otoscopy

ovarian cyst

ovariopathy

panplegia

pathologist

pericardium

periosteum

pharyngotomy

phlebitis

phlebotomy

pneumonia
postnatal

prenatal

prodrome

prognosis

pseudoplegia

psychiatrist

psychology

pulmoaortic

pulmonary

quadriplegia

radiotherapy

renal

resection

retrouterine

rhinitis

rhinoplasty

rhinoscopy

sacral

sclerosis

septicemia

sigmoidoscopy

spinal
spondylitis

stenosis

sublingual

tachycardia

thoracic

thoracotomy

thrombosis

tracheologist

tracheostomy

transdermal

transfusion

transurethral

tympanic

unilateral

uremia

urologist

uroscopy

uterine

vascular

venous

vertebral

vesical
xiphoid

Review exercises
A. Determine whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).

1. A medical term never has more than one root. _____

2. Some medical terms may not have a combining vowel. _____
3. Adding a vowel to the word may be necessary to make it easier to pronounce. _____
4. A vowel must always be present in a combining form. _____
5. Diagnosis is the complete knowledge of a patient’s condition. _____
6. Autopsy is the examination of a dead body to determine the cause of death. _____
7. Laparotomy is the removal of the abdomen. _____
8. Ophthalmoscope is the process of visually examining the eye. _____

B. Identify the root in each of the following terms and define it.

Term Root Meaning of root

1. cardiology_____________________________________________
2. gynecologist
_____________________
________________________
3. dermatitis _____________________
________________________
4. arthroscopy_____________________
________________________

C. Define the following medical terms.

1. neurology
____________________________________________
______

2. gastroenterology
____________________________________________
_

3. hematologist
____________________________________________
____
 4. hepatitis
____________________________________________
________

5. gastroscope
____________________________________________
_____

6. bronchoscopy
____________________________________________
___

7. cardiopathy
____________________________________________
_____

8. gastric
____________________________________________
__________

9. cephalic
____________________________________________
________

10. nephroma
____________________________________________
______
D. Spelling: Circle the correctly spelled term.
E. Match the roots in the first column with their meanings in the second one.

1. ren _______________ a. to breathe

2. gynec _____________ b. kidney
3. ot ________________ c. ear
4. thorac ____________ d. skull
5. arthr ______________ e. hip bone
6. spir _______________ f. chest
7. lapar _____________ g. skin
8. pelv ______________ h. joint
9. tox _______________ i. female
10. crani ______________ j. abdomen
11. dermat ____________ k. brain
12. encephal __________ l. poison

F. Circle the best answer.

1. Joint pain is

a. neural

b. arthralgia

c. nueralgia

d. neuralgia
2. The suffix that means visual examination is

a. -dys

b. -dia

c. -scopy

d. -ia

3. A malignant tumor of epithelial tissue is

a. sarcoma

b. carcinoma

c. anemia

d. nephroma

4. The root that means kidney is

a. pharyngo

b. rhin

c. rino

d. nephr
5. A gastrectomy is a/an

a. gastric resection

b. incision of a gland

c. gastroscopy

d. examination of the stomach

6. A combining form meaning cells is

a. cyst/o

b. cyt/o

c. cis/o

d. cyts

7. The suffix meaning “to view” is

a. -osis

b. -scope

c. -opsy

d. -scopy
8. The suffix that means abnormal condition is

a. -asis

b. -esis

c. -ia

d. -osis

9. The prefix that means behind is

a. exo-

b. dys-

c. re-

d. retro-

10. The suffix that means record is

a. -graph

b. -ia

c. -scopy

d. -gram
11. Tumor of a liver

a. arthrosis

b. arthroscope

c. adenoma

d. hepatoma

12. Prediction about the outcome of treatment is

a. prolapse

b. prognosis

c. diagnosis

d. psychosis

13. Which term relates to the neck?

a. thrombosis

b. cervical

c. cephalic

d. cerebral
14. A white blood cell is a/an

a. leukocyte

b. resection

c. platelet

d. erythrocyte

15. Subhepatic means

a. over the liver

b. below the liver

c. beside the liver

d. in the liver

16. An instrument to visually examine the urinary

bladder is called a/an

a. cystoscope

b. arthroscope

c. cholecystoscope

d. gastroscope
17. Low (less than normal) amount of sugar in the blood
is called

a. hyperacidity

b. hyperthyroidism

c. hyperglycemia

d. hypoglycemia

18. Glands that secrete substances are

a. exocrine

b. endocrine

c. adenomas

d. enteral

19. Cancerous condition of white blood cells with high

numbers of immature cells is

a. osteoma

b. adenosis

c. leukemia
d. anemia

20. Excision of the kidney is

a. nephrectomy

b. adenectomy

c. gastrectomy

d. mastectomy
G. Identify the suffix in each of the following medical terms and
provide its meaning.

Suffix Meaning
1. thrombosis: _____________ ___________________________________
2. gastrectomy: _____________ ___________________________________
3. cerebral: _____________ ___________________________________
4. osteitis: _____________ ___________________________________
5. retrogastric: _____________ ___________________________________
6. carcinoma: _____________ ___________________________________

H. Provide the medical terms for the following definitions.

1. the study of tumors

________________________
:
2. platelet; clotting cell
________________________
:
3. pertaining to under the liver
________________________
:
4. pertaining to through the tube leading from the urinary
________________________ bladder to the outside of the body
:
5. specialist in women’s diseases
________________________
:

I. Identify the combining form and give its meaning in the following
terms.

Combining form Meaning

1. hemoglobin _______________________________________________
2. sarcoma _______________________________________________
3. prognosis _______________________________________________
4. rhinitis _______________________________________________
5. transurethral
_______________________________________________

J. Use the combining forms provided in each question to form medical

words.
 1. The combining form cardi/o to form a word that
means a membrane surrounding the
heart___________________

2. The combining form leuk/o to form a word that

means slight increase in normal white blood cells
due to infection___________________

3. The combining form glyc/o to form a word that

means condition of having an excessive amount
of sugar in the blood ___________________

4. The combining form derm/o to form a word that

means pertaining to through the
skin___________________

5. The combining form gastr/o to form a word that

means study of the stomach and small
intestine___________________

6. The combining form hepat/o to form a word that

means pertaining to under the
liver___________________
K. Identify the prefix and give its meaning in each the following terms.
 Prefix Meaning
1. hyperthyroidisim
_______________
__________________________
2. transhepatic _______________ __________________________
3. prognosis _______________
__________________________
4. retrogastric _______________
__________________________
5. tachycardia _______________ __________________________
6. hypoglycemia _______________ __________________________
7. eupnea _______________
__________________________
8. pericardium _______________ __________________________

L. Read the following sentences and circle the right answer.

1. If I haven’t been examined by a

gastroenterologist, I may end up with heavy
bleeding, a condition called

a. hemorrhage

b. hemoglobin

c. anemia

d. uremia

e. hematuria

2. A patient has had a diagnosis of colon cancer and

will need surgical removal of the colon. She will
end up with a permanent hole in her abdomen for
drainage into a bag. The permanent opening is
called a
a. megacolon

b. colitis

c. colonoscopy

d. colostomy

e. colectomy

3. You have been having severe pain in your heart,

and your family physician refers you to a
specialist in the diseases of the heart called a

a. cardiologist

b. pulmonologist

c. neurologist

d. gastroenterologist

e. proctologist

4. You have just been diagnosed as having an

inflammation of the liver. The doctor describes it
as
a. megacolon

b. hepatomegaly

c. macrostomia

d. hepatitis

e. gastroenteritis

5. You have taken your son to the emergency room

with burning micturition and vomiting. After
examination and lab tests, the physician reports
that your son has an infection in the urinary
bladder and makes a diagnosis of

a. hepatitis

b. cystitis

c. proctitis

d. nephritis

e. orchiditis
6. Your sister who is a long distance runner is told
by her physician that she has an enlarged heart,
but this can be a normal finding in well-
conditioned athletes. The doctor writes on his
chart that your sister has

a. hepatomegaly

b. cardiomegaly

c. megacolon

d. macrostomia

e. myocarditis

7. Your wife is having her uterus surgically

removed along with her ovaries. Removal of
uterus is called

a. hysterectomy

b. orchidectomy

c. appendectomy

d. oophorectomy
e. gastrectomy

8. A male patient complains of having pain in his

joints and bones. This may be due to a condition
called

a. endometritis

b. perimetritis

c. salpingitis

d. hepatitis

e. osteoarthritis

9. A patient with epilepsy has had a procedure

performed that records brain electrical activity.
This procedure is called

a. electrocardiography

b. electroencephalography

c. electromyography

d. electrogastrography
 e. electrophoresis

10. A female patient has her breasts removed. The

surgical procedure is called a

a. mammoplasty

b. mammoplasia

c. mammography

d. mastectomy

e. mammogram
M. Write the singular or the plural forms as required.

Singular Plural
1. bursa
2. psychoses
3. bacteria
4. lipoma
5. arthritides
6. thorax
7. foramina
8. protozoon
9. calculi
10. ova
11. varix
12. meninx

N. Circle the correct answer.

1. Which of the following has a soft “c”?

a. card

b. pace

c. cap

d. recount

e. court

2. Which of the following has a hard “g”?

a. pager

b. geriatric

c. genius

d. good

e. generate

3. The correct spelling of the adjective for pharynx

is

a. pharnxeal
b. pharynxic

c. pharyngeal

d. phayngel

e. pharyxial

4. The adjective for thorax is

a. thoracic

b. thoragic

c. thorxic

d. thorageal

e. thoraxial

5. The correct spelling for the word that means “a

bursting forth of blood” is

a. hemarrhage

b. hemeorrhage

c. hemorage
d. hemorrahge

e. hemorrhage

6. The letter “p” in apnea is pronounced as the “p”

in

a. pneumonia

b. photo

c. homeopathy

d. esophagus

e. phlebotomy

7. A surgery on the nose to repair a postfractured

deformity is known as

a. septoscope

b. neurectomy

c. rhinoplasty

d. cardioplasty
e. rhinitis

8. The word otorhinolaryngology is made up of

a. three roots

b. two prefixes and one root

c. three roots and one suffix

d. three prefixes and one root

e. three roots and one prefix

9. A root with a vowel added to ease pronunciation

makes a/an

a. adverb

b. combining form

c. suffix

d. foreign term

e. combining vowel
 10. Which of the following is a suffix that does not
mean condition of, state of, or process

a. ism

b. ia

c. ic

d. y

e. sis

Case reports
A case study report is a document in which doctors describe their
experiences in the process of treating a patient. It is a detailed report of the
symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual
patient. In other words, it is a formal summary of a patient and his illness
including the presentation signs, symptoms, treatment, and the outcomes.
Case reports may also contain a demographic profile of the patient. Such
reports can be shared with other physicians so that they can learn from
such experiences. They can also provide teaching materials for students in
the various medical fields.
These reports are usually written according to a certain format in order
to make them easily accessible to many readers. Prior to writing a case
report, you need to prepare the relevant materials necessary for writing the
report such as X-ray reports, lab reports, and clinical observations. The
case report should only include facts. It should be an honest record of
clinical events. Personal impressions and speculations should be avoided.
You should also remember that a case report is a record of the patient’s
progress.
 Presenting or writing a case report consists of a number of steps as
follows.

1. Provide a context for the case in an introductory sentence:

This 30-year-old female employee presented for the

treatment of recurrent headaches.
2. Describe the complaint, including location, intensity, and associated
symptoms:

Her headaches are primarily in the sub-occipital

region, bilaterally but worse on the right.
Sometimes there is radiation toward the right
temple. She describes the pain as having an
intensity of up to 5 out of 10, accompanied by a
feeling of tension in the back of the head. When the
pain is particularly bad, she feels that her vision is
blurred.
3. State the details resulting from the further development of history that
pertain to time, circumstances of onset, and the evolution of the
complaint:

This problem began to develop three years ago when

she commenced work as a data entry clerk. Her
headaches have increased in frequency in the past
year, now occurring three to four days per week.
Describe relieving and aggravating factors, including
responses to other treatment, e.g.,

The pain seems to be worse toward the end of the

work day and is aggravated by stress. Aspirin
provides some relief. She has not sought any other
treatment.
4. Include other health history, if relevant:

Otherwise the patient reports that she is in good

health.
5. Include family history, if relevant, e.g.,

There is no family history of headaches.

6. Summarize the results of examination, which might include general
observation and postural analysis, orthopedic exam, neurological exam,
and chiropractic examination (static and motion palpation):

Examination revealed an otherwise fit-looking young

woman with slight anterior carriage of the head.
Cervical active ranges of motion were full and
painless except for some slight restriction of left
lateral bending and rotation of the head to the left.
These motions were accompanied by discomfort in
the right side of the neck. Cervical compression of
 the neck in the neutral position did not create
discomfort. However, compression of the neck in
right rotation and extension produced some right
sub-occipital pain. Cranial nerve examination was
normal. Upper limb motor, sensory, and reflex
functions were normal. With the patient in the
supine position, static palpation revealed tender
trigger points bilaterally in the cervical musculature
and right trapezius. Motion palpation revealed
restrictions of right and left rotation in the upper
cervical spine, and restriction of left lateral bending
in the mid to lower cervical spine. Blood pressure
was 110/70. Holding the neck in extension and
rotation for 30 seconds did not produce dizziness.
There were no carotid bruits.
7. State the final diagnosis:

The patient was diagnosed with cervicogenic headache

due to chronic postural strain.
8. Describe as specifically as possible the treatment provided, including
the nature of the treatment, and the frequency and duration of care:

The patient undertook a course of treatment consisting

of cervical and upper thoracic spinal manipulation
three times per week for two weeks. Manipulation
 was accompanied by trigger point therapy to the
paraspinal muscles and stretching of the upper
trapezius. Additionally, advice was provided
concerning maintenance of proper posture at work.
The patient was also instructed in the use of a
cervical pillow.
9. Mention, if possible, the objective measures of the patient’s progress:

The patient maintained a headache diary indicating

that she had two headaches during the first week of
care, and one headache the following week.
Furthermore, the intensity of her headaches
declined throughout the course of treatment.
10. Describe the resolution of care:

Based on the patient’s reported progress during the

first two weeks of care, she received additional two
treatments in each of the subsequent two weeks.
During the last week of care, she experienced no
headaches and reported feeling generally more
energetic than before commencing care. Following
a total of four weeks of care (10 treatments), she
was discharged.
O. Read the following text and answer the questions that follow.
You are

■ a medical assistant employed by Russell Gordon,

MD, a primary care physician at Fulwood Medical
Center.

Your patient is

■ Mrs Connie Bishop, a 55-year-old woman who

presents with a swelling in her lower abdomen and
shortness of breath. She has no gynecologic or
gastroenterologic symptoms. Her previous medical
history shows recurrent dermatitis of her hands
because a teenager and an arthroscopy for a knee
injury at age 40. Physical examination reveals a
circular mass 6 inches in diameter in the left lower
quadrant of her abdomen. There is no abnormality
in her respiratory or cardiovascular systems.
Your role is to maintain her medical record and document her care, assist
Dr Gordon during his examinations, explain the examination and
treatment procedures to Mrs Bishop and facilitate her referral for
specialist care.

1. What type of skin problem has Mrs Bishop had

since she was a teenager?
___________________________________________
___________________

2. She “has no gynecologic or gastroenterologic

symptoms.”

Define
gynecologic._______________________________
______________

Define
gastroenterologic.___________________________
______________

3. What type of procedure did her knee injury

require?

Describe this
procedure._____________________________

4. She shows “no abnormality in her respiratory or

cardiovascular systems.” Explain this in layman’s
terms. _____________________________

To put something in layman’s terms means to describe

a complex or technical issue using words and terms
that the average individual (someone without
 professional training in the subject area) can
understand, so that they may comprehend the issue
to some degree.

Instead of saying:

“You need a new piston, valve guides, stator, and

counter-shaft balancer.”

In layman’s terms, you’d say:

“There are some internal parts that need to be

replaced.”

5. What symptoms did Mrs Bishop have that

brought her to Dr Gordon?

___________________________________________
______

Self-assessment
Check (✓) what you learned. If you need more information or practice,
refer to the relevant section in the chapter.

( ) I can explain the need for medical terms.

( ) I can define the constituents of medical terms: root, suffix, and prefix.

( ) I can define a combining form.

( ) I can analyze medical terms into their constituents.

( ) I can construct medical terms by applying general rules.

( ) I can use certain medical collocations and academic words properly.

( ) I can pronounce medical terms properly.

( ) I can skim and scan medical texts for main ideas and details.

( ) I can paraphrase a sentence or a paragraph.

( ) I can prepare for an oral presentation.

( ) I can spell and pronounce the new medical terms in the chapter.
CHAPTER 2

Suffixes

CONTENTS
Medical Terms 65
Suffixes 68
Focus on Reading 85
Vocabulary Development 88
Medical Collocations 88
Academic Words 90
Focus on Grammar 92
Oral Communication Skills 97
Focus on Writing 98
Pronunciation of Medical Terms 99
Review Exercises 103
Self-Assessment 114

Learning outcomes

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to be able to:

1. define a suffix
2. identify the functions of suffixes in medical terms
3. pronounce medical terms containing suffixes
4. use suffixes in medical terms
5. analyze medical terms into their components
6. write definitions of medical terms, diseases, and medical procedures
7. use the passive voice properly

Medical terms
It was mentioned earlier in Chapter 1 that medical terms may consist of
prefixes, roots, and suffixes. A suffix is a letter or a series of letters added to
the end of a word to modify its meaning or to produce a new word (part of
speech). A suffix, for example, can produce a noun or an adjective. It can also
be used to form plurals from singular nouns. Furthermore, a suffix may be
used to produce a noun that indicates a medical specialty, a medical specialist,
a medical condition or state, a disease, a disorder, a diagnosis, or a procedure.
Suffixes are essential components of medical terms. They are used in
decoding the meanings of these terms that can usually be obtained by
determining the meaning of the suffix first, to which the meaning of the
prefix is added, and finally the meaning of the root.

Combining forms
The following is a list of some combining forms to which a suffix can be
added.
Combining Form Meaning Example
abdomin/o abdomen abdominal
aden/o gland adenoma
adenoid/o adenoid adenoidectomy
adip/o fat adipocyte
adren/o adrenal gland adrenaline
albumin/o protein albuminuria
alg/o pain neuralgia
amni/o amniotic fluid amniocentesis
append/o appendix appendectomy
arteri/o artery arteriorrhaphy
atri/o atrium, chamber atriomegaly
axill/o armpit axillary
bacteri/o bacteria bacteriuria
bi/o life biopsy
blephar/o eyelid blepharoptosis
brachi/o arm brachial
bronch/o bronchi bronchoscopy
bucc/o cheek buccocclusion
burs/o pouch bursitis
celi/o abdomen celiac
chem/o chemical chemotherapy
chol/o gall, bile cholelithotomy
cholecyst/o gallbladder cholecystectomy
chondr/o ribs hypochondriac
coccyg/o tailbone coccygeal
colon/o colon colonoscopy
cry/o cold cryotherapy
cutane/o skin subcutaneous
dactyl/o finger, toe dactylospasm
dent/i tooth dentist
emphys/o inflate emphysema
endocrin/o endocrine endocrinology
esthesi/o sensation anesthesia
fibr/o fiber fibroma
foramin/o foramen, opening foramina
gangli/o knot ganglionectomy
ger/o old age geriatrics
gnath/o jaw prognathic
herni/o hernia herniotomy
hist/o tissue histology
hypn/o sleep hypnosis
hyster/o womb, uterus hysterectomy
ile/o ileum jejunoileostomy
isch/o holding back ischemia
inguin/o groin inguinal
jejun/o jejunum duodenojejunostomy
kary/o nucleus karyoclasis
lamin/o piece of backbone laminectomy
lip/o fat lipoma
 Combining Form Meaning Example
lumb/o lumbar region lumbar
lymphaden/o lymph node lymphadenocele
lymphangi/o lymphatic vessels lymphangiofibroma
mening/o meninges meningitis
men/o menses menorrhea
morph/o form morphus
myel/o spinal cord, bone marrow myelogram
narc/o unconsciousness, stupor narcolepsy
necr/o death necrosis
noct/i night noctalbuminuria
ocul/o eye ocular
oophor/o ovary oophorectomy
orchi/o testis orchialgia
parathyroid/o parathyroid parathyroid gland
ped/o child, foot pediatrics
pelv/o hip area pelvic
peritone/o peritoneum peritoneal dialysis
phon/o sound phonoscope
phot/o light photangiophobia
pleur/o pleura pleuritis
pulmon/o lung pulmonologist
reticul/o net/network reticulocyte
salping/o fallopian tube salpingectomy
septic/o infection septicemia
somat/o body somataesthesis
son/o sound ultrasonography
spir/o breathing spirometer
splen/o spleen splenectomy
spondyl/o vertebra spondylitis
tonsill/o tonsils tonsillectomy
tympan/o tympanic membrane tympanoplasty

Suffixes
The following tables indicate the different types of suffixes and their
meanings with examples.
Table 2.1

Suffixes for Medical Specialties

Practice 2.1 Identify the suffix in each of the following terms and write its
meaning.

Suffix Meaning
1. dermatologist ________________ ________________
2. orthopedics ________________ ________________
3. physician ________________ ________________
4. gynecology ________________ ________________
5. psychiatry ________________ ________________
6. geriatrics ________________ ________________
Table 2.2

Suffixes for Diagnosis

 FIGURE 2.1 Mammogram: record of the breast.

Practice 2.2 Match each term in column A with its definition in column B.

A B
1. microscope ___________ a. instrument for recording many physiologic responses
simultaneously
2. calorimeter ___________ b. visual examination of the abdominal cavity
3. audiometry ___________ c. instrument for examining very small objects
4. polygraph ___________ d. measurement of hearing
5. celioscopy ___________ e. instrument for measuring the caloric energy of food
6. electroencephalogram f. record of the brain’s electrical activity
___________
7. echography ___________ g. recording data obtained by ultrasound
Table 2.3

Suffixes for the Senses

Table 2.4

Suffixes for Blood

Practice 2.3 Define the following terms.

1. erythemia ________________________________

2. cytopenia _________________________________

3. hemopoiesis ______________________________

4. calcipenia ________________________________

5. leukopenia _______________________________
6. angiopoiesis ______________________________

7. hepatohemia _____________________________

Table 2.5

Suffixes for Surgical Procedures

 FIGURE 2.2 Lithotripsy: crushing of a stone.

Practice 2.4 The root hepat/o means liver. Use this root to form a word that
means each of the following by adding an appropriate suffix.

1. incision into the liver _____________________________________

2. surgical repair of the liver __________________________________

3. surgical fixation of the liver ________________________________

4. excision of liver tissue _____________________________________

5. hernia of the liver ________________________________________

6. downward displacement of the liver ________________________

Table 2.6

Suffixes for Drugs

FIGURE 2.3 Thrombolytic (agent that dissolves a blood clot): five

enlarged cut-away views of a section of a generic artery with the anterior
wall of these vessel segments cut away.
Practice 2.5 Identify the suffix in each of the following terms and write its
meaning.

Suffix Meaning
1. anxiolytic ________________ ________________
2. chronotropic ________________ ________________
3. parasympathomimetic ________________ ________________
4. somatotropic ________________ ________________
5. neuromimetic ________________ ________________

FIGURE 2.4 Dyslexia: effects of dyslexia.

Table 2.7

Suffixes for the Nervous System

Practice 2.6 Provide the correct medical term for each of the following
definitions.

1. fear of being in public place ____________________

2. paralysis of the heart ________________________

3. uttering words that are different from those intended _________________

4. compulsive use of obscene words ________________________

5. the irresistible urge to start fire ___________________________

Table 2.8

Suffixes for the Eye and Vision

Table 2.9

Suffixes for Respiration

 FIGURE 2.5 Diplopia: double vision.

Practice 2.7 Define the following words.

1. eupnea ________________________________

2. normocapnia __________________________
 FIGURE 2.6 Anoxia: progressive cerebral atrophy.

Table 2.10

Suffixes for Body Chemistry

FIGURE 2.7 Fructose: percentage of fructose in fruits and vegetables.
Table 2.11

Suffixes for Diseases

 FIGURE 2.8 Brain stroke: types of stroke.

Practice 2.8 Match each of the following terms in column A with its
definition in column B and write the appropriate letter to the right of the term
in column A.

A B
1. karyoclasis ___________ a. having watery stool through the rectum
2. cystitis ___________ b. tumor of fat cells
3. gastrocele ___________ c. hernia of the stomach
4. hepatomegaly ___________ d. condition of having pain in a nerve
5. neuralgia ___________ e. breaking of a nucleus
6. adenodynia ___________ f. disease of the heart muscle
7. diarrhea ___________ g. enlargement of the liver
8. cardiomyopathy ___________ h. inflammation of the urinary bladder
9. lipoma ___________ i. pain in a gland
10. amniorrhexis ___________ j. splitting of the retina
11. retinoschisis ___________ k. rupture of the amniotic sac
FIGURE 2.9 Melanoma: the four segments of melanoma.
Table 2.12

Words for Diseases Used as Suffixes

 FIGURE 2.10 Angioplasty: nonsurgical treatment of blocked arteries in the
legs.

Practice 2.9 The root arteri/o means “artery.” Define the following words.

1. arteriosclerosis ________________________________

2. arteriostenosis _________________________________

3. arteriospasm___________________________________

4. arteriomalacia__________________________________

The following is a list of suffixes that may not be classified into specific
categories.
Table 2.13

Mixed Suffixes
Practice 2.10 Define the following terms.
1. pericardium ____________________________

2. cryotherapy _____________________________

3. dysphagia ______________________________

4. osteocytes _______________________________

5. exocrine glands _________________________

 FIGURE 2.11 Anatomy of the brain.

FIGURE 2.12 Prolapse: uterine prolapse.

Table 2.14

Terms Using the Suffix -Ectomy (Removal, Excision)

Medical Term Meaning

appendectomy excision of the appendix
adenectomy excision of a gland
hepatectomy excision of the liver
cholecystectomy excision of the gallbladder
mastectomy excision of a breast
hysterectomy excision of the uterus
oophorectomy excision of the ovary
laryngectomy excision of the larynx
nephrectomy excision of a kidney
colectomy excision of the large intestine
tonsillectomy excision of tonsils

Table 2.15

Terms Using the Suffix -Itis (Inflammation)

Medical Term Meaning

arthritis inflammation of a joint
neuritis inflammation of a nerve
esophagitis inflammation of the esophagus
encephalitis inflammation of the brain
osteitis inflammation of bones
dermatitis inflammation of skin
otitis inflammation of ears
rhinitis inflammation of the nose
bronchitis inflammation of the bronchial tubes
myositis inflammation of a muscle
phlebitis inflammation of veins
meningitis inflammation of the meninges
vasculitis inflammation of blood vessels
Table 2.16

Terms Using the Suffix -Tomy (Incision, Cutting Into)

Medical Term Meaning

craniotomy incision into the skull
laparotomy incision into the abdomen
thoracotomy incision into the chest
phlebotomy incision into the vein

Table 2.17

Terms Using the Suffix -Therapy (Treatment)

Medical Term Meaning

cryotherapy treatment using cold temperature
chemotherapy treatment using drugs
radiotherapy treatment using radiation

Table 2.18

Terms Using the Suffix -Graphy (Act of Recording Data)

Medical Term Meaning

electrocardiography a procedure that records heart wave activity
electroencephalography a procedure that records brain wave activity
electromyography a procedure that records muscle activity
angiography a procedure that records blood vessels wave activity
mammography a procedure that records breast wave activity
electrocraniography a procedure that records skull wave activity
Table 2.19

Terms Using Carcinoma (Cancerous Tumor of Epithelial Tissue)

Medical Term Meaning

basal-cell a slow-growing, locally invasive, but rarely metastasizing neoplasm of the skin
carcinoma derived from basal cells of the epidermis or hair follicles
cervical cancer of the cervix (neck of the uterus)
carcinoma
chondrocarcinoma a malignant cartilaginous tumor of the epithelium
mammary cancer of the breast
carcinoma
pancreatic the presence of a malignant tumor in the pancreas
carcinoma
osteocarcinoma the presence of a malignant tumor in bones
colorectal a malignant epithelial tumor arising from the colonic or rectal mucosa
carcinoma

Table 2.20

Terms Using Sarcoma (Cancerous Tumor of Fleshy Tissue)

Medical Term Meaning

adenomyosarcoma malignant renal tumor of young children characterized by hypertension and
blood in the urine and the presence of a palpable mass
cholangiosarcoma sarcoma of bile duct origin
esophageal cancerous tumor of the esophagus
osteosarcoma
fibrosarcoma a form of malignant tumor derived from fibrous connective tissue
osteogenic sarcoma malignant bone tumor; most common in children and young adults where it
tends to affect the femur
chondrosarcoma a malignant cartilageous tumor that most frequently invades the long bones,
pelvis, and the scapula
liposarcoma a cancerous growth of primitive fat cells
myosarcoma sarcoma of muscle tissue
Ewing sarcoma a malignant stem-cell bone tumor, usually occurring in the leg or pelvis of
children and young adults
alveolar a highly malignant neoplasm derived from striated muscle
rhabdomyosarcoma
lymphosarcoma a malignant disease of the lymphoid tissues characterized by proliferation of
atypical lymphocytes and their localization in various parts of the body
Focus on reading
Read the following text and answer the questions following it.
Migraine

1. Millions of people all over the world suffer from periodic headaches that
can be mild or severe. These headaches are now referred to as migraine. This
painful headache may be accompanied or preceded by a number of symptoms,
including tingling in the arms and legs, vomiting, nausea, and sensitivity to
light and sound. The pain that migraine causes may last for hours, days, or
even weeks and it can be moderate or severe in one side of the head. No
definite etiology has been reported for such painful headaches.

2. Methods of treating migraine differ from one sufferer to another because

different people respond differently to various treatment methods. Some
doctors believe that changing lifestyle, getting an adequate amount of sleep,
avoiding stress, practicing physical exercises regularly, drinking plenty of
water, and avoiding foods that may stimulate headaches may alleviate pain.

3. Research in migraine etiology and treatment has been going on for a long
time. Neurologists recently found that a hypersensitive nerve system causes
the pain in the head, and they are currently testing new drugs that may
suppress the active cells that may lead to headaches. Neurologists believe that
these medicines are expected to preclude the painful headaches prior to their
occurrence. If they prove to be effective the way they did in the experiments
conducted so far, a great number of migraine cases may disappear.

4. David Dodick, the president of the International Headache Society, holds

that these medications will revolutionize the methods of migraine treatment.
In general, migraine may last from 4 to 72 h. Most migraine patients suffer
from periodic attacks during 14 or fewer days a month. However, patients
with chronic migraine suffer from headaches for at least 15 days a month.
Prior to migraine attacks, it is common for migraine patients to suffer from
auras that may be manifest in mood changes, exhaustion, nausea, vomiting,
perception of strange light, unpleasant smells, confusing thoughts, or tearful
eyes.

5. The symptoms of migraine have been identified a long time ago and
different traditional methods of treatment have been tried, including
bloodletting (removal of some blood from the vein of a patient as a treatment
procedure), trepanning (making a hole in the skull), and cauterization of the
scalp. Advances in the treatment of migraine symptoms continued in different
parts of the world. At the beginning of the twentieth century, researchers in
the field started to examine the role of blood vessels in causing migraine
pains, especially after observing the strong pulsing of the temporal arteries in
migraine sufferers and the relief they felt after compressing the carotid
arteries. Consequently, migraine headaches were primarily attributed to the
dilation of the blood vessels of the brain.

6. This belief was later supported by the findings of a paper on the use of
ergotamine tartrate. It was found that ergotamine tartrate could constrict
blood vessels. Despite the fact that it had some side effects, including
vomiting and drug tolerance, it was effective in stopping migraine attacks in
some patients.

7. The dilation of the blood vessels (vasodilation) was not the only cause of
migraine headaches. It was later discovered that cardiac patients reported that
the beta blockers they were advised to take in order to slow down tachycardia
reduced the frequency of migraine attacks. Moreover, migraine patients who
took medications for epilepsy and depression, and those who used to take
Botox injections for cosmetic purposes also reported relief. Therefore, in the
treatment of migraines, neurologists started to borrow drugs used in the
treatment of other diseases. Unfortunately, the reason why those drugs were
partially effective in reducing migraine attacks remained a mystery. Some
neurologists believe that those drugs affect various levels of the patient’s
brain and brain stem in order to alleviate the excitability of the cortex and the
pathways that transmit pain.

8. The previous migraine drugs were partially effective and most of them had
undesirable side effects. The first specific drugs for the treatment of migraine
were the triptans, which were introduced in the 1990s. Richard Lipton,
director of the Montefiore Headache Center in New York City, states that
these drugs were developed in order to reduce the dilation of the blood vessels
that was thought to cause migraine. It was found that the triptans disrupt the
transmission of pain through the pain pathways and constricting blood vessels
was not necessary to prevent migraine attacks. However, those drugs worked.
Lipton added that the triptans were used to prevent migraine attacks and they
have become a reliable medication.
9. Some headache specialists like Goadsby, director of the Headache Center at
the University of California, San Francisco, are aware of the fact that triptans
cannot prevent migraine attacks from happening in the first place. Research
that aims at developing effective drugs to prevent migraine attacks is still
underway (Adapted from Scientific American, November 17, 2015).

A. Circle the letter of the correct answer.

1. Which of the following best expresses the main

idea of the passage?

a. Migraine attacks affect millions of people

worldwide

b. The drugs used to treat migraine in the twentieth

century

c. The attempts of specialists to develop drugs to treat

migraine headaches

d. The causes of migraine headaches

2. In paragraph 3 line 5, the underlined word they

refers to ____________________

a. medicines

b. active cells

c. painful headaches
d. neurologists

3. The word “chronic” means

____________________.

a. acute

b. lasting

c. sporadic

d. occasional

4. Traditional treatment of migraine involved

____________________.

a. removing blood from the vein

b. trepanning

c. cauterization

d. all of the above

5. Chronic migraine patients suffer

____________________.

a. from 4 to 72 h
b. for a maximum of 10 days a month

c. for at least 15 days

d. less than patients with sporadic headaches

6. The cause of migraine headache pain in the early

twentieth century was attributed to
____________________.

a. observation of strong pulsing

b. blood vessel dilation

c. compression of carotid arteries

d. blood vessel constriction

7. The drugs that neurologists “borrowed” for the

treatment of migraine headaches were initially
prescribed for __________________.

a. rapid heart rate

b. epilepsy and depression

c. cosmetic purposes

d. all of the above

 8. Scientists found out that the triptans
____________________.

a. disrupt the transmission of pain signals in the brain

b. constrict blood vessels

c. entirely prevent migraine attacks

d. aggravate the dilation of blood vessels

B. Find words in the text that mean:

1. A noun meaning “expansion, widening.” (Para. 5)

_________________________
_________________________________

2. A verb meaning “cause to happen.” (Para. 2)

_________________________
_________________________________

3. A verb meaning “occur before.” (Para. 1)

_________________________
_________________________________
 4. A noun meaning “a warning sensation experienced
before an attack of epilepsy or migraine.” (Para. 4)

_________________________
_________________________________

5. A verb meaning “caused by.” (Para. 5)

_________________________
_________________________________

6. A noun meaning “low mood and loss of interest in

activity.” (Para. 7)

_________________________
_________________________________

7. A verb meaning “the opposite of dilate.” (Para. 8)

_________________________
_________________________________

C. Word building
Complete the following table as required.
Vocabulary development
Medical Collocations

Practice 2.11 Complete each of the following sentences with an appropriate

preposition to form a collocation.

1. The patient complained __________ the noise in the ward.

2. She suffers ________ depression.

3. She complained __________ stiffness in the joints.

4. He must have picked ________ the disease when he was traveling in Africa.

5. When we told her that her father was ill, she knocked __________.

6. She broke __________ and cried as she described the symptoms to the
doctor.
7. The nurse propped ________ the patient with pillows.

8. The nurses are looking ________ her very well.

9. The workers were exposed __________ dangerous chemicals.

10. They experimented ___________ various ways of preventing the disease.

Practice 2.12 Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate
words from the box.

1. He must know something of dietetics. So, he must have a balanced

_______.

2. Mariam was taken ___________ the other day. She’s in hospital. They are
not sure what it is yet.

3. I got soaking wet and caught _________.

4. The health visitor advised the new parents to burp ________ after feeding.

5. Ali contracted _________while he was working in Africa.

6. As soon as the patient reported severe side effects, the doctor discontinued
________.

7. My grandfather developed _________ and could no longer remember

things or recognize people.

8. He has suffered from_________ all his life due to living next to volcanic
areas.
9. She had a mammogram and was diagnosed with _____________ and died
a year later.

10. The driver sustained ____________ in the crash.

Practice 2.13 Match each word in column A with its complement in column
B.

A B
1. detect _______ a. consciousness
2. ease _______ b. the rash
3. check _______ c. the wound
4. adjust _______ d. pathogens
5. inject _______ e. insulin
6. amputate ____ f. the dosage
7. regain _______ g. labor pains
8. probe _______ h. a finger
9. resist _______ i. my pulse
10. soothe ______ j. infection

Practice 2.14 What can the following words collocate with?

1. feel __________

2. insanitary _________

3. sprain _________

4. undergo _________

5. suppress ______

6. incipient ___________

Academic Words
Study the following academic words.
Academic List 1
 Words Definitions
1. primary most important
2. resident one who lives in a particular place
3. compute to calculate a result, answer, sum, etc.
4. conduct to carry out a particular activity or process, especially in order to get information or
prove facts
5. administer to manage, organize, and control something and make sure it is dealt with correctly
6. perceive to understand or think of something or someone in a particular way
7. restrict to limit or put controls on the amount, size, or range of something
8. seek to try to get or achieve something
9. suitable for a particular time, situation, or purpose
appropriat
e
10. maintain to make something continue in the same way or at the same standard as before

Academic List 2

Words Definitions
1. culture bacteria or cells grown for medical or scientific use; or the process of growing them
2. conclude to decide that something is true after considering all the information you have
3. resource something such as a book, film, or picture used by teachers or students to provide
information
4. feature a part of something that you notice because it seems important, interesting, or
typical
5. happening as a result of a particular event or situation
consequenc
e
6. positive a quality or feature that is good or useful
7. affect to do something that produces an effect or change in something or in someone’s
situation
8. focus to give special attention to one particular person or thing, or to make people do this
9. normalize usual, typical, or expected
10. consume to buy and use goods, services, energy, or natural materials

Practice 2.15 Match the words in column A with their definitions in column
B by writing the letter of the correct answer next to the word in column A.
 A B
1. primary ________ a. happening as a result of a particular event or situation
2. consequence b. to calculate a result, answer, sum, etc.
________
3. feature ________ c. to make something continue in the same way or at the same standard as
before
4. focuses ________ d. suitable for a particular time, situation, or purpose
5. culture________ e. a part of something that you notice because it seems important,
interesting, or typical
6. appropriate f. most important
________
7. restrict ________ g. to understand or think of something or someone in a particular way
8. perceive _______ h. to give special attention to one particular person or thing, or to make
people do this
9. compute ________ i. to limit or put controls on the amount, size, or range of something
10. maintain _______ j. bacteria or cells grown for medical or scientific use, or the process of
growing them

Practice 2.16 Complete each of the following sentences using the correct
word from the box.

1. Calcium is the _______________ mineral needed for building and

maintaining strong bones.

2. Firemen had to evacuate the elderly _______________ of a local nursing

home after smoke was seen coming from one of the rooms.

3. Our brain _______________ millions of bits of information every second

of every day.

4. The government is _______________ tests of a drug that may prove useful

in the fight against AIDS.

5. During the experiment, the drug was _______________ to a monkey, and

the results were studied.
6. Cigarette smoking is widely _______________ as being the most serious
health issue in society today.

7. _______________ on tobacco advertising and sponsorship are key parts of

a global treaty being organized by the World Health Organization to reduce
smoking.

8. You should _______________ a second opinion if you do not agree with

what your doctor said.

9. Studies show that 7 or 8 h of sleep a night is best in order to build, repair,

and _______________ the immune system.

10. According to a recent study, televised violence suggests young children

that aggression is _______________ in some situations.

Practice 2.17 Complete each of the following sentences using the correct
word from the box.

1. The bacteria _______________ that we examined under the microscope

was actually quite beautiful to look at.

2. The American Psychological Association has _______________ that

viewing violence on TV promotes aggressive behavior in children.

3. John Kennedy once said that the human mind is our fundamental
_______________.

4. The sharing of physical _______________ by members of the same family

creates what we commonly refer to as a family resemblance.
5. Studies show that responses are strengthened when followed by a satisfying
_______________.

6. Along with a _______________ attitude and a healthy diet, your fitness

level plays a major role in how you feel.

7. It has now been shown that cigarette smokers ______________ the health
of those around them even if those people are not smokers themselves.

8. Tonight’s program _______________ on the difference between human and

ape forms of intelligence.

9. Studies show that constant exposure to media content _______________

violence, with the result that children come to believe that society is violent.

10. The average daily _______________ of salt in this country is much higher
than recommended.

Focus on grammar
The passive voice
The passive voice is often used when the doer/performer of the action is
unknown, unimportant, or irrelevant to the matter at hand. It is also used when
the agent/doer is obvious, and when an impersonal tone is desirable. Passive
constructions are frequently used in scientific, technical, and medical texts
especially while describing experiments and natural processes or phenomena.
This section aims at enhancing the students’ awareness of the forms and
functions of the passive voice in medical English and research.

Examples
1. The procedure was repeated until there was certainty regarding the results.
The problems encountered by the patients were caused by the bacteria.

2. The oxygen-enriched blood is distributed through the cardiovascular

system to all tissues.
3. Bones are composed of minerals, organic matter, and water.

4. The protein concentration was determined and the amount of bound protein
was quantified.

5. The patient was examined carefully.

6. Twelve hours after admission, a baby was born.

Practice 2.18 Change the following sentences into the passive voice.

1. The skeletal–muscular system supports the body.

_____________________________________________
__________________
2. A tough membrane covers most of the bone surface.

_____________________________________________
__________________
3. The doctor performed an autopsy.

_____________________________________________
__________________
4. We need the cooperation of several local general practitioners (GPs) to
make the new scheme work.

_____________________________________________
__________________
5. Someone brought this patient to hospital last night.

_____________________________________________
__________________
6. We can see the beneficial effects of this drug after 1 week’s
administration.

_____________________________________________
__________________
7. Recurrent attacks had troubled Jack throughout his life.

_____________________________________________
__________________
8. The bacteriologist examined the contents of the bottle.

_____________________________________________
__________________
9. People have built robots and used them to make surgical operations.

_____________________________________________
__________________
10. Doctors prescribe certain painkillers to alleviate patients’ pains.

_____________________________________________
__________________
Practice 2.19 Write sentences using the passive voice. Start with the
following prompts.

1. Vaccines are given to children at an early stage.

2. The laser
_______________________________________________________

3. The heart
_______________________________________________________

4. The patient
_____________________________________________________

5. The nervous system

______________________________________________

6. Diagnosis _____________________________________________________

7. Viruses _______________________________________________________

8. Medical instruments ____________________________________________

9. Antibiotic drugs ________________________________________________

10. The blood pulse

________________________________________________

Practice 2.20 Read the comprehension passage again and find as many
passive sentences as you can. Explain why the passive was used in each.

Practice 2.21 Read the following case report and answer the questions that
follow.

Case report
A woman in her 70s with Type II diabetes mellitus and hypertension presented
to a hospital with shortness of breath and was found to have an acute
infarction of the anterior wall of her heart. She developed several
complications, including renal failure from a combination of cardiogenic
shock and toxicity from the dye used for emergency catheterization of her
heart.
Hemodialysis was started during hospitalization because of her renal
failure. After spending almost a month in the hospital and developing severe
deconditioning, she was sent to a subacute rehabilitation facility.
From there, she requested to be transferred to the Mayo Clinic subacute
rehabilitation unit, where she spent several weeks. While she was there, she
was noted to have symptoms consistent with depression, as well as a prior
history of a major depressive episode in 1994. Mirtazapine (Remeron) was
started. Mirtazapine is a newer antidepressant, which is structurally unrelated
to other classes of antidepressants. The most common side effect is
somnolence.
She was eventually transferred to a skilled nursing unit for another month
of rehabilitation management of her medical conditions.
At last, she was discharged home to the care for her husband. One month or
so after leaving the skilled nursing facility, she came to our outpatient clinic
and requested “a top-to-bottom physical.”
At that time, she was taking Mirtazapine at 30 mg daily (usual dose 15–45
mg daily) with 11 other medications. She was very focused on trying to figure
out a way to recover from her difficulty with walking. She was still
participating in cardiac rehabilitation three mornings a week on the same days
as receiving hemodialysis.
She scored 13 out of 30 on the Geriatric Depression Scale. A score greater
than 10 suggests an increased risk of a major depressive disorder (Yesavage et
al., J Psych Res 1982).
On that visit, the medical team focused on the question of whether she
would need to stay on hemodialysis long-term and on eliminating unnecessary
medications, especially psychotropic medications.
She returned to the clinic, reporting difficulty in breathing and sleeping,
fatigue, and poor appetite.
She was felt to have congestive heart failure based on these symptoms. Her
hemodialysis regimen was adjusted, and thoracentesis was performed at the
request of her cardiologist. Unfortunately, she ended up in a hospital briefly as
a result of a fever she had right after the thoracentesis.
 On a clinic visit to follow-up on her hospitalization, she looked weaker and
was admitted to the hospital for more aggressive treatment of her heart
failure. Her dialysis regimen was again adjusted, such that 20 pounds of fluid
were removed in the course of the first 10 days. It was also established at that
time that she would require hemodialysis for the rest of her life.
When she returned to clinic for her post-discharge appointment, her heart
failure seemed compensated and her depressed mood became more evident.
At this time, factors that were possibly contributing to her depressive
symptoms included:

1. Medical illness: In this case, her physical disability got complicated by

cardiac and renal failure. Other causes such as hypothyroidism were excluded.

2. Other reasons for poor response to treatment were considered.

Nonadherence to medication regimen was less likely. Thus, the question of
whether the pharmacology of her antidepressant therapy was altered by her
renal failure and dialysis became of interest.

Circle the best answer.

1. The -lysis in the word hemodialysis is a

a. prefix

b. root

c. suffix

d. combining form
2. Which of the following words has a suffix that does not mean condition of,
state of, or process?

a. rehabilitation
 b. antidepressant

c. carcinogenic

d. toxicity
3. The word cardiac refers to

a. liver

b. kidney

c. heart

d. intestine
4. The adjective pharmacologic is derived from

a. pharmacy

b. pharm

c. pharmacology

d. pharmacol
5. The suffix in the word “thoracentesis” means

a. rupture
 b. surgical repair

c. suture

d. puncture to drain fluid from

6. “Hypothyroidism” has the suffix

a. ism

b. thyroidism

c. idism

d. roidism
7. According to the case study, the term for “a sudden and brief but for short
duration” is

a. fatigue

b. depressive

c. acute

d. shock
8. The word “somnolence” in Paragraph 3 means

a. sleepiness
 b. sleeplessness

c. depression

d. complication
9. The word “adherence” in the last paragraph means

a. treatment

b. compliance

c. dialysis

d. weakness
10. Write a word from the case study that means the same as each of the
following.

a. pertaining to the treatment of old people

___________________

b. pertaining to being produced in the heart

___________________

c. inserting a hollow tube in the body to diagnose

heart disease ___________________
 d. pertaining to having an altering effect on perception
or behavior ___________________
11. Find words in the case study that collocate with each of the following
words or phrases.

a. adhere to
_________________________________________
__________

b. physical
_________________________________________
___________

c. renal
_________________________________________
______________

d. side
_________________________________________
_______________

e. recover
_________________________________________
____________

f. admitted to
_________________________________________
 ________

g. adjust a
_________________________________________
____________
12. Which of the following term is correctly spelt?

a. hemodialysise

b. homeodailysis

c. humeodialysis

d. hemodialysis
13. Find a word in the case report that means specialist in a medical field.
_______________

14. In your own words, not using medical terminology, briefly summarize the
patient’s history.

_____________________________________________
_________________

_____________________________________________
_________________

_____________________________________________
_________________
_____________________________________________
_________________

_____________________________________________
_________________

Oral communication skills

Practice 2.22 Summarize the case study by answering the following questions
orally.

1. What is the patient’s gender?

2. How old was the patient?

3. What was the patient problem when she presented to hospital?

4. When did the problem start?

5. What were the major symptoms of the patient’s problem?

6. What medical procedures were performed to help the patient?

7. Was she prescribed any medicines?

8. Was she required to make any tests?

9. Was the patient discharged or admitted to hospital? Explain why?

10. Why did she need hemodialysis?

11. What happened to her in Mayo Clinic?

12. Name three types of treatment procedures the patient received.

13. What factors contributed to her depressive symptoms?

14. Define the terms: hemodialysis and regimen.

Focus on writing
Definition
Health care professionals often need to define diseases, procedures, diagnostic
techniques, or drug administration methods. Definitions can be different
kinds. They can be formal or short and informal. For instance, you can give a
brief identification of a word’s meaning, as dictionaries do. You might offer a
synonym. You could say that significant means important and shut means
close. An informal definition can also use a familiar word or phrase to explain
an unfamiliar word or phrase. For example, you could define a myocardial
infarction as being a heart attack and arthritis as a disease.
A formal definition, on the other hand, follows a three-step method,
including the term, its class (the group or category of similar items), and the
distinguishing characteristics (the essential qualities that set the term apart
from all other terms of the same class).
A chair (term) is a piece of furniture (class) that has a frame, usually made
of wood or metal, forming a seat, legs, and backrest, and is used for one
person to sit on (distinguishing characteristics).
Arthritis (term) is a disease (class) causing painful inflammation and
stiffness of the joints (characteristics).

Practice 2.23 Complete the following chart of formal definitions.

Term Class Distinguishing Features

Diabetes mellitus is a in which body cells fail to use glucose effectively, leading to a
disease range of conditions.
A poison is a that causes harm or death if it is eaten, drunk, inhaled, or
substance absorbed.
A physician
An emergency
room (ER)
An (dental) implant
MRI
Practice 2.24 How many more general classes can you add to the following
list?
tool, instrument, process, procedure, machine, term, piece of equipment,
_______________________________________________________________
____

Practice 2.25 Give examples of the following general classes.

feeling: sadness, happiness, anger, etc.

laboratory test:
____________________________________________________

disease:
__________________________________________________________

symptoms:
________________________________________________________

vital signs:
_________________________________________________________

diagnostic instruments:
_____________________________________________

Guidelines for writing a definition

■ Avoid circular definitions, or using the term to define itself.

Do not say: A viral infection is due to a virus

attacking an organism.
■ Avoid using the phrases “is where” and “is when.”

Do not say: Keyhole surgery is when an endoscope

and instruments are inserted through small
 incisions.
■ Do not make your definition so narrow that it excludes facets of your
topic. Stating that plagiarism is copying other people’s work and
claiming it as your own is true, but it excludes other instances of
plagiarism.

■ When defining a term, start with the material most relevant to

identifying the term, rather than saving the best for the last.

■ Be as accurate and complete as possible. Avoid irrelevant information.

Present ideas clearly and coherently.

■ Edit your writing so that errors do not distract the reader, or

undermine your ideas.

Practice 2.26 Select a medical term pertaining to diseases, laboratory tests,

diagnostic procedures, etc. and write an extended definition for this item.

Pronunciation of medical terms

The following are the medical terms introduced in this chapter. You are
supposed to read them aloud as many times as you need to master their
pronunciation. In this activity, you are also required to give the meaning of
each term in order to retain them active in your memory.
Read the following medical terms and give their meanings.

abdominal

achromatopsia

adenectomy

adenodynia

adenoidectomy
adenoma

adenomyosarcoma

adipocyte

adrenaline

ageusia

albuminuria

alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma

amniocentesis

amniorrhexis

analgesia

anesthesia

angiography

angiopoiesis

anoxia

antipartum

anxiolytic

aphasia

aphonia

appendectomy

arteriomalacia

arteriorrhaphy
arteriosclerosis

arteriospasm

arteriostenosis

arthritis

arthrodesis

astroblast

atriomegaly

audiometry

axillary

bacteriostat

bacteriuria

basal-cell carcinoma

biopsy

blepharoptosis

brachial

bradykinesia

bradylalia

bronchitis

bronchoscope

bronchoscopy

bronchospasm
buccocclusion

bursitis

calcipenia

calorimeter

carcinogen

carcinoma

cardiomegaly

cardiomyopathy

cardionecrosis

celiac

celioscopy

cephalad

cephaledema

cervical carcinoma

chemotherapy

cholangiosarcoma

cholecystectomy

cholecystogram

chondrocarcinoma

chondrosarcoma

chronotropic
colectomy

colocolostomy

colonoscopy

colorectal carcinoma

craniomalacia

craniotomy

cryotherapy

cyanophil

cystitis

cystotomy

cytopenia

dactylospasm

dentist

dermatitis

dermatologist

diarrhea

diplopia

duodenojejunostomy

dysesthesia

dyslexia

dyspepsia
dysphagia

dysplasia

dyspnea

echography

electromyography

electrocardiograph

electrocardiography

electrocraniography

electroencephalogram

electroencephalography

electrophoresis

emphysema

encephalitis

endocrine

endocrinology

epiphysis

ergometry

erythrocytopenia

erythemia

erythropoiesis

esophageal osteosarcoma
esophagitis

esophagoscopy

eucapnia

euphoria

eupnea

Ewing sarcoma

exocrine glands

fibroma

fibrosarcoma

foramina

fructose

ganglionectomy

gastrectasia

gastrocele

gastropexy

geriatrics

gynecology

hematemesis

hematocrit

hemoglobin

hemopoiesis
hemorrhage,

hepatectomy

Hepatohemia

hepatomegaly

hepatorrhexis

herniotomy

histology

hydrocele

hypertension

hypnosis

hypoproteinemia

hysterectomy

inguinal

insomnia

ischemia

jejunoileostomy

karyoclasis

laminectomy

laparotomy

laryngectomy

leukapheresis
leukopenia

leukoplakia

lipoma

liposarcoma

lithotripsy

lumbar

lymphadenocele

lymphangiofibroma

lymphosarcoma

mammary

mammogram

mammography

mastectomy

megalomania

melanoma

meningitis

menorrhagia

menostasis

microscope

microtome

morphus
myalgia

myelogram

myolysis

hemolysis

myoparesis

myosarcoma

myositis

narcolepsy

necrosis

neoplastic

nephrectomy

nephropathy

nephrotoxin

neuralgia

neurasthenia

neuromimetic

neuritis

neurology

noctalbuminuria

normocapnia

obstetrics
ocular

oophorectomy

optician

orchialgia

orthopedics

osteitis

osteocarcinoma

osteoclasis

osteocyte

osteogenic sarcoma

osteoporosis

otitis

pancreatic carcinoma

parasympathomimetic

parathyroid gland

parosmia

pediatrics

pelvic

pericardium

periosteum

peristalsis
peritoneal dialysis

phlebitis

phlebotomy

phonoscope

photangiophobia

photophobia

pleuritis

podiatry

polydipsia

polygraph

polyphagia

postmortem

primipara

prognathic

prolapse

prophylaxis

prosthesis

psychiatry

psychotropic

pulmonary

pyorrhea
pyuria

quadriplegia

radiotherapy

remission

reticulocyte

retinoschisis

retroversion

rhinitis

rhinoplasty

salpingectomy

schizophrenia

septicemia

somataesthesis

somatotropic

spirometer

splenectomy

splenoptosis

spondylitis

suicidal

sympathomimetic

thermometer
thoracentesis

thoracoschisis

thoracotomy

thrombocyte

thrombolytic

tonsillectomy

tracheostomy

tympanoplasty

urodynia

vasculitis

vasodilation

Review exercises
B. Indicate whether the statement is true (T) or false (F).
1. A new connection between two previously
unconnected portions of the colon is called
colocolostomy.

2. Death of cells is termed as necrosis. ___________

3. Subtotal hysterectomy refers to the complete

resection of the uterus. ___________

4. Osteomyelitis is the inflammation of bone and bone

marrow. ___________

5. Paralysis of four limbs is paraplegia. ___________

6. Treatment by chemicals is radiotherapy.

___________

7. Pertaining to under the cartilages of the ribs is

hypochondriac. ___________

8. Uremia is the abnormal condition of blood in the

urine. ___________

9. Inflammation of the urinary bladder is cholecystitis.

___________

10. Acute appendicitis necessitates appendectomy.

___________
 11. A specialist in the disease of females is called
gynecology. ___________

12. Incision of a vein to withdraw blood is called

phlebotomy. ___________

13. A malignant tumor of epithelial tissues in the

body is called adenosarcoma. ________

14. Pertaining to the armpit is called axillary.

___________

15. A specialist in the administration of agents that

cause loss of sensation is termed anesthesiologist.
___________

16. Visual examination of what is within an organ is

called endoscope. ___________

17. An opening in the windpipe is termed

pharyngostomy. ___________

18. Treatment using chemicals is called chemotherapy.

___________
C. Fill in the blanks with the correct medical term.
1. Surgical puncture to remove fluid from the sac
surrounding the embryo is _________.

2. Incision of a vein to withdraw blood is

_______________.

3. Inflammation of the windpipe is

called____________.

4. Related to the tailbone of the spinal column is

_____________.

5. Paralysis of the lower half of the body is

_________________.

6. A specialist who examines biopsies and dead

bodies is called a _______________.

7. Abnormal condition of blood clotting is

______________.

8. Any disease of a kidney is

_____________________.

9. Pertaining to a blood vessel is

___________________.
 10. Record of the spinal cord is
__________________________.
D. Give the meaning for the underlined term in each of the following
sentences.

1. Above 50% of children in the Sultanate are affected

by atopic dermatitis.

2. A person with a psychosis loses contact with reality

and often shows dramatic changes in behavior.
Psychoses can be caused by diseases affecting the
brain.

3. A slender endoscope is inserted through an incision

in the abdominal wall in order to examine the
abdominal organs or to perform minor surgery.

4. A surgical technique for restoring normal blood

flow through an artery narrowed or blocked by
atherosclerosis, either by inserting a balloon into
the narrowed section and inflating it or by using a
laser beam.

5. A surgical method of making an opening in the

skull; sometimes performed on a fetus during a
difficult birth; also called cephalotomy.
 6. A procedure for removing metabolic waste products
or toxic substances from the bloodstream by
dialysis.

7. The surgical procedure of guiding a hollow needle

through the abdomen of a pregnant woman into the
uterus and withdrawing a sample of amniotic fluid
for genetic diagnosis of the fetus.

8. Thoracentesis often provides immediate abatement

of symptoms. However, fluid often begins to
reaccumulate. A majority of patients will ultimately
require additional therapy beyond a simple
thoracentesis.

9. A recording of the electrical activity of the brain. It

is used to diagnose abnormalities of the brain. The
machine used to record an electroencephalogram is
called an electroencephalograph.

10. There is a clear difference between a pathologist

and a coroner.
E. Give the meaning of each of the following terms.

1. bronchitis
_________________________________________
_________
2. encephalopathy
_________________________________________
____

3. blepharoptosis
_________________________________________
_____

4. tympanoplasty
_________________________________________
_____

5. necrosis
_________________________________________
___________

6. hysterectomy
_________________________________________
_______

7. colonoscopy
_________________________________________
_______

8. neuralgia
_________________________________________
__________
9. celiac
_________________________________________
_____________

10. craniotomy
_________________________________________
________

11. subcutaneous
_________________________________________
______

12. jejunoileostomy
_________________________________________
____

13. phonoscope
_________________________________________
________

14. ultrasonography
_________________________________________
____

15. dermatologist
_________________________________________
______
F. Give the meaning of each of the following suffixes.

1. -
pathy_____________________________________
_________________

2. -
iatry_____________________________________
__________________

3. -
ics_______________________________________
__________________

4. -
gram_____________________________________
__________________

5. -
meter_____________________________________
_________________

6. -
osis______________________________________
__________________

7. -
ical______________________________________
 __________________

8. -
ectomy___________________________________
__________________

9. -rhaphy
_________________________________________
____________

10. -centesis
_________________________________________
___________

11. -logist
_________________________________________
_____________

12. -
sclerosis__________________________________
__________________

13. -ptosis
_________________________________________
_____________

14. -toxin
_________________________________________
 _____________

15. -cele
_________________________________________
______________

16. -rhagia
_________________________________________
____________

17. -odynia
_________________________________________
____________

18. -megaly
_________________________________________
___________

19. -edema
_________________________________________
____________

20. -tripsy
_________________________________________
_____________
G. Circle the correct answer.
1. The suffix in the word insomnia is

a. in

b. nia

c. a

d. ia

2. The suffix in sclerosis is

a. sis

b. ros

c. scler

d. is

3. The adjective suffix in febrile is

a. e

b. le

c. ile

d. brile
4. Cytogenesis is

a. formation of cells

b. division of the nucleus

c. formation of proteins

d. formation of fibers

5. A megakaryocyte is a cell with a large

a. membrane

b. nucleus

c. cytoplasm

d. wall

6. A histologist studies

a. genetics

b. surgery

c. chemistry

d. tissues
7. A fibroadenoma is a fibrous tumor of

a. muscle

b. gland

c. heart

d. skull

8. In adiposuria, the urine contains

a. sugar

b. carbohydrate

c. protein

d. fat

9. Macrosomia refers to a large

a. tooth

b. gland

c. body

d. nucleus
10. The suffix -ase indicates a/an

a. sugar

b. starch

c. cell

d. enzyme

11. A lipase is

a. a carbohydrate that digests fat

b. a fat that digests carbohydrates

c. an enzyme that digests fats

d. a protein that digests cartilage

12. Death of tissue is termed

a. bruising

b. bleeding

c. rupture

d. necrosis
13. A toxin is a

a. fever

b. drug

c. poison

d. test

14. A cancer of muscle or connective tissue is termed

a. epithelioma

b. carcinoma

c. leukemia

d. sarcoma

15. A hernia is

a. death of an organ

b. protrusion of an organ through an abnormal

opening

c. constriction of a vessel or organ

d. twisting of a channel

16. Sepsis is caused by

a. fever

b. inflammation

c. bleeding

d. microorganisms

17. Adenopathy is

a. inflammation of a muscle

b. any disease of the lungs

c. enlargement of a gland

d. any disease of a gland

18. Arteriosclerosis is

a. softening of the arteries

b. widening of the veins

c. hardening of the arteries

d. narrowing of the vessels

19. Pain in the stomach is

a. gastrostenosis

b. gastropyretic

c. gastrolithiasis

d. gastralgia

20. In osteoclasis, a bone is

a. bent

b. arthritic

c. broken

d. disjointed

21. The suffix -odynia means the same as

a. oma

b. itis

c. rhagia
d. algia

22. The term hepatorrhexis describes

a. dropping of the liver

b. enlargement of the liver

c. softening of the liver

d. rupture of the liver

23. The suffix in seborrhea means

a. discharge

b. blockage

c. thinning

d. infection

24. In retinoschisis, the retina of the eye is

a. dislocated

b. split

c. healed
d. thickened

25. A word that means enlargement of the spleen is

a. splenomegaly

b. splenopathy

c. splenitis

d. splenorrhagia

26. Hepatomalacia is

a. hardening of the liver

b. softening of the liver

c. rupture of the spleen

d. hemorrhage of the liver

27. Tracheostenosis is

a. widening of the trachea

b. rupture of the windpipe

c. narrowing of the throat

d. narrowing of the trachea

28. A word that means separation, dissolving,

destruction is

a. ptosis

b. ectasia

c. stasis

d. lysis

29. A word for swelling caused by accumulation of

fluid is

a. malacia

b. stenosis

c. edema

d. spasm

30. A synonym for dilatation is

a. lithiasis

b. exacerbation
c. necrosis

d. ectasia

31. In blepharoptosis, the eyelids

a. thin

b. separate

c. harden

d. droop

32. The word stasis means

a. profuse flow

b. spasm

c. swelling

d. stoppage

33. Cryotherapy is treatment with

a. drugs

b. heat
c. cold

d. radiation

34. A phonostethograph

a. records heat waves

b. measures energy

c. releases air

d. records chest sounds

35. A calorimeter

a. measures calories

b. generates heat

c. generates calories

d. is used to inspect internal organs

36. A radiograph is made with

a. light

b. heat
c. sound

d. X-rays

37. Laparoscopy is

a. suture of the abdomen

b. examination of the abdomen

c. recording of abdominal sounds

d. examination of the throat

38. Binding of pleural membranes is called

a. pleurodesis

b. pleurectomy

c. pleurometry

d. pleurocentesis

39. Lithotripsy is

a. measurement of calculi

b. surgical removal of a stone

c. crushing of a stone

d. removal of calculi

40. Arthroplasty is

a. measurement of a joint

b. fusion of a joint

c. surgery on the ear

d. plastic repair of a joint

41. In gastropexy, the stomach is

a. widened

b. surgically fixed

c. dilated

d. stapled for weight loss

42. In a hepatorrhaphy, the liver is

a. divided

b. drained
c. stained

d. repaired

43. The ending in the word sympathomimetic means

a. enhancing

b. counteracting

c. simulating

d. ending

44. A hypnotic drug is one that

a. maintains wakefulness

b. reduces allergic responses

c. induces sleep

d. stimulates nervous activity in the body

45. Cardioptosis is

a. downward displacement of the heart

b. irregularity of the heartbeat

c. rupture of the heart

d. cardiomyopathy

46. A valvotome is a/an

a. flap of a valve

b. instrument for incising a valve

c. instrument for measuring a valve

d. cusp of a valve

47. Phlebectasia is

a. constriction of a vein

b. spasm of a vein

c. dilatation of a capillary

d. dilatation of a vein

48. Arteriostenosis is

a. widening of an artery

b. growth of an artery
c. shrinking of an arteriole

d. narrowing of an artery

49. A lymphangioma is a/an

a. tumor of lymph nodes

b. inflammation of lymphatic vessels

c. tumor of lymphatic vessels

d. removal of lymph nodes

50. Cytopenia is a/an

a. deficiency of cells

b. excess of cells

c. distorted shape of cells

d. enlargement of cells

51. Erythropoiesis is

a. formation of white cells

b. formation of red cells

c. destruction of red cells

d. formation of platelets

52. The root in ischemia means

a. holding back

b. chemical

c. chemistry

d. lack of

53. Lymphopoiesis is

a. formation of lymph

b. formation of lymphocytes

c. destruction of lymphocytes

d. formation of macrophages

54. Thrombolysis is

a. destruction of a blood clot

b. measurement of clotting time

 c. formation of a blood clot

d. formation of platelets

55. A cystocele is a

a. dilatation of the bladder

b. shrinking of the bladder

c. dropping of the bladder

d. hernia of the bladder

Self-assessment
Check (✓) what you learned. If you need more information or practice, refer
to the relevant section in the chapter.

( ) I can define a suffix.

( ) I can identify suffixes in medical terms.

( ) I can differentiate between the suffixes that have the same function.

( ) I can analyze medical terms into their constituents.

( ) I can use suffixes in medical terms.

( ) I can use certain medical collocations and academic words properly.

( ) I can pronounce medical terms properly.

( ) I can read medical texts for main ideas and details.

( ) I can ask and answer questions pertaining to medical issues.

( ) I can report medical cases orally.

( ) I can spell the new medical terms in the chapter.

CHAPTER 3

Prefixes

CONTENTS
Medical Terms 115
Prefixes 117
Focus on Reading 132
Vocabulary Development 135
Medical Collocations 135
Academic Words 136
Focus on Grammar 139
Oral Communication Skills 141
Focus on Writing 142
Pronunciation of Medical Terms 143
Review Exercises 145
Self-Assessment 154

Learning outcomes

At the end of this chapter, students are expected be able to:

1. define a prefix
2. identify the functions of prefixes in medical terms
3. pronounce medical terms containing prefixes
4. use prefixes in medical terms
5. analyze medical terms into their components
6. write definitions of medical terms, diseases, and medical
procedures

Medical terms
A prefix is a letter or a group of letters attached to the beginning of a word
to modify or change its meaning. Pre- in the word “prefix” means before.
Prefixes are common components of medical terms. They may indicate
location, number, time, color, and opposite meanings, etc. Prefixes are
never used independently. They have to be added to the beginning of words
with a hyphen. However, medical dictionaries nowadays drop the hyphen
after many frequent prefixes. They can be added before verbs, nouns, and
adjectives to modify their meanings. Learning prefixes is essential to health
care students because they are frequently used in building up medical
terminology. Furthermore, they are necessary for understanding the
meanings of medical terms. Most of the medical prefixes come from Latin
or Greek origins and that is why they are commonly used in the
international language of science and medicine.
Consider the following examples and note the different meaning that
results when a new prefix is added to the same root.

Prefix Medical Term Meaning

hypo- (beneath or below) hypothyroidism abnormally low activity of the thyroid gland
hyper- (over) hyperthyroidism overactivity of the thyroid gland
a- (lack of) apnea cessation of breathing
dys- (difficulty) dyspnea difficulty in breathing
bi- (two) bilateral pertaining to two sides
uni- (one) unilateral pertaining to one side

Combining forms
The following is a list of some combining forms to which a prefix can be
added:
 Combining Form Meaning Example
an/o anus perianal
carp/o wrist bone metacarpal
cis/o cutting incision
cost/o ribs subcostal
crani/o skull extracranial
crin/o secretion endocrine
dactyl/o fingers or toes polydactyly
dur/o dura mater subdural hematoma
gen/o produce congenital
ign/o fire malignant
later/o side bilateral
lingu/o tongue sublingual
nat/i birth postnatal
norm/o rule/order abnormal
peritone/o peritoneum retroperitoneal
phag/o appetite polyphagia
phas/o speech aphasia
plas/o formation dysplasia
pleg/o paralysis quadriplegia
scapul/o shoulder blades subscapular
sect/o cutting resection
thyroid/o thyroid hormone hyperthyroidism
top/o to put/place ectopic
troph/o development atrophy
urethr/o urethra transurethral
uter/o uterus intrauterine
ven/o vein intravenous
vertebr/o backbone intervertebral

Prefixes
The following tables display the different types of prefixes and their
meanings with examples.
Table 3.1

Prefixes for Direction

FIGURE 3.1 Transdermal: pertaining to through the skin.

Practice 3.1 Identify the prefix in each of the following words and write its
meaning.
Prefix Meaning
1. adduct _________________ _____________________
2. percolate _______________ _____________________
3. dialysis _________________ _____________________
4. adhere _________________ _____________________
5. transurethral ____________ _____________________
6. abnormal _______________ _____________________

Table 3.2

Prefixes for Numbers

 FIGURE 3.2 Multicellular: consisting of many cells.

Practice 3.2 Match each term in column A with its meaning in column B.

A B
1. diploid a. an element that has one atom
2. polyneuropathy b. half solid
3. monoatomic c. disease of many nerves
4. unify d. make two or more in one parts
5. semisolid e. an organism that has two sets of chromosome
Table 3.3

Prefixes for Colors

FIGURE 3.3 Cyanosis: bluish discoloration of the skin.

Practice 3.3 Define the following terms.

1. leukemia ___________________________________

2. xanthoma ___________________________________

3. melanocyte _________________________________

4. erythrocytosis _______________________________

Table 3.4

Prefixes for Time or Position

 FIGURE 3.4 Prosthesis: a device added to the upper limb after
amputation.

It is worth noting that certain prefixes have two meanings. For example,
the prefix ante- may refer to time and position as in antepartum (time) and
antecubital (position). Similarly, pro- refers to time as in prophase and
position as in prognathic. This explains why we place prefixes for time and
position together in one list. This will also be noticed in some of the
following tables.

Practice 3.4 Define the following terms.

1. projectile ____________________________________

2. antefebrile __________________________________
3. postmenopause ______________________________

4. premature ___________________________________

Table 3.5

Prefixes for Disease

 FIGURE 3.5 Dysplasia: stages of dysplasia.

Practice 3.5 The prefix tachy- means rapid. Use this prefix in a word that
means each of the following:

1. rapid heart rate _______________________________

2. rapid breathing ______________________________

3. extreme rapidity of speech _____________________

4. abnormally rapid mental activity _______________

Table 3.6

Prefixes for Infectious Diseases

Table 3.7

Prefixes for Position and Direction

FIGURE 3.6 Parathyroid glands. Four endocrine glands on the
posterior of the thyroid gland.
FIGURE 3.7 Infrascapular: pertaining to below the shoulder blades.
Practice 3.6 Replace the prefix in each of the following terms with another
one having the same meaning.

1. circumoral __________________________________

2. subcostal ____________________________________

3. periorbital __________________________________

4. infrascapular ________________________________

Practice 3.7 Write a word that means the opposite of each of the following
terms.

1. suprapatellar ________________________________

2. intracellular _________________________________

3. suprascapular ________________________________

4. hypogastric __________________________________
Table 3.8

Prefixes for Position and Direction

FIGURE 3.8 Antigen: a foreign substance such as a bacterium or

virus.

Practice 3.8 Add a prefix to form the negative of the following words.

1. contributory ________________________________
2. coordinated ________________________________

3. calcify _____________________________________

4. compatible ________________________________

5. dote ______________________________________

6. sect _______________________________________

7. ception ____________________________________

8. hydrous ____________________________________

9. mnesia_____________________________________

10. moral _____________________________________

Table 3.9

Prefixes for Position

Table 3.10

Differences between Endocrine and Exocrine Glands

Exocrine Glands Endocrine Glands

These are enzyme-secreting glands These are hormone-secreting glands
The activity of the enzymes is short term The action of released hormones is prolonged
The secreted substances are directly released The secretions are released into blood stream
over the target site or tissue
Some of the examples include sweat glands and Some examples include adrenal gland, pituitary
gastric glands gland and thyroid gland

The major glands that make up the human endocrine system include
the:

■ hypothalamus

■ pituitary gland

■ thyroid

■ parathyroid

■ adrenal glands

■ pineal body

■ reproductive glands (which include the ovaries and

testes)

■ pancreas
Examples of exocrine glands:

■ salivary glands that secrete saliva into the mouth

■ bile-producing glands of the liver

■ prostate gland

■ the portion of the pancreas that secretes pancreatic

fluid into the duodenum

■ gastric glands

■ sweat glands
 FIGURE 3.9 Exophthaloms: bulging of the eyes.

Practice 3.9 Define the following words.

1. endotoxin ___________________________________

2. exogenous ___________________________________

3. sympathetic _________________________________

4. synapse _____________________________________
FIGURE 3.10 Synapse: junction between two nerve cells.
Table 3.11

Prefixes for Degree

FIGURE 3.11 Oligodontia: having less than the normal number of

teeth.

Practice 3.10 The prefix hyper- means excessive. Use this prefix to produce
a word that means each of the following:
1. overproduction of a hormone __________________

2. abnormally deep respiration ___________________

3. high increase of cells in size ___________________

4. high increase of cells in numbers _______________

FIGURE 3.12 Hypertrophy and hyperplasia: cells increase in size and

increase in number.
Table 3.12

Prefixes for Size and Comparison

 FIGURE 3.13 Macrodactyly: abnormally large fingers or toes.

Practice 3.11 Match each of the following terms in column A with its
definition in column B.

A B
1. isocellular ______ a. composed of different materials
2. homograft ______ b. composed of identical cells
3. normovolemia c. false response
______
4. heterogeneous d. correcting deformity
______
5. equilibrium ______ e. return of partly digested food from the stomach to the
mouth/backward flow
6. pseudoreaction f. a state of balance
______
7. euthyroidism g. normal production of thyroid hormone
_______
8. regurgitation ______ h. large enough to be seen without a microscope
9. poikiloderma i. tissue transplanted to another of the same species
_______
10. macroscopic j. normal blood volume
________
11. orthotic k. irregular condition of the skin
__________
 FIGURE 3.14 Regurgitation: to cause to pour back.

Table 3.13

Terms using different prefixes with the combining forms for

fingers (Dactyl/O)

Medical Meaning
Term
syndactyly a congenital anomaly in humans marked by webbing or fusion of the fingers or
toes
polydactyly a person or animal with digits more than the normal number of digits
oligodactyly congenital condition in which some fingers or toes are missing
tetradactyly having four digits on each extremity
monodactyly an animal with only one digit on each extremity
pachydactyly enlargement of the fingers or toes, especially extremities
microdactyly a condition of abnormal smallness of fingers or toes

Focus on reading
Read the following text and answer the questions following it.
Nuclear concepts used in medicine
1. Our bodies are made up of cells in which chemical processes of one form
or another constantly occur. Whenever we suffer from an injury or a disease,
the affected part of our body cannot properly carry out its chemical
functions. In such instances, the diagnostician can introduce a radioactively
labeled chemical called a radiopharmaceutical into the affected area, where
it will take part in certain of these chemical activities. By detecting the
gamma emissions from the radiopharmaceutical employed, we are able to
produce useful information about the function and health of the organs that
we are studying.

2. Although most of the studies done in clinical nuclear medicine require

the radiopharmaceutical to be injected into a vein (normally in the
antecubital region), it may on occasion be inhaled, ingested, or injected
through a catheter or other implanted device. Once the radiopharmaceutical
has been administered to the patient, it travels through the body as though it
were normally present. Since our bodies cannot distinguish a
radiopharmaceutical from a normally present chemical, they handle it in the
same way as it would a nonradioactive chemical. The only difference and
advantage offered by the radiopharmaceutical is that the administered
chemical can be detected externally.

3. A scintillation camera, which is able to map the distribution of the

radiopharmaceutical within the patient’s body, provides the images. These
images, called scintigraphs or scintiscans, are produced when the gamma
rays spontaneously emitted from the radiopharmaceutical escape from the
patient’s body. Each scintiscan is made up of hundreds of thousands of
individual gamma ray interactions with the camera, and these many
interactions are displayed as individual dots of light which are added
together to form a single image.

4. Typically, images are recorded every 2 s immediately following the

injection of the radiopharmaceutical. These initial images provide
information about the arterial supply, capillary transit, and venous drainage
of the organ or tissue of interest. After a period of time sufficient to permit
the tissues to extract the radiopharmaceutical from the circulation, more
images are recorded. These first images are called dynamic images, and the
latter ones are called statics or delayed images.

5. The radiopharmaceutical used in the study of a particular organ must be

chosen for its ability to accumulate in that particular organ. The choice also
depends on the isolation of a chemical pathway or function that is peculiar
to the organ that is to be imaged. For the most part, the label (the
radioactive part of the pharmaceutical) used as a tag within the
pharmaceutical does not affect its localization, and so materials are often
labeled with gamma emitters that have the best combination of availability,
energy, and half-life. A radionuclide called technetium-99m is frequently
used because it can be produced onsite from a system called a generator.

6. The process of generation of technetium-99m is a simple one:

molybdenum-99 (99Mo) decays to form technetium-99m. Since
technetium-99m is chemically different from molybdenum, it is easy to
separate the two. A small amount of molybdenum can produce enough
technetium each day to meet the needs of a typical nuclear medicine
department. Also, technetium-99m emits gamma radiation at an acceptable
energy level of 140 KeV. Although this level is higher than most X-rays,
human tissue can tolerate it since gamma rays escape the body, whereas X-
rays tend to irradiate body tissues. The final reason for the popularity of this
radionuclide is that it has a 6-h half-life long enough to allow the
radiopharmaceuticals to accumulate in the tissues of interest and short
enough to permit repeat studies within a day or so. The combination of the
low energy (by gamma ray standards) and short half-life also gives the
patient an acceptably low radiation dose.

7. The radioactivity principle can also be used to detect and measure

substances in blood or urine, substances that may be present in such small
concentrations that conventional methods cannot detect them. This
technique, termed radioimmunoassay (RIA), involves the production of
antibodies specific to the substance being measured, the isolation of a pure
extract of this substance (termed the antigen), and the radioactive labeling
of the antigen. By mixing known amounts of these substances with the
patient sample and allowing the whole to come to equilibrium in a test tube,
one can separate the unreacted antigen (both from the patient and the
labeled antigen) from that which has bound to the antibody provided for that
purpose. The ratio of free-to-bound antigens permits a calculation of the
amount of material present in the patient’s original sample. Tests performed
on blood or urine samples requiring that the radioactive chemical be added
to the sample but not to the patient are termed in vitro tests. Those
procedures requiring a radioactive chemical to be administered to the
patient are called in vivo tests. In vitro techniques are commonly used to
measure various hormone levels, drug levels, and concentrations of other
compounds of medical interest.

A. Answer the following questions:

1. What does the italicized pronoun “it” in

paragraph 6 refer to?
________________________________________
__________________

2. What do the rays emitted from the

radiopharmaceutical enable us to do?
________________________________________
__________________

3. What is the main difference between the

radiopharmaceutical and the normal chemical in
the body?
________________________________________
__________________

4. Define delayed images or “statics.”

________________________________________
 __________________

5. Summarize paragraph 5 in one sentence.

________________________________________
__________________

6. What is the difference between in vitro tests and

in vivo tests?
________________________________________
__________________

7. Scan the text and find prefixes that mean

a. against: ___________________

b. before: ___________________

c. between: _________________

d. complete: _________________

8. Circle the word that is closest in meaning to the

highlighted word in paragraph 6.
9. Find a word that means “expose to radiation” in
paragraph 6.

10. What is the meaning of the bold-faced word in

paragraph 5?

B. Find words in the text that mean:

1. A noun meaning “a person who determines the

cause of a disease.” (Para. 1)
________________________________________
________

2. An adjective meaning “a radioactive compound

used in diagnosis or therapy.” (Para. 1)
________________________________________
__________________

3. A verb meaning “to take into the body by the

mouth for absorption.” (Para. 2)
________________________________________
__________________

4. A noun meaning “movement in a circle or circuit,

especially the movement of blood through bodily
vessels as a result of the heart’s pumping action.”
(Para. 4)
 ________________________________________
__________________

5. An adjective meaning “not ordinary or usual; odd

or strange.” (Para. 5)
________________________________________
__________________

6. A verb meaning “to gather or cause to increase.”

(Para. 6)
________________________________________
__________________

7. A noun meaning “the condition existing when a

chemical reaction and its reverse reaction proceed
at equal rates.” (Para. 7)
________________________________________
________

Vocabulary development
Medical Collocations

Practice 3.12 Match the word in column A with its complement in column
B. Write the letter of the correct answer on the line provided.
 A B
1. inoperable ______ a. habits
2. tender ______ b. genes
3. subjective ______ c. tumor
4. premature ______ d. pain
5. genetic ______ e. neck
6. hygienic ______ f. voice
7. hoarse ______ g. report
8. stiff ______ h. infant
9. intermittent ______ i. skin
10. defective ______ j. trait

Practice 3.13 Complete the following sentences using collocations from

Practice 3.12.

a. She suffered from ____________________ after exposing herself to the

sun.

b. The doctor provided a ____________________ on the patient history of

his brain tumor.

c. He felt an ____________________ that kept recurring over and over

again.

d. The ____________________ died due to early birth.

e. The young man dies because of an ____________________.

f. All doctors have ____________________ like using disposable tissues.

g. The flu left him with a ____________________.

h. He awoke with a painful ____________________.

i. Fixing ____________________ should be welcome news to those who

carry them.

j. The father had a ____________________ that predisposed him to the

development of cancer.
Practice 3.14 Match the words in column A with their collocates in column
B. Write the correct answer on the line provided.

A B
1. enhance __________ a. the onset
2. maintain __________ b. a drug
3. ease __________ c. anxiety
4. identify __________ d. physical fitness
5. induce__________ e. the appetite
6. go into __________ f. infections
7. eradicate __________ g. vomiting
8. tolerate __________ h. antibodies
9. speed __________ i. nausea
10. relieve __________ j. shock

Practice 3.15 What can the following words collocate with?

1. trigger __________

2. enhance __________

3. cleanse __________

4. tolerate __________

5. strain __________

Academic Words
Study the following academic lists.
Academic List 1:
 Words Definitions
1. alternative a choice or course of action that is mutually exclusive with another
2. philosophy the attitude or set of ideas that guides the behavior of a person or organization
3. justify to give an acceptable explanation for something that other people think is
unreasonable
4. publish to make official information such as a report available for everyone to read
5. fund an amount of money that is collected and kept for a particular purpose
6. react to behave in a particular way or show a particular emotion because of something
that has happened or been said
7. techniques nonprescriptive ways or methods used to perform missions, functions, or tasks
8. minor small and not very important or serious, especially when compared with other
things
9. outcome the final result of a meeting, discussion, etc., used especially when no one
knows what it will be until it actually happens
10. sequence the order that something happens or exists in, or the order it is supposed to
happen or exist in

Academic List 2:

Words Definitions
1. emphasize to stress, single out as important
2. coordinate to organize an activity so that the people involved in it work well together and
achieve a good result
3. ensure to make certain that something will happen properly
4. physical related to someone’s body rather than their mind or emotions
5. compensate to pay someone money because they have suffered injury, loss, or damage
6. link to make a connection between two or more things or people
7. sufficient as much as is needed for a particular purpose
8. criteria a standard that you use to judge something or make a decision about something
9. demonstrate to show or prove something clearly
10. contribute to give money, help, ideas, etc. to something that a lot of other people are also
involved in

Practice 3.16 Match the words in column A with their definitions in

column.
 A B
1. link ______ a. to give an acceptable explanation for something that other people think is
unreasonable
2. criterion b. the attitude or set of ideas that guides the behavior of a person or organization
______
3. publish c. to stress, single out as important
______
4. justify d. a standard that you use to judge something or make a decision about
______ something
5. philosophy e. the order that something happens or exists in, or the order it is supposed to
______ happen or exist in
6. techniques f. to make a connection between two or more things or people
______
7. outcome g. to make official information such as a report available for everyone to read
______
8. emphasize h. to organize an activity so that the people involved in it work well together and
______ achieve a good result
9. sequence i. Nonprescriptive ways or methods used to perform missions, functions, or tasks
______
10. coordinate j. the final result of a meeting, discussion, etc., used especially when no one
______ knows what it will be until it actually happens

Practice 3.17 Complete each of the following sentences using the correct
word from the box.

1. His injuries were relatively ___________, so he was released from the

hospital within a couple of hours of being admitted.

2. Faced with worsening health, and a doctor who did not seem to be able to
help him, Ali decided to try ___________ medicine.

3. Before we had a publicly ___________ universal health care system in

Canada, many people could not afford medical care, or faced bankruptcy
with a serious illness.
4. Operations on animals helped to develop organ transplant and open-heart
surgery ___________.

5. Studies have shown that babies in the womb will ___________ to sudden
loud noises or bright lights that are flashed on the mother’s belly.

6. Medical doctors usually take credit for actions which produce favorable
___________, but blame the situation when their actions are questionable or
lead to failure.

7. My grandfather is very ___________ about his illness; he certainly does

not want to die, but he says he has lived a long life, and is not afraid to go.

8. We feel that animal testing should be reduced to a minimum and

carefully ___________ in each case.

9. Protein synthesis is a ___________ process in which DNA is transformed

into protein.

10. She has ___________ a number of important papers in a leading

medical journal.

Practice 3.18 Complete each of the following sentences using the correct
word from the box.

1. He _______________ a lot of time and money to helping people with

Parkinson disease.

2. Students in our medical program will be graded according to the

_______________ described in the course outline.
3. Eating plenty of fruits, vegetables, protein, and dairy products will
_______________ your body gets the minerals it needs.

4. He received almost half a million dollars in _______________ after his

surgical malfunction.

5. Detectives were able to _______________ the murderer to the crime

using DNA evidence.

6. The Red Cross is trying to _______________ relief efforts aimed at

aiding the victims of Sunday’s earthquake.

7. The best way to lose weight is to do regular _______________ activity.

8. Recent studies have _______________ that drinking green tea may help
to prevent breast cancer.

9. Forgetting material which is stored in long-term memory cannot be

_______________ explained by the simple passage of time.

10. Doctors usually _______________ the need for regular exercise to

maintain good health.

Focus on grammar
Asking Questions
Health care students and practitioners always need to extend their repertoire
of medical terminology in order to avoid communication breakdowns with
others. They also need more focus on certain grammatical issues such as
asking and answering questions and comparing and contrasting drugs and
their effects on human body. In this section, students will be reminded of
how to ask questions of different types about several medical issues.

Practice 3.19 Study the following questions and learn how to use each
highlighted question word. Decide what it is used for and when we can use
it.
Who is that man?

Who is the patient?

Who is his next of kin (closest relative)?

When did you hurt your arm?

When do you take your pills?

When did the pain start?

What do you do for a living?

What did you eat yesterday?

What did you do to your leg?

What makes the pain better?

What is the pain like?

How are you?

How are you feeling?

How did you cut yourself?

How strong is the pain?

How long have you been suffering from fever?

How long have you had the pain?

How many tablets do you take a day?

How many cigarettes do you smoke?

How much sleep do you get?

How often do you get regular exercise?

How often do you eat vegetables?

Why did not you follow your doctor’s instructions?

Whose medication is this?

Where do you live? Where does it hurt you the most?

Practice 3.20 Use each of the above-highlighted question words or phrases

in a question of your own on health care issues.

Practice 3.21 Ask questions to which the bold-faced words are answers.

1. The top of a person’s scalp is covered with hair. (What)

____________________________________________
_________________
2. At the top and front of the upper body, just below the neck is the collar
bone. (Where)

____________________________________________
_________________
3. The patient takes the medication three times a day. (How often)

____________________________________________
_________________
4. Jane has been pregnant for 5 months. (How long)

____________________________________________
_________________
5. The front of the lower leg is the shin and the back of the lower leg is the
calf. (What)

____________________________________________
_________________
6. In many cases specialists require a referral from a family doctor before
they will see a patient. (Who), (What)

____________________________________________
_________________
____________________________________________
_________________
7. The newborn baby sleeps four times every day. (How often)

____________________________________________
_________________
8. Tylenol 3 is one of the painkillers available without prescription. (Which)

____________________________________________
_________________
9. Women giving birth usually find that the epidural is the most effective
pain relief. (Who)

____________________________________________
_________________
10. He looks much worse today because the medicines he is taking do not
seem to work. (How), (Why)

____________________________________________
_________________

____________________________________________
_________________

Oral communication skills

Practice 3.22 Study the following dialogue between a doctor and a patient
and answer the questions following it orally.

Doctor: Hi Janet. How are you feeling today?

Patient: A bit better.

Doctor: That’s good to hear. Are you still feeling nauseous?

Patient: No, I haven’t felt sick since you switched my medication. My

stomach is fine.

Doctor: Great. Say, your test results came in this morning.

Patient: It’s about time. Is it good news or bad?

Doctor: I guess it’s a bit of both. Which one do you want first?

Patient: Let’s get the bad news over with.

Doctor: Okay. It looks like you’re going to need surgery to remove the
tumor from your leg. After the operation, you’re going to have to stay off
your feet for at least 3 weeks. That means no soccer.

Patient: I was afraid you were going to say that.

Doctor: Now for the good news. The biopsy shows that the tumor is benign,
which means it’s not cancerous. We’re going to take it out anyway just to
be on the safe side.

Patient: Wow, that’s a load off my mind. Thanks doctor.

Doctor: Don’t get too excited. We still need to get to the bottom of all of
this weight loss.

Patient: I’ve probably just been so worried about this stupid lump.

Doctor: These things often are stress related, but we’re still going to do a
few blood tests just to rule a few things out.
Patient: Things like what? Cancer?

Doctor: Actually, I’m thinking more along the lines of a food allergy.

A. Answer the following questions.

1. What was the woman suffering from?

2. Why did she have to switch medication?

3. What bad news did the doctor tell her?

4. What medical procedure has the woman already

undergone?

5. Define the term biopsy.

6. Give the opposite of:

- benign:_______________________

- to lose weight:__________________
B. Act out the dialogue with a classmate.

Focus on writing
Definition
Definitions may be brief or extended. A brief definition reflects the essence
or primary characteristic of a term. The essence of an adjective, for
instance, is that it is a part of speech that modifies a noun. On the other
hand, an extended definition includes information beyond the essence or
primary characteristic of a term. An extended definition of an adjective
could include categories like size, shape, or color, and an explanation of the
various forms it takes such as comparative and superlative.
An extended definition essay should classify a term with relevant criteria,
and use examples that focus on distinguishing the term from other closely
related terms or concepts. The writer must decide what categories of
information best distinguish the item or concept under scrutiny.
An appropriate range of examples can be the most direct way to identify
and clarify a term.

Example
Alternative medicine incorporates a wide range of substances and systems
which include herbal preparations, megadose vitamins, homeopathy,
naturopathy, osteopathy, aromatherapy, electromagnetic fields, acupuncture,
chiropractic, hypnosis, biofeedback, spiritual devotions, therapeutic touch,
chelation therapy, and many more.
This extra information may include the properties of the defined item, an
analysis of its parts, a physical description or its location. Furthermore,
extra information may focus on the mode of operation of the item to be
defined as in defining a diagnostic instrument: sonography operates by the
energy from sound waves being reflected off internal organs and
transformed into an image on a TV-type monitor.

An object can also be clarified by indicating its functions or what is it

particularly useful for, or by comparing and contrasting it to other
members of the class:

The lung disease “emphysema,” which limits a

patient’s ability to breathe, could be contrasted with
“pneumoconiosis,” a disease which also results in
breathing difficulty, but due to different causes and
through a different process.
A definition may also include the causes of the defined item, or its results,
or both:

Atherosclerosis is the condition where fatty deposits,

called plaque, within the lining of an artery gradually
build up and harden, causing a narrowing of the
vessel, thereby reducing the blood flow to tissues.
(Result) A primary factor in its development is the
presence of cholesterol-containing lipoproteins.
Other risk factors include high blood pressure,
smoking, inactivity, and family history. (Causes)
Defining a term may involve a description of its process or procedures:

Angioplasty is the procedure commonly used in cases

of atherosclerosis. This involves surgically removing
the plaque to reopen a narrowed vessel and restore
blood flow. The vessel is then kept open by the
installation of a stent. This hinged metal or plastic
device is inserted into the vessel with a deflated
balloon inside it. Once in place, the balloon is
inflated and the stent is forced open to a size which
will keep the vessel wide. The balloon can then be
deflated and removed, whereas the stent remains
open and in place.
A medical term can also be defined by stating what it is not:
Alternative medicine incorporates a very broad
category of medical systems. However, though it is
sometimes treated as synonymous with
complementary medicine, they are not the same.
Complementary medicine intends to be used as a
supplement to conventional treatment. This could
involve having vitamin supplements or a health food
diet while undergoing conventional medical
treatment. On the other hand, alternative systems or
treatments function to replace a conventional
treatment. Acupuncture could be used instead of
anesthesia during an operation. In some countries,
like the USA and Britain, alternative medicine is not
taught in medical schools, is generally not used in
hospitals, and is not covered by insurance. Many
conventional medical professionals reject their safety
and efficacy. Despite this, there is some professional
interest. There are surgeons in the countries
mentioned who use acupuncture instead of
anesthesia, for instance, in the UAE, there is a
government department which deals with alternative
medicine. It is fair to say that its status is not fixed.

Practice 3.23 Write an extended definition of one of the following:

a. Endocrine glands
b. Exocrine glands

c. Graves disease

d. Colonoscopy

Pronunciation of medical terms

The following are the medical terms introduced in this chapter. You are
supposed to read them aloud as many times as you need to master their
pronunciations. In this activity, you are also required to give the meaning of
each term in order to retain them active in your memory.
Read the following medical terms and know their meanings.

abduct

adduct

adhere

adjacent

amenorrhea

anemia

antefebrile

antepartum

antigen

aphasia

apnea

atrophy

bilateral
bipolar

bradygastria

circumcision

circumoral

congenital

contraindicated

cyanosis

decongestant

dextrogastria

dialysis

diameter

diatomic

diploid

diplopic

disinfect

dysplasia

dyspnea

dysuria

ectocardia

ectopic
endocrine

endometrial

endotoxin

epidermis

equicaloric

equilibrium

erythrocyte

erythrocytosis

eupnea

euthyroidism

exogenous

exophthalmos

extracranial

extrahepatic

hemiplegia

heterogeneous

heterosexual

homeostasis

homograft

homosexual
hypertension

hyperthyroidism

hypochondriac

hypogastric

hypoglycemia

hypothyroidism

incision

infrascapular

interstitial

intervertebral

intracellular

intrauterine

intravenous

isocellular

isochromatic

juxtaposition

leukemia

leukoplakia

macrodactyly

macroscopic
malignant

megacephaly

megalomania

melanin

melanocyte

mesoderm

metacarpal

microbiological

microdactyly

monoatomic

monocular

monodactyly

multicellular

neocortex

nonhuman

normothermic

normovolemia

oligodactyly

oligodontia

orthognathism
orthotic

pachydactyly

panplegia

parathyroid gland

percolate

perianal

periorbital

peritoneal

permeable

poikiloderma Graves disease

poikilothermic

poliomyelitis

polydactyly

polyneuropathy polyphagia

postmenopause

postmortem

postnatal

tachycardia

telencephalon

telophase
tetrad

tetradactyly

transdermal

transurethral

tripod

ultrasonography

unilateral

xanthoderma

xanthoma

xeroma

Review exercises
B. Write true or false before each statement.

1. _____________ The prefix in leukocyte means

“irregular.”

2. _____________ The prefix in percutaneous

means “on the skin.”

3. _____________ The prefix in synthesis means

“apart.”
 4. _____________ The last stage of cell division is
prophase.

5. _____________ A prefix appears before a root

and after a suffix.

6. _____________ A polysaccharide is composed of

more sugar than a monosaccharide.

7. _____________ The prefix in dissect means “to

separate.”

8. _____________ “Anti-” and “contra-” mean the

same thing.

9. _____________ Right-handed people are

dextromanual.

10. _____________ A telomere is found in the

middle of a chromosome.

11. _____________ The prefix in erythrocyte means

“red.”

12. _____________ The prefix in periosteum means

“on the bone.”
C. Fill in the blank with the correct medical term.
1. Hypoxia causes a bluish discoloration of the skin
termed _____________.

2. The prefix in superciliary means _____________.

3. The prefix poikilo- means _____________.

4. The prefix in the word pachycephaly means

_____________.

5. Total paralysis _____________.

6. Composed of similar cells _____________.

7. A group of four _____________.

8. Describing a colony derived from one cell

_____________.

9. To separate tissues for anatomical study

_____________.

10. A mass of blood above the membrane

surrounding the brain is _____________.

11. Surgical puncture to remove fluid from the

membrane surrounding the fetus is
_____________.
D. Write the word that means the opposite of each of the following:

1. hyperthermia
________________________________________
_________

2. polyuria
________________________________________
______________

3. incision
________________________________________
______________

4. abduct
________________________________________
_______________

5. chronic
________________________________________
______________

6. benign
________________________________________
_______________
 7. hypnea
________________________________________
_______________

8. acute
________________________________________
_______________

9. malignant
________________________________________
___________

10. atrophy
________________________________________
_____________

11. bradypnea
________________________________________
___________
E. Identify the prefix and provide its meaning.

Prefix Meaning
1. normothermic ______________ __________________________________
2. quadruplet ______________ __________________________________
3. mesoderm ______________ __________________________________
4. euthyroidism ______________ __________________________________
5. poikilothermic ______________ __________________________________
6. malabsorption ______________ __________________________________
7. symbiosis ______________ __________________________________
8. panplegia ______________ __________________________________
F. Write a word or a prefix that means the same as each of the
following:

1. isolateral
________________________________________
_____________

2. megalocyte
________________________________________
___________

3. supersensitivity
________________________________________
________

4. prenatal
________________________________________
______________

5. para-
________________________________________
__________________

6. circum-
________________________________________
________________
 7. subcostal
________________________________________
_____________

8. exo-
________________________________________
__________________
G. Identify the prefixes or the combining forms in the following words
and figure out what they mean.

H. Give the meaning of each of the following terms:

1. sublingual
________________________________________
 __________

2. retroperitoneal
________________________________________
______

3. aphasia
________________________________________
____________

4. quadriplegia
________________________________________
________

5. intervertebral
________________________________________
________

6. hypochondriac
________________________________________
______

7. hypertension
________________________________________
________
8. congenital
________________________________________
__________

9. dystrophy
________________________________________
__________

10. transdermal
________________________________________
_________

11. diplopia
________________________________________
____________

12. polyphagia
________________________________________
_________

13. postmortem
________________________________________
________

14. tachycardia
________________________________________
_________
 15. sinistromanual
________________________________________
______
I. Give the meaning of each of the following prefixes and give a medical
term in which it is used.

Meaning Example
1. ab- ________________________ _________________________________
2. ad- ________________________ _________________________________
3. meta- ______________________ _________________________________
4. para- _______________________ _________________________________
5. con- ________________________ _________________________________
6. anti- ________________________ _________________________________
7. ante- ________________________ _________________________________
8. inter- ________________________ _________________________________
9. brady- _______________________ _________________________________
10. pre- __________________________ _________________________________
11. sub- __________________________ _________________________________
12. hyper- ________________________ _________________________________
13. dys- __________________________ _________________________________
14. ec- ___________________________ _________________________________
15. intra- ________________________ _________________________________
16. syn- __________________________ _________________________________
17. epi- ___________________________ _________________________________
18. extra- _________________________ _________________________________
19. trans- __________________________ _________________________________
20. endo- ________________________ _________________________________

J. Circle the correct answer.

1. A prefix is found

a. at the beginning of a word

b. after the root

c. at the end of the word

d. before a hyphen

2. The prefix multi- means

a. single

b. double

c. twice

c. many

3. Which of the following has four components?

a. unicycle

b. polysaccharide

c. bicuspid

d. tetralogy

4. Cyanosis refers to

a. dark coloration
b. blue coloration

c. thickness

d. shape

5. A xanthoma is

a. green

b. blue

c. dark

d. yellow

6. The prefix in disintegration means

a. movement

b. separation

c. few

d. decreased

7. To detoxify means to
a. poison

b. confine

c. remove toxins

d. manufacture toxins

8. The prefixes dia-, per-, and trans- all mean

a. under

b. near

c. through

d. equal

9. The prefix pan- means

a. ever

b. before

c. excess

d. all
10. Which of the following means the same as equi-?

a. pseudo

b. megalo

c. ecto

d. iso

11. The prefix pseudo- means

a. good

b. large

c. even

d. false

12. The opposite of dextro- is

a. telo

b. sym

c. megalo
d. sinistro

13. The opposite of ectoderm is

a. endoderm

b. proderm

c. mesoderm

d. metroderm

14. The mesencephalon is the

a. surface of the brain

b. underneath part of the brain

c. inner part of the brain

d. middle portion of the brain

15. A word that describes organisms living together

is

a. symbiosis

b. antibiosis
c. metabiosis

d. endobiosis

16. Interstitial fluid is found

a. inside cells

b. between cells

c. on the surface of the skin

d. under the brain

17. Metastasis is

a. a wasting of tissue

b. a form of anemia

c. a form of infection

d. spreading of cancer

18. An antipyretic is used to

a. increase body temperature

b. harden bones

c. reduce pain

d. reduce fever

19. An endotoxin is a

a. poison found within a cell

b. spreading cancer cell

c. substance produced by the immune system

d. poison secreted from a cell

20. The opposite of bradycardia is

a. dyscardia

b. xerocardia

c. cardiocele

d. tachycardia

21. In pachyemia, the blood is

a. thin

b. light

c. deficient

d. thick

22. The term hyperbaric refers to

a. increased temperature

b. increased pressure

c. treatment with chemicals

d. decreased pressure

23. When a drug is contraindicated, it is

a. given in double dose

b. given at night

c. recommended for treatment

d. not recommended for treatment

24. Polyarteritis is

a. constriction of two arteries

b. inflammation of many arteries

c. formation of tissue around arteries

d. removal of tissue from an artery

25. The scientific term for a “heart attack” is

a. myocardial infarction

b. endocarditis

c. pericardial occlusion

d. cardioversion

26. The epiglottis is the

a. lower end of the trachea

b. throat

c. cartilage around the bronchioles

d. cartilage that covers the trachea during swallowing

27. Orthopnea is

a. a rapid rate of breathing

b. a shallow depth of breathing

c. irregular breathing

d. difficulty in breathing unless upright

28. A decreased rate and depth of breathing is termed

a. hyperpnea

b. hypocapnia

c. hyperventilation

d. hypopnea

29. A temporary stoppage of breathing is

a. apnea

b. dyspnea
c. dysventilation

d. eupnea

30. The term perioral means

a. above the nose

b. within the sinuses

c. around the mouth

d. around the jaw

31. The term hemiglossal refers to

a. the salivary glands in the cheek

b. the position of the jaw

c. one-half of the tongue

d. the upper part of the palate

32. Oliguria is

a. excretion of a decreased amount of urine

b. discoloration of the urine

c. infection of the bladder

d. narrowing of the ureter

33. Painful or difficult urination is

a. nocturia

b. pyuria

c. uremia

d. dysuria

34. A retrouterine structure is located

a. under the uterus

b. behind the vagina

c. behind the uterus

d. within the uterus

35. A congenital disorder

 a. is caused by viral infection

b. is present at birth

c. appears during childhood

d. appears in a mother
K. Case report

Case study: HIV infection and tuberculosis

T.H., a 48-year-old man, was an admitted intravenous (i.v.) drug user and
occasionally abused alcohol. Over 4 weeks, he had experienced fever, night
sweats, malaise, a cough, and a 10-lb weight loss. He was also concerned
about several discolored lesions that had erupted weeks before on his arms
and legs.
T.H. made an appointment with a physician assistant (PA) at the
neighborhood clinic. On examination, the PA noted bilateral anterior
cervical and axillary lymphadenopathy and pyrexia. T.H.’s temperature was
39°C. The PA sent T.H. to the hospital for further studies.
T.H.’s chest radiograph (X-ray image) showed paratracheal adenopathy
and bilateral interstitial infiltrates, suspicious of tuberculosis (TB). His
blood study results were positive for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
and showed a low lymphocyte count. Sputum and bronchobacillus (AFB); a
PPD (purified protein derivative) skin test result was also positive. On the
basis of these findings, T.H. was diagnosed with HIV, TB, and Kaposi
sarcoma related to past i.v. drug abuse.

a. Write the word or phrase from the text that has the same meaning as
each of the following words or phrases:

1. within a vein _________________.

2. hyperthermia _________________.
 3. pertaining to both sides _________________.

4. pertaining to the neck _________________.

5. pertaining to the armpit _________________.

6. X-ray image _________________.

7. near the trachea _________________.

8. backward flow _________________.

b. Circle the letter of the most appropriate answer.

1. The term lymphadenopathy means

a. a disease of the lymph

b. an enlargement of the lymph nodes, usually

associated with disease

c. lymph nodes enlargement

d. a disease of a gland

2. The term interstitial means

a. above the cells

 b. under the cells

c. between the cells

d. within the cells

3. The word discolored has the prefix

a. di

b. dis

c. ed

d. color

4. Provide the meaning for the following words:

a. immunodeficiency _________________

b. infiltrate _________________

c. sarcoma _________________

d. adenopathy _________________

Self-assessment
Check (✓) what you learned. If you need more information or practice,
refer to the relevant section in the chapter.

( ) I can define a prefix.

( ) I can identify prefixes in medical terms.

( ) I can differentiate between the prefixes that have similar meanings.

( ) I can analyze medical terms into their constituents.

( ) I can use prefixes in medical terms.

( ) I can use certain medical collocations and academic words properly.

( ) I can pronounce medical terms properly.

( ) I can skim and scan medical texts for main ideas and details.

( ) I can ask and answer questions pertaining to medical issues.

( ) I can write brief definitions of medical terms, procedures, disease, etc.

( ) I can spell and pronounce the new medical terms in the chapter.
CHAPTER 4

Body structure

CONTENTS
Body Structure 155
Combining Forms 157
Principal Body Systems 158
Body Planes 160
Directional Terms 161
Body Positions 166
Body Cavities 168
Abdominal Regions 172
Focus on Reading 175
Vocabulary Development 178
Focus on Grammar 182
Oral Communication Skills 183
Focus on Writing 184
Review Exercises 184

Learning outcomes

By the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

1. name the body systems
2. identify directional terms
3. describe body planes
4. identify body cavities and name the organs within each
5. identify body regions and name the organs within each
6. describe body positions used in medical practice
7. define medical terms pertaining to body structure
8. analyze, pronounce, and spell new medical terms
9. write an extended definition

Body structure
The human body consists of small parts called cells or atoms that assemble
together to form larger structures that can be studied at different levels of
organization. The levels of organization from least to most complex are cell,
tissue, organ, system, and organism. The human body consists of different
types of tissue. Histology is the branch of biology that studies the microscopic
structure of tissues. There are four main types of tissues in the body: lining
cells (epithelia), connective tissue, nervous tissue, and muscle tissue. These
tissues finally compose body organs and systems. The study of the human
body involves the study of its anatomy, physiology, histology, and
embryology. Anatomy is the science dealing with the form and structure of
living organisms, whereas physiology is concerned with the systems and
organs of the human body and their functions. Histology is study of the
minute structure of cells, tissues, and organisms in relation to their function
(microscopic anatomy). Finally, embryology is the branch of biology and
medicine concerned with the study of embryos and their development.
 FIGURE 4.1 Levels of organization.

The major components of the human body are the head, the neck, and the
trunk which involves the thorax, the abdomen, hands, legs, and feet. For
health care students and practitioners, the human body can be studied in terms
of anatomical direction or location of a certain point or organ, body planes,
cavities, regions, and positions. Knowing the anatomical terms is essential to
professionals in all health care careers because they need to know how the
human body functions. Furthermore, they are bound to use such terms in order
to effectively care for their clients.

Combining forms
The following is a list of some combining forms related to body structure.
Please note that a few combining forms are repeated from previous
chapters as a reminder when you go through this chapter.
Combining Form Meaning Example
acr/o extremity acrocyanosis
albin/o white albinism
anter/o front anterior
brachi/o arm antebrachium
caud/o tail caudal
cephal/o head cephalic
cervic/o neck cervical
chlor/o green chloropia
chondr/o cartilage hypochondriac
chrom/o color heterochromic
cirrh/o yellow cirrhosis
coccyg/o tailbone coccygeal
crani/o skull craniotomy
dactyl/o finger, toe polydactyly
dist/o far/further distal
dors/o back (of body) dorsal
eti/o cause etiology
femor/o thighbone femoral
idi/o unknown idiopathic
ili/o flaring portion of hip bone ilium
infer/o lower, below inferior
inguin/o groin inguinal
ischi/o ischium lower portion of hip bone
jaund/o yellow jaundice
lapar/o abdominal wall laparoscopy
later/o side lateral
lumb/o loins (lower back) lumbar
medi/o middle mediad
mediastin/o space between the lungs mediastinum
morph/o form, shape polymorphus
pelv/o pelvis pelvic
pelvi/o pelvis pelvimeter
peritone/o peritoneum peritoneal cavity
phren/o diaphragm phrenectomy
pleur/o membrane surrounding the lung pleurodesis
pod/o foot podiatry
poster/o back (of body) posterior
proxim/o near/nearer proximal
sacr/o five fused bones in the lower back sacrum
somat/o body somatic
spin/o spine spinal
thorac/o chest thoracic
trache/o windpipe tracheotomy
umbilic/o navel umbilical
ventr/o belly side ventral
viscer/o internal organs visceral
xer/o dry xerosis
Principal body systems
A group of organs that work together to perform one of the major functions of
the body form a system. There are 11 systems in the body, and each plays an
essential role in the way the body works.

1. The integumentary system includes the skin and its appendages such as
the hair, nails, and sweat and oil glands. It protects the body from various
kinds of damage, such as loss of water or abrasion from outside.

2. The musculoskeletal system consists of all the bones of the body (206) and
their associated cartilages, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints. This
system provides form, stability, and support to the body. It also enables the
body to move.

3. The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels.
It transports oxygen and nutrients to the body tissues and helps the body to
dispose of metabolic wastes. It is also called the circulatory system.

4. The lymphatic system works in close cooperation with the circulatory

system. It consists of the lymph, lymphatic vessels, and the spleen.

5. The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense
organs, such as the eye and ear and all the nerves that connect these organs
with the body. It is responsible for the control and communication among its
various parts.

6. The endocrine system includes all hormone-producing glands and cells

such as the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, and pancreas. It regulates body
functions by means of hormones.

7. The respiratory system includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,

bronchi, and lungs. It transports air in and out of the lungs. It facilitates the
diffusion of the oxygen into the blood stream. It also receives carbon dioxide
from the blood and exhales it.

8. The digestive system starts at the oral cavity including the teeth, the
tongue, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder and
pancreas, small and large intestines, and ends with the anus. This long tract is
called the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. This system
breaks down and absorbs food for use by cells and eliminates solid and other
waste.

9. The urinary system, also known as the renal system, consists of the
kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra. The major function of this system is
to remove liquid waste from the blood in the form of urine and to keep a
stable balance of salts and other substances in the blood.

10. The immune system is made up of a network of cells such as the white
blood cells, tissues, and organs that function together in order to protect the
body from organisms that may cause diseases.

11. The reproductive system of males consists of the testes, prostate glands,
sperm ducts, urethra, and penis. The female reproductive system consists of
the vagina, uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes. Each system has its own
functions that serve the general reproduction function in both males and
females.

Practice 4.1 Match each of the following body systems in column A with its
function in column B.

A B
1 cardiovascular system _______ a. performs breathing
2 digestive system _______ b. removes fluid and resolves waste
3 endocrine system _______ c. sends and receives messages
4 integumentary system _______ d. pumps and circulates blood to tissues
5 lymphatic and immune system e. covers the body and its internal structures
_______
6 musculoskeletal system _______ f. provides defenses for the body
7 nervous system _______ g. breaks down food
8 reproductive system _______ h. secretes hormones within the body and into the
bloodstream
9 respiratory system _______ i. controls reproduction
10 urinary system _______ j. supports the body and allows it to move

Practice 4.2 Complete the sentences.

1. The system that protects the body from organisms that may cause diseases
is the __________.

2. That system that transports blood throughout the body is the ________.

3. The system that brings food into the body and breaks it down is the
__________.

4. The system that produces the cells that join to form the embryo is the
__________.

5. The system that controls breathing is the __________.

6. The system that produces urine and sends it out of the body is the
__________.

7. The system that receives messages from the environment and sends them to
the brain is the __________.

8. The system that carries messages to and from the brain is the _________.

Planes of the body

This section will present the major body planes and directional terms that
allow us to explain the position of one body part compared to another. It is
necessary to remember that anatomical positions and directional terms were
introduced in order to enable health care providers to describe body parts and
positions correctly. The reference point for all these terms and directions is
the standard body position that is referred to as the anatomical position in
which the body is erect (standing straight), facing forward, upper limbs at side
and palms facing forward, and the feet parallel.
Body planes are imaginary vertical and horizontal lines that are used to
divide the body in the anatomic position into sections for descriptive
purposes. Knowing these planes would enable you to read and interpret
imaging studies such as MRI, CT scans, and X-rays.
The three planes of the body are as follows:

1. Frontal or coronal plane is a vertical plane that runs through the center of
your body from side to side. This plane divides the body into front (anterior)
and back (posterior) regions.

2. Lateral or sagittal plane is a vertical plane that runs through your body
from front to back or back to front. This plane divides the body into right and
left regions. Median or midsagittal plane is a plane that divides the body
into equal right and left regions. Parasagittal plane is a plane that divides the
body into unequal right and left regions.

3. Transverse or axial plane is a horizontal plane that runs through the

midsection of your body. This plane divides the body into upper (superior)
and lower (inferior) regions.

FIGURE 4.2 Planes of the body.

Orientation and directional terms

Directional terms are used to show the position of a structure in relation to
another structure.

■ Superior (cranial): toward the head or upper part of the body; above

■ Inferior (caudal): away from the head or toward the lower part of the body;
below

■ Ventral (anterior): toward or at the front of the body; in front of

■ Dorsal (posterior): toward or at the back of the body; behind

■ Medial: toward or at the midline of the body

■ Lateral: away from the midline of the body

■ Intermediate: between a medial and lateral position

■ Proximal: closer to the origin of the body part or point of attachment of a

limb to the body trunk

■ Distal: away from the origin of a body part or point of attachment of a limb
to the body trunk

■ Superficial (external): toward or at the body surface

■ Deep (internal): away from the body surface

■ Abduction: movement away from the median plane of the body

■ Adduction: movement toward the median plane of the body

■ Parietal: pertaining to the outer wall of the body cavity

■ Visceral: pertaining to the internal organs

■ Inversion: turning inward or inside out

■ Eversion: turning outward

■ Palmar: pertaining to the palm of the hand

■ Plantar: pertaining to the sole of the foot

anatomical body is standing straight, facing forward, upper limbs at
position side, and palms facing forward

anterior toward the front

(ventral) the eyes are anterior to the brain
the sternum is anterior to the heart

posterior toward the back; opposite of anterior

the esophagus is posterior to the trachea

superior a body part is above another part, or is closer to the head

the heart is superior to the liver

inferior a body part is below another body part, is toward the feet
the stomach is inferior to the lungs

medial closer to midline

the ulna is on the medial side of the arm
lateral away from midline
the arms are lateral to the chest

proximal toward origin or trunk

the humerus is proximal to the radius

distal away from the origin or trunk

the phalanges are distal to the carpals

superficialtoward surface of body

the skin is superficial to the skeletal muscle

deep inward from body surface; toward core

the lungs are deep to the skin
intermediatebetween a medial and lateral position
the collarbone is intermediate between breastbone and
shoulder
bilateral paired structures, one on each side
ipsilateral structures on the same side the liver is ipsilateral to
the appendix
contralateral structures on the opposite side the spleen is
contralateral to the liver
 FIGURE 4.3 Directional terms.

Practice 4.3 Look at the following figure and answer the questions following
it by circling the letter of the correct answer.

1. Which plane is indicated in RED?

a. transverse plane b. frontal plane

c. sagittal plane d. axial plane

2. Which plane is indicated in BLUE?

 a. sagittal plane b. coronary plane
c. frontal plane d. transverse plane

3. Which plane is indicated in GREEN?

a. transverse plane b. midline plane

c. sagittal plane d. medial plane

Practice 4.4 Circle the correct answer.

1. The areas on the front and back of the hand are _______ and _______,
respectively.

a. palmar and dorsal b. dorsal and palmar

c. proximal and palmar d. distal and proximal

2. The areas of the hand which are closer to the body are referred to as
_______ and those further away are referred to as _______.

a. distal and proximal b. dorsal and proximal

c. proximal and distal d. palmar and distal

3. The transverse plane divides the body into _______ and _______ portions.

a. top and bottom b. posterior and anterior

c. proximal and distal d. superior and inferior

4. The sagittal plane divides the body into _______ and _______. The terms
used to describe the distance to this dividing plane are _______ and _______.

a. back and front; medial and lateral b. front and back; posterior and anterior
c. left and right; medial and lateral d. left and right; posterior and anterior

5. The coronal plane divides the body into _______ and _______ portions.

a. left and right b. posterior and anterior

c. above and below d. medial and proximal
6. The terms used to describe areas that are, for instance, close to the surface
of the skin or further inside the body are _______ and _______.

a. superficial and deep b. inner and outer

c. anterior and distal d. proximal and posterior

Body positions
They refer to the different physical configurations that the human body can
take.

■ Lithotomy position: in this position, the body is lying in a supine position

with hips and knees fully extended. The feet are strapped in position to
support the flexed knees and hips.

■ Supine position: in this position, the body is lying down with face pointing
upward. All the remaining positions are similar to anatomical position with
the only difference of being in a horizontal plane rather than a vertical
plane.

■ Prone position: this is the position in which the back of the body is directed
upward. The body lies in a horizontal plane with face directed downward.

■ Dorsal recumbent: patient lying on back with knees bent and feet flat on
the examination table.

■ Knee-chest: patient face down with head, chest, and knees on examination
table, knees bent with rear end up in the air.

■ Sims’ (also known as left lateral) position: patient lying on left side with
left arm behind back, right hip and knee flexed.

■ Trendelenburg: patient lies in a supine position at an angle with head lower

than trunk, and knees bent.

■ Modified Trendelenburg: patient lies supine at an angle with head lower

than trunk, but knees straight.
■ Sitting: patient sits upright on examination table with knees bent over table
edge; feet may be resting on footrest.

■ Fowler’s position: patient sits upright on examination table with legs

extended, trunk at a 90-degree angle with back supported. Knees may be
elevated.

■ Decubitus position: lying down, specifically according to the part of the

body resting on a flat surface, as in left or right lateral decubitus, or dorsal
or ventral decubitus.

■ Left lateral recumbent: on left side, right leg drawn up.

■ Right lateral recumbent: the right lateral recumbent, or RLR, means that
the patient is lying on their right side.
 FIGURE 4.4 Illustration of different body positions.

Body cavities
A body cavity is a space within the body that contains and protects the
internal organs. Body cavities can:

a. protect delicate organs. For example, the cranial cavity protects the brain
from shocks when we walk, jump, or play.
b. allow internal organs to change shape and size. For example, our lungs,
stomach, and bladder can expand and contract because they are located inside
cavities.

There are two major cavities in the body:

1. The dorsal cavity: it is located in the skull and

within the spinal column. The dorsal cavity protects
the organs of the nervous system and it includes
two subcavities:

a. The cranial cavity is surrounded by the skull and

contains the brain (brain case).

b. The spinal (vertebral) cavity or the spinal canal is

the space located within the spinal column that
houses the spinal cord.

2. The ventral cavity: it is located in the front of the

body and is divided into two subcavities:

a. The thoracic cavity includes the right and left

pleural cavities that surround the lungs, trachea,
bronchi, esophagus, and the central pericardial
cavity which contains the heart (mediastinum).

b. The abdominopelvic cavity consists of the

superior abdominal cavity and the inferior pelvic
cavity. The abdominopelvic cavity is separated
from the thoracic cavity by the diaphragm. The
abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver,
spleen, kidneys, small and large intestines, and
ovaries (in females). The organs within this cavity
are covered by a membrane called the peritoneum.
The pelvic cavity includes the bladder, colon,
rectum, urinary bladder, uterus in females, and the
internal reproductive organs.

FIGURE 4.5 Common terms for body regions, front view.

 FIGURE 4.6 Common terms for body regions, back view.

Other body cavities include:

1. Oral and digestive: mouth and cavities of the

digestive organs

2. Nasal: located within and posterior to the nose

3. Orbital: houses the eyes

4. Middle ear: bones that transmit sound vibration

 5. Synovial: joint cavities

FIGURE 4.7 Body cavities.

Practice 4.5 Label each numbered part. Write its name in the table below.
 Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Abdominal regions
The abdominal area lies beneath the diaphragm. It holds the organs of
digestion and the organs of reproduction and excretion. Two anatomical
methods are used to divide this area of the body for medical purposes.
A. Regions. The abdominal regions can be divided by imaginary lines into
nine regions: three medial and six lateral.

The three medial regions are as follows:

1. Epigastric: The epigastric region is above the

stomach region. This region pushes out when the
diaphragm contracts during breathing.

2. Umbilical: The umbilical region contains the

umbilicus (navel).

3. Hypogastric: The hypogastric region is below the

stomach.

The six lateral regions are as follows:

1. Right hypochondriac: The right hypochondriac

region is the upper right region beneath the ribs.

2. Left hypochondriac: The left hypochondriac

region is the upper left region beneath the ribs.

3. Right lumbar: The right lumbar region is the right

middle lateral region.

4. Left lumbar: The left lumbar region is the left

middle lateral region.
 5. Right iliac (inguinal): The right iliac region is the
right lower lateral region.

6. Left iliac (inguinal): The left iliac region is the left

lower lateral region.
B. Quadrants: Dividing the abdomen into four imaginary quadrants makes it
easier to describe where an abdominal organ is located.

■ The right upper quadrant or RUQ is on the right

upper anterior side.

■ The right lower quadrant or RLQ is on the right

lower anterior side.

■ The left upper quadrant or LUQ is on the left upper

anterior side.

■ The left lower quadrant or LLQ is on the left lower

anterior side.
 FIGURE 4.8 Abdominopelvic regions and quadrants.

Divisions of the back

The spinal column is a long row of bones (33 individual bones) from the neck
to the tailbone. The vertebrae are numbered and divided into regions: cervical,
thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, and coccyx. Only the top 24 bones are moveable;
the vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx are fused. The vertebrae in each
region have unique features that help them perform their main functions.

1. Cervical (neck): The main function of the cervical spine is to support the
weight of the head (C1–C7).

2. Thoracic (chest): The main function of the thoracic spine is to hold the rib
cage and protect the heart and lungs (T1–T12).

3. Lumbar (loin or waist): The main function of the lumbar spine is to bear
the weight of the body (L1–L5).
4. Sacral (lower back): The main function of the sacrum is to connect the
spine to the hip bones (iliac). There are five sacral vertebrae, which are fused
together.

5. Coccygeal (tailbone): The four fused bones of the coccyx or tailbone

provide attachment for ligaments and muscles of the pelvic floor.
 FIGURE 4.9 Divisions of the spinal column.

Focus on reading
Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.
1. Cancer is a disease that occurs as a result of changes in normal cells. These
changes lead to uncontrolled growth that may cause a lump called a tumor
except in the case of blood cancer or leukemia. Dr Otto Warburg discovered
that cancer is caused by impaired cellular inspiration which means that the
cells can no longer use oxygen to burn glucose so that energy is produced.
Tumors can be either benign or malignant. Benign tumors do not spread to
nearby tissues or to other parts of the body and, in general, these grow at a
slow rate and do not constitute a threat to life unless these press on other
organs such as the brain or blood vessels. On the other hand, malignant or
cancerous tumors usually increase faster and spread from the primary source
to other tissues or body parts and destroy them. In other words, malignant
tumors can invade their surrounding tissues or organs. Cancer may occur in
different body parts. It can affect the blood (leukemia), lungs, pancreas,
uterine, brain, breasts, bladder, colon, prostate, etc.

2. Medical reports indicate that lung cancer is the most dangerous of all types
of cancers and diseases. Lung cancer kills about 160,000 people a year in the
USA alone – more than breast cancer, colon cancer, and prostate cancer
combined. The vast majority of cases are smoking related, but curbing the
use of tobacco is not the only challenge we have. Many nonsmokers also
suffer from lung cancer and this raises many questions for oncologists. Why
do some smokers stay healthy, but nonsmokers are often affected? Are
females more susceptible than males? How effective is early detection of the
disease? The National Cancer Institute recently announced a new research
plan – and after decades of discouragement, some researchers are voicing
cautious optimism. Researchers in genetics are investigating mutations that
may make some people vulnerable. Furthermore, biologists and radiologists
are devising new ways to detect small, localized tumors, and new treatments
are beginning to extend survival times, even for patients in their advanced
stages.

3. The etiology of lung cancer is no longer a mystery: some 87% of all cases
result directly from smoking. The most effective way to protect yourself from
lung cancer, regardless of your gender, age, career, or family history is to quit
smoking. Unfortunately, quitting smoking does not entirely remove the
damage that tobacco smoke causes to tissues of the lungs. Therefore, former
smokers remain more susceptible than nonsmokers.
4. In addition to smoking, there are other causes that may lead to cancer. It is
often reported that family history is among the major factors that may cause
lung cancer. Marshall Anderson from the University of Cincinnati Medical
Center conducted a study to identify susceptibility genes that may cause
cancer. He analyzed blood and tissue samples from 52 high-risk families, and
traced their shared risk to a small region of human chromosome 6. If labs
could be as efficient in this issue as they are now in tests on breast and colon
cancer genes, high-risk people could be singled out for special precautions,
intensive screening, and possibly even personalized treatments.

5. The challenge that researchers and physicians encounter is to diagnose the

disease at an early and treatable stage. Patients early diagnosed with small,
localized tumors enjoy a 5-year survival rate of nearly 50%. Lung cancer
usually develops silently without causing any of the usual symptoms such as
hoarseness, wheezing, coughing, and chest pain. Unfortunately, such
symptoms can only be noticed when the tumors are large and dispersed. By
the time patients get diagnosed with lung cancer, at least three out of four
patients already have reached the stage of metastasis, where the disease has
moved from its primary location to other parts of the lung or body. Traditional
chest X-rays have never been found effective in increasing survival rates, but
experts are now hoping that a new technique – the so-called spiral CT scan
(computed tomography, often called helical CT) – will succeed where old
methods have failed. The X-ray tube in the CT revolves around the chest and
identifies even the tiniest lesions in the tissues of the lung. These CT scans
enable doctors to exactly identify the lung tumors and safely excise them.
Nowadays, oncologist and researchers recommend that high-risk patients
should undergo annual CT exams. However, not all health institutions
endorse routine screening.

6. Although early diagnosis is essential in the process of saving patients’

lives, it remains part of the challenge. Although patients diagnosed early
enjoy a better chance than those diagnosed late, half of them still suffer
serious recurrences within 5 years. Fortunately, recent studies revealed that
the survival rate may rise up to 70% if traditional chemotherapy is
administered after surgery. In the meantime, researchers are still investigating
new drugs that may have better life-saving prospects.
A. Comprehension: Circle the letter of the correct
answer.

1. Paragraph 1 is mainly about

a. types of cancer

b. causes of cancer

c. types and causes of tumors

d. treatment of tumors

2. According to the text, the major cause of cancer is

a. age

b. race

c. family history

d. smoking

3. According to the text, lung cancer

a. is easy to detect

b. is transmitted in the genes

c. does not show clear signs in its early development

d. can be easily cured with drugs

4. According to the text, what things are researchers

working on to fight cancer

a. developing new drugs

b. raising people’s awareness of the dangers of

smoking

c. conducting research on genes

d. all of the above

5. Traditional X-rays were not effective in detecting

cancer because they

a. could not detect very small tumors before they

spread

b. were too dangerous to use often

c. were too complex to use often

d. are too expensive

6. According to the text, what is the most important
thing that can be done in order to fight cancer?

a. give money to cancer charities

b. develop more drugs

c. get everybody to use the CT scan

d. stop people from smoking

7. Paragraph 2 is about

a. cancer statistics

b. challenges in treating tumors

c. CT scans

d. National Cancer Institute

8. Which of the following is not part of the author’s

purpose in this text?

a. to get governments to give more money for cancer

research

b. to indicate that genetics can help determine the

possibility of getting cancer
c. to emphasize that smoking is a major cause of
cancer

d. to show that drugs and X-rays do not help much

9. Recent studies indicate that traditional

chemotherapy administered after surgery

a. increases survival chances by 7%

b. decreases survival chances by 70%

c. increases survival chances by 70%

d. has very little effect on survival rates

10. The pronoun them in paragraph 6 refers to

a. all cancer patients

b. cases where cancer is detected early in its

development

c. cases where cancer is detected late in its

development

d. cases where cancer is hard to treat

11. Which of the following phrases most closely
matches the meaning of the phrase “curbing the use
of tobacco” in paragraph 2?

a. increasing the use of tobacco

b. improving the use of tobacco

c. controlling the use of tobacco

d. allowing the use of tobacco

12. In paragraph 5, the phrase “... safely excise them”

means

a. examine them safely

b. X-ray them easily

c. cut them safely

d. detect them easily

13. In paragraph 5, the verb “endorse” could be

replaced with

a. recommend

b. acknowledge
c. deny

d. evaluate

B. Find words in the text that mean

1. penetrate body tissues (para. 1):

________________________

2. vulnerable or easily affected (para. 3):

________________________

3. treated differently (para. 4):

________________________

4. restricted to a specific body part (para. 5)

5. happening again (para. 6):

________________________

C. Word building: Complete the following table as

required.
Vocabulary development
Medical Collocations

Practice 4.6 Fill in the blanks in each of the following sentences with the
correct particle from the list. Some particles can be used more than once.

1. The nurse pointed _______ that the patient took his medicine 2 h ago.

2. Two cardiologists are planning to carry _______ an open-heart surgery

next week.

3. The doctor advised me to work _______ every day in the morning.

4. It is difficult for me to breathe. My nose is stuffed _______.

5. My stomach is agitated. I may throw _______ anytime.

6. Overweight people must cut _______ on fried and fatty foods.

7. Do not come close to me. I think that I am coming _______ with a bad flue.
8. My friend will be back at work soon. He has finally gotten _______ the
stomach virus he had last week.

9. The doctor gave me a strong ointment to get rid _______ the rash on my
hands and legs.

10. The driver was seriously injured in the accident, but the doctor says he
will pull _______.

11. The classroom was so hot and stuffy that one of the students passed
______.

12. The football player needs to go on a diet. He has put ____ so much weight
over the holidays.

Practice 4.7 List the collocations in the previous practice and give their
meanings.

1. Point out: indicate or specify

2.
______________________________________________________________

3.
______________________________________________________________

4.
______________________________________________________________

5.
______________________________________________________________

6.
______________________________________________________________

7.
______________________________________________________________
8.
______________________________________________________________

9.
______________________________________________________________

10.
______________________________________________________________

11.
______________________________________________________________

12.
______________________________________________________________

Academic Words
Study the following academic lists.
Academic List 1:

Words Definitions
1. internal inside of something (a person’s body)
2. confer to discuss something with other people, so that everyone can express their opinions
and decide on something
3. cycle an interval of time during which a characteristic, often regularly repeated event or
sequence of events occurs
4. a system that is intended to achieve something or deal with a problem
mechanis
m
5. principal first or highest in rank or importance
6. attribute to regard as arising from a particular cause or source
7. implement to take action or make changes that you have officially decided should happen
8. code (n) a set of rules, laws, or principles that tell people how to behave
9. promote to help something to develop or increase
10. series a number of objects or events arranged or coming one after the other in succession

Academic List 2:
 Words Definitions
1. to observe or inquire in detail; examine systematically
investigat
e
2. parameter a set of fixed limits that control the way that something should be done
3. insufficient
inadequat
e
4. label (n) a piece of paper or another material that is attached to something and gives
information about it
5. attitude the opinions and feelings that you usually have about something, especially when this
is shown in your behavior
6. prior existing or arranged before something else or before the present situation
7. stress continuous feelings of worry about your work or personal life, that prevent you from
relaxing
8. implicate convey a meaning indirectly
9. integrate to make into a whole by bringing all parts together
10. obligated, or devoted, as by a pledge
committed

Practice 4.8 Match the words in column A with their definitions in column B
by writing the letter of the correct answer next to the word in column A.

A B
1. confer a. convey a meaning indirectly
_______
2. attribute b. an interval of time during which a characteristic, often regularly repeated, event
_______ or sequence of events occurs
3. promote c. to discuss something with other people, so that everyone can express their
_______ opinions and decide on something
4. stress d. a number of objects or events arranged or coming one after the other in
_______ succession
5. attitude e. a set of fixed limits that control the way that something should be done
_______
6. implicate f. to observe or inquire in detail; examine systematically
_______
7. parameter g. to regard as arising from a particular cause or source
_______
8. series h. continuous feelings of worry about your work or personal life, that prevent you
_______ from relaxing
9. cycles i. to help something to develop or increase
_______
10. investigate j. the opinions and feelings that you usually have about something, especially
_______ when this is shown in your behavior
Practice 4.9 Complete each of the following sentences using the correct word
from the box.

1. The patient is bleeding _______________, and needs to be operated on

immediately.

2. Thousands of deaths each year are _______________ to drunk drivers.

3. I have _______________ with your family doctor, and we both feel that an
operation is unnecessary at this point.

4. Eating too much sugar _______________ tooth decay.

5. The information _______________ on DNA must be preserved for the

survival of an organism.

6. Harvey is overweight _______________ because he does not ever do any

exercise.

7. While we sleep, we experience repeated _______________ of brain

activity.

8. A properly _______________ diet can help to improve health and reduce

stress.

9. Eating is a requirement for living; therefore, there must be

_______________ in the body and mind that make us hungry and interested in
eating at regular intervals.

10. Psychologists believed that every child goes through a ______________

of personality development stages.
Practice 4.10 Complete each of the following sentences using the correct
word from the box.

The scientific method is the main tool used by psychologists for

_______________ both the mind and behavior.

1. Dr Hans Selye observed that adopting the right attitude can convert a
negative __________ into a positive one.

2. Recent research suggests that children born to teenage mothers are more
likely to be poor, and to receive __________ health care and education.

3. Evidence suggests that newborn babies can hear and remember things
which occurred _______________ to birth.

4. Stress has been _______________ in a wide variety of illnesses.

5. According to the information on the __________, you should take this

medication just before meal time.

6. After analyzing the available medical data, doctors decided to modify the
original _______________ of the spreadsheet to accommodate more
information.

7. Our company policy states that we are ______________ to fairness and

honesty in all our dealings.

8. Human hair and fingernails are the last part of the body to __________
after we die.

9. Many psychologists believe that we form our _______________ and

opinions of ourselves in part by observing our own behavior.

Focus on grammar
Confusing verbs
Some verbs in English are troublesome and confusing to students in terms of
meaning and spelling such as the verbs lie and lay. A brief description of the
meanings and forms of these verbs may be helpful.

Examples

The farmer was very tired and so he lay under a tree to take a nap.

I have lain on the bed for half an hour.

I laid the book on the table.

He lied to me when I asked him why he was absent.

Our house lies behind that the police station.

Practice 4.11 Fill in the blank in each of the following sentences with the
correct form of the verbs: lie or lay. State whether the action means recline,
place, or give false information.

1. The patient has _______________________ in bed all day.

Meaning: _______________________.
2. Where did the lab technician _______________________ his lab coat?

Meaning: _______________________
3. These medications _______________________ on this table last week.

Meaning: _______________________
4. The old man was _______________________ down when the doctor came
to see him.

5. These X-rays do not _______________________. They are usually

accurate.

Meaning: _______________________
6. Our college _______________________ on the side of the river between
those trees.

Meaning: _______________________

Practice 4.12 Use each of the confusing verbs in the list above in a sentence
of your own.

1. lie: ____________________________________________________
(recline)

2. lie: ___________________________________________ (occupy a

position)

3. lay:
__________________________________________________(place/put)

4. lie: ____________________________________ (present false information)

Oral communication skills

Role play: Doctor–patient conversation
1. Work with a partner and complete the dialogue between a doctor and his
patient.

Dr Sami: Good morning Mr Ali.

Ali:
___________________________________________
_________________

Dr Sami: What’s wrong with you?

Ali:
___________________________________________
_________________

Dr Sami: Do you suffer from any other problem?

Ali:
___________________________________________
_________________

Dr Sami: Let me check you fever and feel your pulse.

Don’t worry. Everything is normal. There is nothing
serious. I will give you two medicines. One is a
painkiller and the other is for allergy. You will feel
much better in a couple of days.

Ali:
___________________________________________
 _________________

Dr Sami: However, you need to get your blood tested for

hemoglobin. Bring me the report tomorrow in the
afternoon.

Ali:
___________________________________________
_________________

Dr Sami: I will give you a sick leave for 2 days. You

need to relax.

Ali: Thank you doctor. Can you tell me how to take the
medicines?

Dr Sami:
___________________________________________
_____________

Ali: What should I eat doctor? Any special food?

Dr Sami:
___________________________________________
_____________

Ali: Thank you doctor. See you tomorrow.

1. Act out the dialogue.

2. Summarize the reading passage orally in your own

words.

Focus on writing
Practice 4.13 Write an extended definition for one of the following items:

1. Body positions

2. Body planes

3. Body cavities

Review exercises
A. Case study 1: Read the following case study and answer the questions
following it.

A 65-year-old man who recently retired from his work as an architect was
admitted to an accident and emergency department (A&E) because of
intermittent pain in the chest for 3 days. He was a chronic smoker for more
than 25 years with a history of hypertension in addition to feelings of
discomfort, pressure, heaviness, or pain in arm. An ECG was done at the
emergency department which revealed that the patient suffers from an
anterior ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). Therefore,
thrombolysis was given due to the persistent chest pain in order to dissolve
clots in blood vessels, improve blood flow, and prevent damage to tissues and
organs. A loading dose of aspirin, clopidogrel, and enoxaparin were
administered as well. He was then sent to the CCU where his blood pressure
dropped to 70/49 mm Hg and his pulse rose up to 120/min. He was sweating
profusely but his temperature was still within normal range. Physical
examination revealed an elevated JVP together with a pansystolic murmur
throughout the precordium. The ECG did not show any serial change.
Answer the following questions:
1. Why was the old man taken to hospital?

2. Describe his history.

3. How was his health problem diagnosed?

4. What was the diagnosis?

5. Why was he given thrombolysis?

6. Find a word in the text that is the opposite of posterior.

7. Find a word in the text that means discontinuous.

8. What do the abbreviations ECG, CCU, JVP stand for?

9. Find a word that means continuous.

10. Give the noun forms of prevent, retire, persistent.

11. Define the phrase “a loading dose”?

Case study 2: Read the following case study and answer the questions
following it.
June 26, 2016
Ayman Muaz, MD
210 University City Street
Sharjah, UAE 10669
RE: Karima Ali
DOB: 1/03/55

1. Mrs Karima was seen in consultation for further evaluation and treatment
of a right first rib and clavicular problem. She is a 61-year-old female who
had developed significant right anterior chest wall pain in the parasternal area
higher up. This occurred for the first time in March of 2015. The pain
improved and became much less problematic. The patient notices a worsening
pain when she has a spell of coughing or with deep breathing. There is some
radiation to the axilla.
2. The patient has a history of trauma to the right shoulder while lifting
weights. This caused a chronic pain in the shoulder for quite a few years and
was finally diagnosed as a separated shoulder back in 2010 and was treated
with a distal clavicle resection and an acromioplasty. She does have a history
of a preview X-ray done in 2012 which showed a bony abnormality at this
same spot. The patient has had a workup of this with a bone scan done on May
19, 2013, which showed abnormal tracer activity in the medial right clavicle
or the medial right first rib corresponding to the osseous area on the chest X-
ray. This was felt to represent hypertrophic changes with bridging of the
medial right clavicle on the first rib. The patient also had a CT scan of the
chest which showed an osseous abnormality at the junction of the right first
rib and clavicle done on May 16, 2013. This had a benign appearance. The
patient denies any recent trauma to the chest or shoulder.

3. Physical examination: The patient is a thin, 61-year-old female. Her vital

signs show a blood pressure of 128/80, pulse of 80, and respiratory rate of 16.
Her neck exam shows no cervical adenopathy and her thyroid is normal. Her
heart exam has a regular rate and rhythm and no murmurs. Her lungs have
clear breath sounds bilaterally. Her right clavicular area is not prominent
visually and is not tender by palpation. There is some tenderness in the right
parasternal area at about the third rib. Otherwise, the patient has normal
breast development and normal chest contour. The abdomen is flat and not
tender with no hepatomegaly. The extremities have good range of motion.
There are palpable peripheral pulses and no peripheral edema. The
neuromuscular exam shows grossly intact strength and sensation in all
extremities and the cranial nerves are intact bilaterally. The patient is oriented
to person, place, and time.

4. My impression is that the patient appears to have a process involving the

right first rib and clavicle with ossification indicating a chronic problem. I
suspect this is related to her history of previous right shoulder trauma with
weightlifting about 6 years ago. I see no evidence of a soft tissue tumor and
the bony appearance, as mentioned in the CT report, appears benign. This may
be related to her recent history of pain, although I think a conservative
approach is in order. I would recommend a follow-up CT scan in 3 months.
She should treat the pain symptomatically and resort to narcotics only if
necessary. I see no need for an invasive biopsy at this time.
Find a word in the case study that means

1. further __________________________

2. front ____________________________

3. middle __________________________

4. pertaining to skull ________________

5. pertaining to the neck _____________

6. any disease of a gland _____________

7. pertaining to both sides ____________

8. armpit ___________________________

9. The term “parasternal” means

a. above the sternum

b. below the sternum

c. near the sternum

d. behind the sternum

10. The word clavicular mostly means:

a. either of the bones joining the breastbone to the

shoulder blades

b. breastbone
 c. muscle

d. shoulder blades
11. Write T or F after each statement

a. The patient’s chief complaint was attributed to

radiation. _______

b. Dr Ayman recommended that the patient take

painkillers once a day before bedtime. __________

c. The patient complains of an acute ossification

problem in the first right rib. _______

d. The physical examination showed that the patient’s

muscular system had no abnormalities. _________

e. Upon examination, the patient was found to have an

enlarged liver. _________

f. Acromioplasty is given in the report as part of the

patient’s past medical history. _________
12. The demonstrative pronoun “this” in paragraph 2 refers to

a. lifting weights

b. trauma to the right shoulder

 c. radiation to axilla

d. coughing and breathing

13. The word “tender” in the text means

a. soft

b. painless

c. painful

d. abnormal
B. Provide the meaning of each of the following medical terms.
C. Match the words in column A with their meanings in column B.
 A B
1. abdominopelvic _______ a. pertaining to the sole of the foot
2. adduction _______ b. tailbone
3. cervical _______ c. ventral cavity that contains heart and associated structure
4. coccyx _______ d. toward the surface of the body
5. deep _______ e. lying horizontal with face down
6. eversion _______ f. turning outward
7. inferior _______ g. nearer to the center
8. inversion _______ h. ventral cavity that contains digestive and other structures
9. lumbar _______ i. turning inward
10. plantar _______ j. neck
11. posterior _______ k. movement toward the median plane
12. prone _______ l. away from the head; toward the tail
13. proximal _______ m. away from the surface of the body
14. superficial _______ n. loin
15. thoracic _______ o. near the back of the body

D. Circle the letter of the most appropriate answer.

1. Which of the following does not describe the

anatomic position?

a. face forward

b. arms at side

c. feet parallel

d. palms toward the back

2. The abdominopelvic cavity is separated from the

thoracic cavity by the

a. hipbone

b. lungs
c. diaphragm

d. pelvis

3. The ventral cavity consists of the

a. abdominopelvic and thoracic cavities

b. superior and inferior cavities

c. thoracic and abdominal cavities

d. thoracic and spinal cavities

4. The peritoneum is

a. the large membrane that lines the abdominopelvic

cavity

b. the membrane around the lungs

c. the large membrane that lines the thoracic cavity

d. the membrane around the heart

5. A dorsal structure is located

a. toward the back

b. toward the front

c. toward the midline

d. toward the side

6. The opposite of distal is

a. inferior

b. lateral

c. proximal

d. anterior

7. A term that means the same as posterior is

a. dorsal

b. inferior

c. cephalic

d. ventral

8. The opposite of inferior is

a. distal
b. dorsal

c. medial

d. superior

9. The elbow is proximal to the

a. shoulder

b. arm

c. wrist

d. neck

10. A person in a supine position is

a. sitting

b. lying face up

c. standing and looking forward

d. lying face down

11. The opposite of supine is

a. prone
b. superior

c. pronated

d. prognathic

12. A transverse plane divides the body into

a. ventral and dorsal

b. anterior and posterior parts

c. right and left parts

d. superior and inferior parts

13. A frontal plane divides the body into

a. superior and inferior parts

b. anterior and posterior parts

c. left and right parts

d. lateral parts

14. The cranial cavity is a subdivision of the

a. abdominal cavity
b. pelvic cavity

c. dorsal cavity

d. ventral cavity

15. The most superior medial region of the abdomen

is the

a. epigastric

b. iliac

c. lumbar

d. hypochondriac

16. The central, medial region of the abdomen is the

a. umbilical

b. right lumbar

c. left hypochondriac

d. hypogastric

17. The region of the abdomen that contains the hip

bone is the
a. lumbar

b. right hypochondriac

c. epigastric

d. iliac

18. The abbreviations LUQ, RUQ, RLQ, and LLQ

refer to

a. quadrants of the abdomen

b. regions of the heart

c. the dorsal body cavity

d. the arms and legs

19. The term coccygeal refers to the

a. tailbone

b. diaphragm

c. buttocks

d. liver
20. Cervicobrachial refers to the

a. hand and foot

b. neck and spine

c. brain and face

d. neck and arm

21. Podiatry is a specialty for the study and treatment

of the

a. lung

b. skin

c. eyes

d. foot

22. The antebrachium is the

a. shoulder

b. forearm

c. wrist
 d. elbow

23. The etiology of a disease is its

a. outcome

b. severity

c. cause

d. immune response
E. Match the proper anatomical term in column A with the common term in
column B for the body regions listed below.

A B
1 inguinal ___________ a. breastbone
2 frontal ___________ b. sole
3 sternal ___________ c. armpit
4 carpal ___________ d. toe
5 gluteal ___________ e. base of skull
6 antecubital ___________ f. point of shoulder
7 plantar ___________ g. shoulder blade
8 digital ___________ h. groin
9 scapular ___________ i. buttock
10 popliteal ___________ j. cheek
11 axillary ___________ k. thumb
12 acromial ___________ l. wrist
13 occipital ___________ m. back of knee
14 pollex ___________ n. forehead
15 buccal ___________ o. front of elbow

F. Label each numbered part. Write its name in the table below.
 Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

G. Complete each of the following sentences using the proper term from
the box.
1. The forehead is ___________________ to the nose.

2. The navel is ___________________ to the breastbone.

3. The breastbone is ___________________ to the spine.

4. The heart is ___________________ to the arm.

5. The elbow is ___________________ to the wrist.

6. The heart is ___________________ to the breastbone.

7. The knee is ___________________ to the thigh.

8. The skin is ___________________ to the skeleton.

9. The lungs are ___________________ to the rib cage.

10. The arms are ___________________ to the chest.

H. Name the body parts that refer to the following adjectives.

1. phalangeal
______________________________________

2. cervical
_________________________________________

3. intercostal
_______________________________________

4. macrocephaly
____________________________________
 5. sublingual
________________________________________

6. syndactyly
_______________________________________

7. circumoral
______________________________________

8. periosteum
______________________________________

9. infraumbilical
____________________________________

10. bipedal
_________________________________________
I. Label each body position. Write its name below the figure.

1.
_________________________________________
 ____________________

2.
_________________________________________
____________________

3.
_________________________________________
____________________
4.
_________________________________________
____________________

5.
_________________________________________
____________________
6.
_________________________________________
____________________

7.
_________________________________________
____________________
 8.
_________________________________________
____________________
J. Identify the root in each of the following terms and define it.

Term Root Meaning of Root

1. polymorphous________________
________________
2. jaundice ________________
________________
3.visceral ________________
________________
4. somatic ________________
________________
5. femoral ________________
________________
6. antebrachium________________
________________
7. cirrhosis ________________
________________
8. heterochromic
________________
________________
9. inferior ________________
________________
10. caudal ________________
________________

K. Circle the correct answer.

Self-assessment
Check (✓) what you learned. If you need more information or practice, refer
to the relevant section in the chapter.

( ) I can differentiate between the levels of body organization.

( ) I can identify combining forms and tell their meanings.

( ) I can name the major body systems and their functions.

( ) I can analyze medical terms pertaining to body structure into their

constituents.

( ) I can identify body planes and regions.

( ) I can identify body positions.

( ) I can identify body cavities and the organs within each.

( ) I can identify directional terms.

( ) I can use certain medical collocations and academic words properly.

( ) I can pronounce medical terms properly.

( ) I can read medical texts for main ideas and details.

( ) I can ask and answer questions pertaining to medical issues.

( ) I can report medical cases orally.

( ) I can spell the new medical terms in the chapter.

CHAPTER 5

Body systems

CONTENTS
Body Systems 197
Medical Terms
Abbreviations
Focus on Reading 247
Vocabulary Development 250
Medical Collocations: Idioms 250
Academic Words 253
Focus on Grammar 255
Oral Communication Skills 258
Focus on Writing 260
Pronunciation of Medical Terms 261
Review Exercises 265
Self-Assessment 286

Learning outcomes

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

1. differentiate between the terms system, organ, and tissue
2. identify body systems
3. identify the body organs in each system
4. explain the major functions of each system
5. identify and define the roots and medical terms pertaining to each
system
6. interpret abbreviations used in reference to each system
7. pronounce new medical terms pertaining to each system
8. write a referral letter
9. use new words and medical terms in daily activities

Body systems
The human body is very complex because it consists of a huge number of
microscopic parts that have their own special properties. They work together
in a very delicate and well-organized manner to best serve the human being.
These small structures are the cells, tissues, organs, and systems.
The cell is the basic structural, functional, and simplest unit of any living
organism. Cells can maintain life and reproduce themselves. Each cell
consists of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane. The human
body, which starts as a single, newly fertilized cell, consists of a great number
of cells. These small cells are grouped together in a highly organized manner
in order to form tissues. This means that a tissue is a structure of a great
number of similar cells. Tissues can be of different types: muscle, connective,
epithelial, and nervous.
Organs, on the other hand, are far more complex than tissues. An organ or a
body part consists of tissues that perform one or more specific functions.
Organs of the body include the heart, the liver, the stomach, the eye, the nose,
the kidney, and the ear, etc.
Finally, a system consists of varying numbers and types of organs that
perform complex functions. Systems do not function in isolation of each
other. Their functions are inextricably tied to each other. No system can
function independently. The body systems work together to form an organism
or a living thing such as a plant, bacterium, fungus, or an animal.
 FIGURE 5.1 Images for cells, tissues, organs, systems, and organisms.

The following are the major types of body systems:

1. The integumentary system includes the skin and its appendages such as
the hair, nails, sweat, and oil glands. The skin is the largest body organ. It
protects the body from various kinds of damage, such as loss of water or
abrasion from outside. The skin performs the following functions:
■ provides a physical barrier against microorganisms
and foreign materials

■ prevents absorption of harmful substances from

outside the body

■ protects underlying structures, such as fragile organs

■ protects against excessive sun exposure (ultraviolet

rays)

■ cushions internal organs against trauma

■ produces secretions for protection and water regulation

■ absorbs helpful medicines

■ communicates feelings and moods through facial

expressions

■ prevents nutrients from being washed out of the body

■ controls body temperature by convection, evaporation,

conduction, and radiation
It is obvious now that the skin performs protection, thermoregulation,
metabolism, sensation, communication, and perspiration.
The skin is divided into a number of layers. The epidermis is the thin
superficial layer. It is the outermost protective layer of the skin. The second
layer that comes below the epidermis is called the dermis. It is thicker than
the epidermis and contains collagen and elastin – fibers that give strength,
structure, and elasticity.
The third layer is the subcutaneous layer that consists of mainly fat and it
is the source of nerves and blood vessels as well as the roots of your hair
follicles, oil glands, and sweat glands.

FIGURE 5. 2 Layers of the skin.

Table 5.1

Roots for the Integumentary System

Practice 5.1 Use the root onych/o to form words that mean:

1. tumors of the nails

_______________________________________________

2. softening of the nails

_____________________________________________

3. abnormal condition of the nails ___________________________________

4. abnormal condition of the nails caused by fungus ____________________

5. abnormal condition of a hidden nail _______________________________

6. disease of the nails

_______________________________________________

Practice 5.2 Identify the root in each of the following terms and define it.

Term Root Meaning of Root

1. hypodermis __________________ __________________
2. eponychium__________________ __________________
3. hypertrichosis
__________________
__________________
4. keratosis __________________ __________________
5. hidradenitis __________________
__________________
6. adipectomy __________________ __________________
7. lipocele __________________
__________________
8. dermatoplasty__________________
__________________

Practice 5.3 Match each of the following terms in column A with its meaning
in column B.
 A B
1 conjunctiva ________ a. pertaining to hair in a cyst
2 sclera ________ b. outer layer of the skin
3 subungual ________ c. malignant tumor of pigmented cells in the skin
4 epidermis ________ d. absence of the lens of the eye
5 myringotomy ________ e. any disease of the retina
6 melanoma ________ f. visual examination of the ear
7 otoscopy ________ g. white, outer coat of the eyeball
8 aphakia ________ h. pertaining to under the nail
9 retinopathy ________ i. incision into the eardrum
10 pilonidal ________ j. thin, protective membrane over the front of the eye

Table 5.2

Abbreviations Used for the Integumentary System

Abbreviation Meaning
AD right ear
AS left ear
ENT ear, nose, throat
HEENT head, eyes, ears, nose, throat
HL hearing level
ID intradermal
IOL intraocular lens
IOP intraocular pressure
IV intravenous
NVA near visual acuity
OD right eye
OS left eye
OT otolaryngology
OU both eyes/each eye
PERRLA pupils equal, round, reactive to light and accommodation
ST speech threshold
TM tympanic membrane
VA visual acuity
VF visual fields
XP xeroderma pigmentosum

2. The musculoskeletal system consists of all the bones of the body (206) and
their associated cartilages, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints. This
system provides form, stability, and support to the body. It also enables the
body to move. The body bones work with the muscles in order to maintain the
body positions and to produce controlled and precise movements.
 The skeleton performs five major functions:

■ provides structural support and framework for the body.

■ stores minerals and lipids: most of the calcium the body needs is stored in
the bones; the bones also store energy reserves as lipid in areas filled with
yellow marrow.

■ produces blood cells: red blood cells, white blood cells, and other blood
elements are produced in the red marrow which fills the internal cavities of
many bones; blood production is called hematopoiesis.

■ protects the body organs: many soft tissues and organs are surrounded by
skeletal elements; for example, the rib cage protects the heart and lungs;
the skull protects the brain; the vertebrae protect the spinal cord; and the
pelvis protects the delicate reproductive organs.

■ provides control and movement: many bones function as levers that can
change the magnitude and direction of the forces generated by muscles.

The skeleton consists of the following main bones:

■ The skull: cranium, mandible, and maxilla

■ Shoulder girdle: clavicle and scapula

■ Arm: humerus, radius, and ulna

■ Hand: carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges

■ Chest : sternum and ribs

■ Spine: cervical area (top 7 vertebrae), thoracic (next 12), lumbar (bottom 5
vertebrae), sacrum (5 fused or stuck together bones), and coccyx (the tiny
bit at the bottom of the spine)

■ Pelvic girdle: ilium, pubis, and ischium

■ Leg: femur, tibia, and fibula

■ Ankle: talus and calcaneus

■ Foot: tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges

FIGURE 5.3 The human skeleton.

The musculoskeletal system also contains other elements such as:

■ Joints: These are the structures where two bones are joined.

■ Tendons: A tendon is a flexible but inelastic cord or fibrous tissue that

connects a muscle to a bone.

■ Ligaments: A ligament is a band of fibrous tissue connecting bones or

cartilages.

■ Skeletal muscles: These muscles contract to pull on tendons and move the
bones of the skeleton. These also maintain posture and body position,
 support soft tissues, guard entrances and exits to the digestive and urinary
tracts, and maintain body temperature.

■ Nerves: Nerves control the contraction of skeletal muscles, interpret

sensory information, and coordinate the activities of the organ systems of
the body.

■ Cartilage: This is a type of connective tissue. The body contains three

major types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and
fibrocartilage.
 FIGURE 5.4 Parts of the skeletal system.

There are about 700 muscles in the body. Skeletal muscles are the only
muscles in the body that are consciously controlled. The remaining muscles
work involuntarily and they are inside the organs of the body such as the heart
and the stomach. The skeletal muscles attach two bones together with
tendons, which are very strong and can hold up under extreme stress. Muscles
lengthen and shorten in order to allow motion so the two bones can move
further apart or closer together.
FIGURE 5.5 Major muscles of the body (anterior and posterior view).
Table 5.3

Roots for the Musculoskeletal System

Practice 5.4 Match each of the following terms in column A with its meaning
in column B.

A B
1 intervertebral ________ a. abnormal large head
2 craniotomy ________ b. excision of the patella
3 myelodysplasia ________ c. breastbone
4 sternum ________ d. sternum pain
5 spondylosis ________ e. malignant tumor of smooth muscle
6 patellectomy ________ f. abnormal condition of the backbone
7 sternodynia ________ g. pertaining to the ilium and femur
8 iliofemoral ________ h. abnormal growth of bone marrow cells
9 leiomysarcoma ________ i. incision into the skull
10 cephalomegaly ________ j. between the vertebrae

Practice 5.5 Define the following terms:

1. laminectomy
____________________________________________________

2. arthroplasty
_____________________________________________________
3. chondroma
_____________________________________________________

4. hypotonia
_______________________________________________________

5. inositis
_________________________________________________________

6. tenorrhaphy
_____________________________________________________

7. pelvioscopy
_____________________________________________________

8. atony
__________________________________________________________

Table 5.4

Abbreviations Used for the Musculoskeletal System

Abbreviation Meaning
AE above the elbow
AK above the knee
ASF anterior spinal fusion
BE below the elbow
BK below the knee
DJD degenerative joint disease
DTR deep tendon reflex
EMG electromyography
Fx fracture
IM intramuscular
NSAIDs nonsteriodal anti-inflammatory drugs
PT physical therapy
ROM range of motion
THA total hip arthroplasty
TKA total knee arthroplasty
TMJ temporomandibular joint
3. The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels.
It transports oxygen and nutrients to the body tissues and helps the body to
dispose of metabolic wastes. It is also called the circulatory system. The
major components of this system are as follows:

■ The heart: It is a hollow muscular pumping organ that

pumps the blood into the circulatory system through a
network of arteries and veins by rhythmic contraction
and dilation. Its size is about the size of the fist and it
is located medial to the lungs along the body’s
midline in the thoracic region. The heart consists of
four major chambers.

■ The right atrium receives blood from the veins and

pumps it to the right ventricle.

■ The right ventricle receives blood from the right

atrium and pumps it to the lungs, where it is loaded
with oxygen.

■ The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the

lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle.

■ The left ventricle (the strongest chamber) pumps

oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body. The left
ventricle’s vigorous contractions create our blood
pressure.
■ Blood vessels: Blood vessels are the body’s pathways that allow blood to
flow quickly and efficiently from the heart to every region of the body and
back again. The size of blood vessels corresponds with the amount of blood
that passes through the vessel. All blood vessels contain a hollow area
called the lumen through which blood is able to flow. Around the lumen is
the wall of the vessel, which may be thin in the case of capillaries or very
thick in the case of arteries. Blood vessels can be classified into three major
types:

■ Arteries: An artery is a muscular vessel through which

the oxygenated blood is conveyed from the heart to
the various parts of the body. The small vessels that
branch from arteries to transport the blood to the
capillaries are called arterioles.

■ Capillaries: These are the smallest of blood vessels

and distribute oxygenated blood from the arteries to
the various body tissues. These also convey
deoxygenated blood from the tissues to the veins.

■ Veins: They are blood vessels through which blood

passes from the various parts of the body back to the
heart. The small veins that collect blood from the
capillaries and other tissues of the body back to the
heart are referred to as venules.
■ Blood: It is the red fluid or liquid that circulates through the heart, arteries,
and veins and carries oxygen and nutrients to all body tissues (arterial
blood). It also removes waste materials and carbon dioxide from the body
tissues (venous blood). The blood consists of white and red cells, platelets,
proteins, plasma (the liquid part of the blood that transports blood cells and
other components through the body). The red cells (erythrocytes) contain
hemoglobin that carries oxygen in the blood. The white blood cells
(leukocytes) protect the body from infection and disease by killing the
invading microbes. Finally, platelets are blood elements that help in
clotting.

FIGURE 5.6 The components of the heart.

FIGURE 5.7 Principal systemic arteries and veins.
Table 5.5

Roots for the Cardiovascular System

Practice 5.6 Write the medical term for each of the following definitions.

1. disease of heart muscle _________________________________________

2. inflammation of the membrane surrounding the heart ______________

3. X-ray of a vein _________________________________________________

4. plastic repair of an artery ________________________________________

5. inflammation of a vein _________________________________________

6. rupture of the heart ____________________________________________

7. separation of a blood clot _______________________________________

8. hardening of the aorta __________________________________________

9. removal of an embolus _________________________________________

10. poisonous to the heart __________________________________________

Practice 5.7 Use the root angi/o to write words with the following meanings:

1. any disease of a vessel _________________________

2. dilation of a vessel ____________________________

3. plastic repair of a vessel _______________________

4. formation of a vessel __________________________

5. softening of a vessel ___________________________

6. record of a vessel _____________________________

Table 5.6

Abbreviations Used for the Cardiovascular System

Abbreviation Meaning
ACS acute coronary syndrome
AED automated external defibrillator
AF atrial fibrillation
AMI acute myocardial infarction
AR aortic regurgitation
AS aortic stenosis
ASD atrial septal defect
ASHD arteriosclerosis heart disease
AST angiotension sensitivity test
AV arteriovenous
BP blood pressure
BPM beats per minute
CABG coronary artery bypass grafting
CAD coronary artery disease
CCU coronary care unit
CHF congestive heart failure
CO cardiac output
CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation
CVA cerebrovascular accident
DVT deep venous thrombosis
ECG electrocardiogram
ECHO echocardiogram
ETT exercise tolerance test
HDL high-density lipoprotein
HF heart failure
HTN hypertension
LDL low-density lipoprotein
LV left ventricle
LVH left ventricular hypertrophy
MI myocardial infarction
MR mitral regurgitation
MVP mitral valve prolapse
NSR normal sinus rhythm
PCI percutaneous coronary intervention
SV stroke volume
VT ventricular tachycardia

4. The lymphatic (lymph) system works in close cooperation with the

circulatory system. It consists of the lymph, lymphatic vessels, spleen,
tonsils, adenoids, and thymus. It is a network of tissues and organs that helps
the body to get rid of toxins and waste materials. Its major role is to transport
a fluid, called the lymph, that contains leukocytes throughout the body in
order to fight infection. The lymphatic system consists of hundreds of nodes
distributed in different locations in the human body. The major functions of
the lymphatic system include:

■ It is part of the immune system.

■ It maintains fluid balance.

■ It helps in absorbing fats and fat-soluble nutrients.

■ The lymph nodes swell in response to infection.

■ The lymph nodes filter lymph and provide part of the

adaptive immune response to new pathogens.
FIGURE 5.8 The lymph and immune system.
 FIGURE 5.9 Lymphocytes attack a cancer cell.

Table 5.7

Roots for the Lymphatic System

Practice 5.8 Use the appropriate root to produce words with the following
meanings.
1. inflammation of the lymphatic vessels ___________________

2. a tumor of lymphatic tissue _____________________________

3. excision of the lymph nodes ______________________

4. pertaining to the thymus gland _________________________

5. inflammation of a tonsil _________________

6. pain in the spleen ________________________

7. X-ray study of the lymphatic vessels ________________________

Practice 5.9 Write the adjective form of the following words:

1. atrium _____________________________

2. thymus _____________________________

3. vein _______________________________

4. septum _____________________________

5. spleen _____________________________
Table 5.8

Abbreviations Used for the Lymphatic System

Abbreviation Meaning
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
ALL acute lymphocytic leukemia
CLL chronic lymphocytic leukemia
CML chronic myelogenous leukemia
ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
HAART highly active antiretroviral therapy
HD Hodgkin disease
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
IgA, D, E, G immunoglobulin A, D, E, G
MAC mycobacterium avium complex
PCP pneumocystic pneumonia
SLE systemic lupus erythematosus

5. The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense
organs, such as the eye and the ear, and all the nerves that connect these
organs with the body. It is responsible for the control and communication
among its various parts. The nervous system comprises a complicated number
of nerves and specialized cells called neurons. These are nerve cells whose
function is to receive signals from sensory cells and from other neurons and
send signals to muscle neurons as well as other neurons.

The nervous system comprises two major components: the central nervous
system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of
the brain and the spinal cord, whereas the PNS consists of the nerves outside
the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nerves connect the CNS to
sensory organs including the eyes and ears as well as to other parts of the
body such as the muscles, blood vessels, and glands.
 FIGURE 5.10 The peripheral nervous system.

The following is a description of the major components of the nervous

system and their functions.

1. The brain is the part of the CNS that is enclosed in the skull. It consists of
two halves: the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere; each of which has
its own functions. The brain is the controller of the body because it is the
primary receiver, organizer, and distributor of information for the entire
human body.

The brain consists of the following major parts:

- The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and it is

responsible for most of the functions of the brain. It
consists of four sections called lobes: the temporal
lobe, the occipital lobe, the parietal lobe, and the
 frontal lobe. It is also divided into the right and left
hemispheres that are connected with each other by
axons whose function is to convey messages from one
hemisphere to another.

- The cerebellum is often referred to as the “little brain.”

It is located behind the top part of the brain stem
where the spinal cord is connected with the brain. It
receives information from the sensory systems, the
spinal cord, and other parts of the brain. It is also
responsible for regulating motor movements.

- The brain stem is the part of the brain that is

connected to the spinal cord. It controls the flow of
messages between the brain and the remaining parts of
the body. It also controls the basic functions of the
body such as heartbeat, blood pressure, swallowing,
and breathing. It is composed of the midbrain, pons,
and medulla oblongata. The limbic system is part of
the brain stem that consists of glands which play an
important role in emotions and the formation of
memories. It includes the amygdala, hippocampus,
hypothalamus, and thalamus. The limbic system is
responsible for three major functions: emotions,
memories, and arousal (or stimulation).
2. Spinal cord is the column of nerve tissue that is connected to the brain and
lies within the vertebral canal and from which the spinal nerves emerge. It
extends from the medulla oblongata in the brain stem to the lumbar region of
the vertebral column. Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves originate in the spinal
cord: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. The spinal
cord and the brain constitute the CNS.

FIGURE 5.11 Division of spinal column.

FIGURE 5.12 Major components of the brain.

FIGURE 5.13 Lobes of the brain.

FIGURE 5.14 The limbic system.
Table 5.9

Roots for the Nervous System

Practice 5.10 Match each of the following terms in column A with its
meaning in column B.
 A B
1 myeloplegia ________ a. tumor of a ganglion
2 dyskinesia _______ b. within the cerebellum
3 neurotripsy ____________ c. lack of sleep
4 encephalography _________ d. paralysis of the spinal cord
5 craniometer _______ e. radiography of the brain
6 ganglioma ________ f. outside the cerebrum
7 neuropathy ___________ g. crushing of a nerve
8 insomnia __________ h. instrument for measuring the skull
9 intracerebellar __________ i. difficult movement
10 extracerebral __________ j. any disease of the nerve

Practice 5.11 Complete the following sentences with the proper word.

1. Destruction of nerve is called ________________________.

2. Any disease of the spinal nerve root is also termed

____________________.

3. The term psychogenic means originating in the

_______________________.

4. Outside the medulla is called ____________________________.

5. Radiograph of a ventricle is called _______________________.

Table 5.10

Abbreviations Used for the Nervous System

Abbreviation Meaning
AD Alzheimer disease
CNS central nervous system
CSF cerebrospinal fluid
CVA cerebrovascular accident
EEG electroencephalogram
LP lumbar puncture
MS multiple sclerosis
TENS transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation
TIA transient ischemic attack
ALS amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
PNS peripheral nervous system
BBB blood–brain barrier
CT computed tomography
ADHD attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
ANS autonomic nervous system
ICP intracranial pressure
MRI magnetic resonance imaging
MRA magnetic resonance angiogram

6. The endocrine system includes all hormone-producing glands and cells

such as the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, parathyroid glands,
adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries (in females), and testicles (in males). Its
major function is to regulate body functions pertaining to metabolism, growth
and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep and
mood by means of hormones.
FIGURE 5.15 Female reproductive system.
Table 5.11

Roots for the Endocrine System

Practice 5.12 Write the name of each numbered part in the table below.
 Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Practice 5.13 Use glyc/o to build words that mean:

1. blood condition of excessive glucose _______________________________

2. blood condition of deficiency of glucose ____________________________

3. formation of glycogen
____________________________________________

Practice 5.14 Supply the missing part of the term.

1. removal of a gland is................ectomy

2. removal of the pituitary gland is.................ectomy

3. removal of an adrenal gland is.................ectomy

4. removal of the thymus gland is..................ectomy

5. removal of part of the pancreas is................ectomy

6. removal of the thyroid gland is................ectomy

7. removal of one or more of the thyroid gland is................ectomy

Table 5.12

Abbreviations Used for the Endocrine System

Abbreviation Meaning
A1c glycated hemoglobin
ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone
ADH antidiuretic hormone
BMI body mass index
BMR basal metabolic rate
DI diabetes ketoacidosis
DM diabetes mellitus
FSH follicle-stimulating hormone
FTI free thyroxine index
GH growth hormone
GTT glucose tolerance test
HbA1c hemoglobin A1c measures the average amount of glucose in red blood cells
HCG human chorionic gonadotropin
HRT hormone replacement therapy
IFG impaired fasting blood glucose
K+ potassium
LH luteinizing hormone
MEN multiple endocrine neoplasia
Na+ sodium
OGTT oral glucose tolerance test
PGH pituitary growth hormone
PRL prolactin
PTH parathyroid hormone
RAI radioactive iodine
STH somatotropin hormone
T3 triiodothyronine
T4 thyroxine
TBG thyroxine-binding globulin
TFT thyroid function test
TSH thyroid-stimulating hormone

7. The respiratory system includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,

bronchi, and lungs.

It transports air into and out of the lungs. It facilitates the diffusion of the
oxygen into the blood stream and receives carbon dioxide from the blood and
exhales it. The respiratory system performs a number of functions. It
facilitates the exchange of gases between the air and the blood through
breathing, inhalation, and exhalation. The following are the major functions
of this system:

1. Breathing through inhalation and exhalation: In this process, air is inhaled

through the nasal and oral cavities down to the pharynx, larynx, and trachea
into the lungs. The air is then exhaled and flows back through the same
channel.

2. Exchanging gases between the lungs and the blood (external respiration): In
this process, oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide through a huge number
of microscopic sacs called alveoli.

3. Exchanging gases between the blood and the body tissues (internal
respiration): In this process, oxygen is delivered to the body tissues through
the bloodstream and carbon dioxide is removed through internal respiration.

4. Creating sound: When the air is exhaled from the lungs through the trachea
into the larynx, it causes the vocal cords to vibrate and produce sounds.

5. Smelling (olfaction): The chemical process starts in the nasal cavity as air
passes through the nose.
FIGURE 5.16 The respiratory system.
Table 5.13

Roots for the Respiratory System

Practice 5.15 Match each of the following terms in column A with its
meaning in column B.

A B
1 alveolar ________ a. throat
2 phrenic ________ b. voice box
3 larynx ________ c. windpipe
4 trachea ________ d. thin-walled sac through which gases can pass into and out of the
bloodstream
5 epiglottis ________ e. lymph tissue in the throat
6 bronchiole ________ f. small bronchial tube
7 air sac ________ g. one of two tubes that carry air from the windpipe to the lungs
8 pharynx ________ h. flap of cartilage over the mouth of the trachea
9 bronchial tube i. pertaining to the diaphragm
________
10 tonsils ________ j. pertaining to an air sac

Practice 5.16 Write the medical term for each of the following definitions:

1. within the pleura _________________________________________

2. above the diaphragm _____________________________________

3. any disease of the lungs ___________________________________

4. surgical incision of the phrenic nerve _______________________

5. record of breathing volume ________________________________

6. pertaining to the bronchioles ______________________________

Table 5.14

Abbreviations Used for the Respiratory System

Abbreviation Meaning
A&P auscultation and percussion
ABG arterial blood gas
AFB acid-fast bacillus
ARDS acute respiratory distress syndrome
ARF acute respiratory failure
BS breath sounds
C compliance
CF cystic fibrosis
CO2 carbon dioxide
COLD chronic obstructive lung disease
COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
CPAP continuous positive airway pressure
CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation
CXR chest radiograph
DOE dyspnea on exertion
FRC functional residual capacity
FVC forced vital capacity
HPS hantavirus pulmonary syndrome
IC inspiratory capacity
IPPB intermittent positive pressure breathing
IPPV intermittent positive pressure ventilation
IRV inspiratory reserve volume
LLL left lower lobe
LUL left upper lobe
MBC maximal breathing capacity
MDI metered dose inhaler
PE pulmonary embolism
PEEP positive end expiratory pressure
PFT pulmonary function test
R respiration
RDS respiratory distress syndrome
RLL right lower lobe
RML right middle lobe
RUL right upper lobe
RV residual volume
SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome
SIDS sudden infant death syndrome
SOB shortness of breath
SpO2 oxygen percent saturation
TGV thoracic gas volume
TLC total lung capacity
 Abbreviation Meaning
TPR temperature, pulse, and respiration
URI upper respiratory infection
VATS video-assisted thoracic surgery
VC vital capacity
VP ventilation-perfusion

8. The digestive system is responsible for getting food into and out of the
body in order to keep it healthy. It starts at the oral cavity including the teeth,
the tongue, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, the liver,
gallbladder, pancreas, small intestines, large intestines, and ends with the
anus. This long tract is called the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal (GI)
tract. This system breaks down and absorbs food for use by cells and
eliminates solid and other waste materials.

Digestion is a complex process in which food is turned into nutrients that

the body uses for energy and growth. The digestive system consists of a
number of body parts that work together in order to coordinate the movement
of food through the alimentary canal and produce enzymes and hormones
necessary to breakdown the food. The following is a brief description of the
body organs involved in the digestive system.

■ Mouth: The oral cavity includes the tongue, the teeth, and the salivary
glands. Digestion starts in the mouth when the food is chewed and broken
down into an easily digested form.

■ Esophagus: It is the tube that connects the pharynx (throat) to the stomach.
It receives the food from the mouth and passes it to the stomach.

■ Stomach: It is a muscular organ located in the upper abdomen under the

ribs. It receives food from the esophagus and passes it to the small
intestine. The stomach secretes acids and enzymes in order to digest food.

■ Small intestine: It is the part of the body that directly receives the food
from the stomach. It is about 5-m long and is narrower than the large
intestine. It consists of three parts: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

■ Pancreas: Its major function is to secrete digestive enzymes into the

duodenum in order to break down protein, fats, and carbohydrates. The
pancreas also secretes insulin that metabolizes sugar in the blood.
■ Liver: The major function of the liver is to process the nutrients absorbed
from the small intestine. It secretes bile that is necessary for digesting fat.

■ Gallbladder: It is a small sac-shaped organ beneath the liver where bile

secreted by the liver is stored. It releases this bile into the duodenum to
facilitate the absorption and digestion of fats.

■ Colon: It is also called the large intestine. It is connected to the small

intestine at the ileum (last part of the small intestine). It consists of the
ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon, and the
sigmoid colon.

■ Rectum: It is the final part of the large intestine that connects it to the anus.

■ Anus: It is the last part of the alimentary canal through which stool passes
out.
FIGURE 5.17 Alimentary canal.
FIGURE 5.18 Colon (large intestine).
Table 5.15

Roots for the Digestive System

Practice 5.17 Write the proper term for each of the following definitions:

1. excision of gums _______________________________________________

2. partial or complete excision of the tongue _________________________

3. repair of the esophagus _________________________________________

4. removal of the stomach _________________________________________

5. communication between the stomach and jejunum __________________

6. surgical repair of the small intestine ______________________________

7. suture of the bile duct __________________________________________

8. removal of the gallbladder _______________________________________

9. surgical repair of the rectum _____________________________________

10. inflammation of the pancreas ____________________________________

Practice 5.18 Label each numbered part. Write its name in the table below.
 Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Table 5.16

Abbreviations Used for the Digestive System

Abbreviation Meaning
ALT alanine transaminase
AST aspartate transaminase
BE barium enema
BM bowel movement
BMI body mass index
EGD esophagogastroduodenoscopy
ERCP endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography
FAP familial adenomatous polyposis
GB gallbladder
GERD gastroesophageal reflux disease
GI gastrointestinal
HAV hepatitis A virus
HCl hydrochloric acid
IBD inflammatory bowel disease
IBS irritable bowel syndrome
LES lower esophageal sphincter
LFTs liver function tests
NPO nothing through mouth
PPI proton pump inhibitor
TPN total parenteral nutrition
UGI upper gastrointestinal

9. The urinary system is known as the renal system or the excretory system.
It is a group of organs that work together in order to filter out excess fluids
and other substances from the blood in the form of urine that is produced by
the kidneys and collected in the urinary bladder and then excreted through the
urethra. The major function of this system is to remove liquid waste from the
blood in the form of urine and to keep a stable balance of salts and other
substances in the blood. Therefore, this system is the drainage system of the
body. It consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

Kidneys: These are two bean-shaped organs located just below the rib
cage, one on each side of the spine in the abdominal region. The major
function of the kidneys is to filter the blood from waste products, chemicals,
and unneeded water. Urine collects in the renal pelvis in the middle of each
kidney, then it drains through the ureter to the bladder where it is stored until
it is eliminated.
 FIGURE 5.19 The kidneys and ureters.

Ureters: These are muscular tubes through which the urine passes from the
kidneys to the bladder.
Bladder: It is a muscular sac in the pelvis above and behind the pubic bone.
It stores the urine that it receives from the kidneys and empties it voluntarily
through the urethra that is located at the bottom of the bladder.
Urethra: It is the tube that carries the urine from the bladder to the outside
of the body.
FIGURE 5.20 The urinary system.
Table 5.17

Roots for the Urinary System

Practice 5.19 Use the root nephr/o to produce a medical term for each of the
following definitions:

1. surgical removal of the kidney ___________________________________

2. study of the kidney _____________________________________________

3. softening of the kidney _________________________________________

4. substances that are harmful to the kidney ___________________________

5. any disease of the kidney ________________________________________

6. specialist in the study and treatment of the kidney __________________

7. imaging of the kidney __________________________________________

8. incision to remove a kidney stone ________________________________

9. inflammation of the renal pelvis and other kidney parts ______________

10. tumor in the kidney ____________________________________________

Practice 5.20 Match each of the following terms in column A with its
meaning in column B.

A B
1 ureterectomy a. abnormal condition of kidney stone
_________
2 intravesical _________ b. having blood in the urine
3 renal pelvis _________ c. visual examination of the urinary bladder
4 urinary bladder d. excision of a ureter
_________
5 urethra _________ e. tube that leads from the bladder to the outside of the body
6 ureter _________ f. one of two tubes that passes urine from the kidney to the urinary
bladder
7 kidney _________ g. muscular sac that holds urine
8 cystoscopy _________ h. organ behind the abdomen that makes urine by filtering waste from
the blood
9 nephrolithiasis i. central section of the kidney
_________
10 hematuria _________ j. within the urinary bladder
Table 5.18

Abbreviations Used for the Urinary System.

Abbreviation Meaning
A/G albumin/globulin
ADH antidiuretic hormone
AGN acute glomerulonephritis
ARF acute renal failure
BNO bladder neck obstruction
BUN blood urea nitrogen
CAPD continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis
Cath catheter
CCPD continuous cyclic peritoneal dialysis
CFR glomerular filtration rate
CKD chronic kidney disease
CRF chronic renal failure
DRE digital rectal examination
ESRD end-stage renal disease
ESWL extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy
HD hemodialysis
IVP intravenous pyelogram/pyelography
IVU intravenous urography
KUB kidney, ureter, bladder (radiography)
PKU phenylketonuria
RP retrograde pyelogram
SG specific gravity
UA urinalysis
UTI urinary tract infection
VCUG voiding cystourethrogram

10. The reproductive system: Males and females have their own
reproductive systems that serve different functions. The male reproductive
system consists of the testes, prostate glands, sperm ducts, urethra, and penis.
The female reproductive system consists of the vagina, uterus, ovaries, and
fallopian tubes. Each system has its own functions that serve the general
reproduction function in both males and females. The male reproductive
system performs the following major functions:

■ producing, maintaining, and transporting sperm and protective fluid

(semen)

■ discharging sperm into the female reproductive tract during sex

■ producing and secreting male sex hormones necessary for maintaining the
male reproductive system

Most of the organs of the male reproductive system are located outside the
body.

FIGURE 5.21 Male reproductive system.

The female reproductive system performs the following functions:

■ producing female egg cells essential for reproduction; they are called ova or
oocytes

■ protecting and nourishing the embryo until birth

■ producing female sex hormones that maintain the reproductive cycle

The female reproductive system includes organs inside and outside the
body.
FIGURE 5.22 Female reproductive system.
Table 5.19

Roots for the Male and Female Reproductive Systems

Practice 5.21 Define the following terms:

1. testopathy
_____________________________________________________
2. prostatodynia __________________________________________________

3. oscheoplasty
___________________________________________________

4. epididymectomy _______________________________________________

5. orchialgia _____________________________________________________

6. seminal
_______________________________________________________

7. orchiepididymitis ______________________________________________

8. gynecopathy ___________________________________________________

9. oogenesis _____________________________________________________

10. oophorotomy
__________________________________________________

11. intrauterine
____________________________________________________

12. metromalacia
__________________________________________________

13. vaginoplasty
___________________________________________________

14. colpodynia
_____________________________________________________

15. hysteroscopy
___________________________________________________

Practice 5.22 Write a medical term for each of the following definitions:

1. excision of the testes ______________________________

2. surgical repair of glans penis _______________________

3. incision of the renal pelvis _________________________

4. fixation of the bladder _____________________________

5. difficult urination _________________________________

6. narrowing of the urethra ___________________________

7. suturing of the perineum __________________________

8. herniation of the uterus ____________________________

9. puncture of the amnion ____________________________

10. rupture of an ovary _________________________________

Table 5.20

Abbreviations Used for the Male and Female Reproductive

Systems

Abbreviation Meaning
AB abortion
AFP alpha-fetoprotein
AH abdominal hysterectomy
AI aromatase inhibitor
BNO bladder neck obstruction
BPH benign prostatic hyperplasia
BRCA1 breast cancer gene 1
BSE breast self-examination
BV bacterial vaginosis
CIN cervical intraepithelial neoplasia
CIS carcinoma in situ
CS cesarean section
D&C dilation and curettage
DRE digital rectal examination
DUB dysfunctional uterine bleeding
EMB endometrial biopsy
ERT estrogen replacement therapy
FHT fetal heart tones
FSH follicle-stimulating hormone
FTND full-term normal delivery
G gravid
GC gonococcus
GU genitourinary
GYN gynecology
HCG human chorionic gonadotropin
HPV human papillomavirus
HRT hormone replacement therapy
HSV herpes simplex virus
IUD intrauterine device
IVF in vitro fertilization
LBW low birthweight
LH luteinizing hormone
LMP last menstrual period
NB new born
OB obstetrics
OCP oral contraceptive pill
PID pelvic inflammatory disease
PMP previous menstrual period
PMS premenstrual syndrome
PSA prostate genetic antigen
 Abbreviation Meaning
STD sexually transmitted disease
STI sexually transmitted infection
TAH-BSO total abdominal hysterectomy with bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy
TRAM transverse rectus abdominis muscle
TSE testicular self-examination
TSS toxic shock syndrome
TURP transurethral resection of the prostate gland
TVH total vagina hysterectomy
UC uterine contractions
UTI urinary tract infection
VD venereal disease
VDRL venereal disease research laboratory

11. The immune system is composed of a network of cells such as the white
blood cells, tissues, and organs that function together in order to protect the
body from organisms such as bacteria, parasites, and fungi that may cause
infection and diseases. The immune system consists of the bone marrow,
thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes. All blood cells are produced in the bone
marrow through a process called hematopoiesis.

FIGURE 5.23 Immune system.

Table 5.21

Roots for the Immune System

Practice 5.23 Write the proper medical term for each of the following
definitions:

1. tumor of the thymus __________________________________

2. lacking in some immune function _______________________

3. cell of a gland ________________________________________

4. enlargement of the spleen ______________________________

5. inflammation of the lymph glands ______________________

Table 5.22

Abbreviations Used for the Immune System

Abbreviation Meaning
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency virus
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
IgA immunoglobulin A
IgD immunoglobulin D
IgE immunoglobulin E
IgG immunoglobulin G
IgM immunoglobulin M
SLE systemic lupus erythematosus

Focus on reading
Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:

1. The ethical and legal principle of confidentiality is anchored in a set of

values and assumptions about the treatment relationship and the consequences
of disclosing private information. In the context of treating mental illness,
these values include the following.

2. First, confidentiality is considered important because of the continuing

stigma that is often associated with seeking mental health treatment. Until the
late 1960s, the law often endorsed discrimination against people with mental
illness. Because a diagnosis of mental illness was often equated with
incompetence in decision making, treatment could result in the loss of key
civil rights, including the right to enter into a contractual relationship, the
right to vote, and the right to execute a will. Although these legal
consequences have generally disappeared, mental illness still may cause
negative consequences for the individual. For example, it is worth noting that
before the recent political preoccupation with sexual issues, a way of
discrediting an opponent politically was to reveal that he or she had been
treated for mental illness. Examples included the attempted theft of Daniel
Ellsberg’s psychiatric records after he disclosed the Pentagon Papers; the
removal of Senator Thomas Eagleton from the Democratic ticket in 1972 after
it was revealed that he had undergone electroshock treatment for depression;
and the distribution of the treatment records of a Congressional candidate who
had been treated for depression to the media during the 1992 elections.

3. Confidentiality is also considered important in creating trust in the clinical

relationship. Many mental health professionals assume that mental health
treatment is most likely to be successful only when the client trusts the
clinician. The United States Supreme Court endorsed this assumption in a
recent case creating a psychotherapeutic privilege in federal court
proceedings. The Court wrote that:

“Effective psychotherapy depends upon an atmosphere

of confidence and trust in which the patient is willing
to make a frank and complete disclosure of facts,
emotions, memories, and fears. Because of the
sensitive nature of the problems for which individuals
consult psychotherapists, disclosure of confidential
communications made during counseling sessions
may cause embarrassment or disgrace. For this reason,
the mere possibility of disclosure may impede
development of the confidential relationship necessary
for successful treatment.”
4. The creation of trust as a predicate for treatment may be particularly
important when the prescribed treatment consists of verbal therapies in which
the person is asked to be as unguarded as possible. Disclosures in this context,
described by one commentator as “confessional” in nature, may be
particularly important to protect because they often reveal material that is
fundamentally private.

5. Confidentiality also advances the related values of privacy and autonomy.

In the past three decades, the law has given increased weight to the value of
privacy, while expanding individual autonomy in health care decision making.
Confidentiality is important because of its assurance that individuals will
have privacy in the health care relationship, which in turn may increase the
likelihood that people will exercise autonomy by seeking needed treatment.

6. Research suggests that these assumptions have at least some empiric

footing. For example, a number of studies suggest that the relative strength of
confidentiality protections can play an important role in individual decisions
to seek or forgo mental health and substance abuse treatment. In particular,
the willingness of a person to make the self-disclosures necessary to such
mental health and substance abuse treatment may decrease as the perceived
negative consequences of a breach of confidentiality increase.

A. Circle the correct answer.

1. Discrediting political candidates could be done by

a. uncovering details about his/her mental illness

b. treating the candidate’s mental illness

c. accusing him/her of stealing money

d. paying candidate to leave the campaign

2. As stated in this text, disclosing information about

clients could be considered

a. professional

b. confessional

c. normal
d. embarrassing

3. Autonomy is closest in meaning to

a. privacy

b. strength

c. independence

d. team decision

B. True or false

1. _____ A diagnosis for mental illness could be a

sufficient excuse to prevent someone from running
elections.

2. _____ The removal of Senator Thomas Eagleton

from the Democratic ticket in 1972 was the result of
disclosing confidential information.

3. _____ Disclosing confidential information is

necessary for successful treatment.

4. _____ A person may reveal more information about

his/her mental health if the level of confidentiality
decreases.
5. _____ Confidentiality may lead to the development
of privacy, another desired value.

C. Complete the following sentences.

1. The pronoun they in paragraph 4 refers to

_____________________.

2. The word stigma in paragraph 2 means

________________________.

3. The word discrediting in paragraph 2 means

____________________.

4. Paragraph 5 is about the relationship between

____________________.

5. The best title for this passage may be

__________________________.

D. Word building: Complete the following table as

required.
Vocabulary development
Collocations: Medical Idioms

1. live and kicking: alive and healthy

How are feeling today, Jack? I am still live and kicking.

2. a bitter pill to swallow: an unpleasant fact that one must accept

Losing the election was a bitter pill to swallow for the

candidate.
3. clean bill of health: a report or certificate that a person or animal is
healthy

My doctor gave me a clean bill of health when I visited

him last month.
4. in labor: a woman going through childbirth

My friend’s wife was in labor for 10 h.

5. prescription-strength: so strong that you need a doctor’s written
permission to buy it

The patient needs a prescription-strength ointment to get

rid of that rash.
6. in remission: a disease that seems to be getting better

The cancer of my neighbor’s mother has been in

remission for several months.
7. feel on top of the world: to feel very healthy

I have been feeling on top of the world since I quit

smoking.
8. checkup: an examination of a patient by a doctor

I plan to have my annual checkup next week.

9. under the weather: not feeling well

My boss has been under the weather all week and has not
come to work during that time.
10. splitting headache: a severe headache

I have been suffering from a splitting headache for a

couple of days.
11. run down: in poor physical condition
The farmer is completely run down from lack of proper
food.
12. in the pink of health: in excellent physical condition

The employee looks in the pink of health after his

holiday.
13. out of sorts: upset and irritable or not feeling well

The baby is out of sorts today. Perhaps he is cutting a

tooth.
14. off color: look or feel ill

What is the matter with the teacher? He looks a bit off

color today.
15. in bad shape: in poor physical condition

I am really in bad shape. I must do more exercise.

16. hang out one’s shingle: give public notice of the opening of a doctor’s
office, etc.

The doctor decided to hang up his shingle as soon as he

finished medical school.
17. head shrinker: a psychiatrist
The man was advised to see a head shrinker after he
threatened his wife several times.
18. on the mend: healing, becoming better

My grandmother is on the mend after she broke her arm

last week.
19. vim and vigor: have lots of vitality, energy, and enthusiasm

After a relaxing holiday, the students came back to

school full of vim and vigor.
20. fill a prescription: to get medicine from a pharmacy according to the
orders of a doctor

The patient went to a drugstore to fill a prescription.

Practice 5.24 Circle the idiom that replaces the words/phrases in bold in each
of the following questions.

1. The doctor announced the opening of his new clinic immediately after
passing the required examinations.

a. hang out his shingle

b. drawing blood

c. at death’s door
 d. going under the knife
2. After walking home in the rain, I became sick with a cold.

a. on the mend

b. off color

c. took a turn for the worse

d. blacked out
3. The worker is in poor physical condition due to malnutrition.

a. back on his feet

b. under the weather

c. breathing his last

d. run down
4. Our secretary is becoming better after she broke her arm.

a. over the worst

b. getting a splitting headache

c. under the weather

 d. on the mend
5. Although the man was very sick, I think that he is now in an excellent
condition.

a. off sorts

b. in the pink of health

c. pulling through

d. in remission
6. I went to the doctor last week and got a medical checkup.

a. ran a temperature

b. had a physical

c. felt on top of the world

d. went under the knife

7. After eating the seafood at the small restaurant, I suffered from a severe
pain in the head.

a. had a splitting headache

b. felt out of sorts

c. had a physical

d. broke out
8. The patient was advised to see a psychiatrist after he began to act crazy
at work.

a. go to a head shrinker

b. go under the knife

 c. breathe his last

d. pull through
9. The doctor gave the boxer a report that he was healthy after he fainted
and fell to the floor.

a. a checkup

b. a prescription-strength

c. a run down

d. a clean bill of health

10. The cancer of my friend’s father has been getting better in the last 3
months.

a. off sorts

b. in bad shape

c. in remission

d. under the weather

Practice 5.25 Translate the following sentences into your own language
paying attention to the use of idioms.
1. The doctor decided to hang up his shingle as soon as he finished
medical school.

2. Our company sent all the employees to have a physical last week.

3. The man was advised to see a head shrinker after he threatened the
woman in the store several times.

4. My grandfather is on the mend after he broke his leg last week.

5. My brother is over the worst since his skiing accident last month.

6. The car accident was very bad and I do not think that the driver will pull
through.

7. The little boy is running a temperature and should stay in bed all day.

8. He was working very hard last month and has become very run down.

9. I have been suffering from a splitting headache all morning.

10. My aunt took a turn for the worse last week and is still in the
hospital.

11. The nurse took my temperature when I went to the hospital yesterday.

12. The woman threw up several times after eating a bad fish.

13. My boss has been feeling under the weather all week and has not
come to work during that time.

Academic Words
Study the following academic lists.
Academic List 1
 Words Definitions
1. stabilized steady and not likely to move or change
2. challenge something that tests strength, skill, or ability, especially in a way that is
interesting
3. medicinal relating to or having therapeutic properties
4. reject to refuse, accept, believe in, or agree with something
5. expose to put someone in a situation where they are not protected from something
dangerous or unpleasant
6. network a group of people, organizations, etc. that are connected or work together
7. academic relating to institutionalized education and scholarship, especially at a college or
university
8. a substance containing atoms from two or more elements
compound
s
9. alter to change, or to make someone or something change
10. decline a decrease in the quality, quantity, or importance of something
(n)

Academic List 2

Words Definitions
1. instructive providing a lot of useful information
2. expand to become larger in size, number, or amount, or to make something become
larger
3. allocate to decide officially that a particular amount of money, time, etc. should be used
for a particular purpose
4. enhance to improve the quality or value of something
5. explicit expressed in a way that is very clear and direct
6. recovery the process of getting better after an illness, injury
7. enable to make it possible for someone to do something, or for something to happen
8. to recognize a difference between things
discriminat
e
9. incidence the number of times something happens, especially crime, disease, etc.
10. interval the period of time between two events, activities

Practice 5.26 Match the words in column A with their definitions in

column B by writing the letter of the correct answer next to the word in
column A.
 A B
1. network a. the number of times something happens, especially crime, disease, etc.
_________
2. medicinal b. a decrease in the quality, quantity, or importance of something
_________
3. alter ________ c. to become larger in size, number, or amount, or to make something
become larger
4. stabilized d. the period of time between two events, activities
________
5. decline ________ e. relating to or having therapeutic properties
6. expand ________ f. to recognize a difference between things
7. instructive g. steady and not likely to move or change
________
8. discriminate h. providing a lot of useful information
______
9. incidence _____ i. to change, or to make someone or something change
10. intervals _____ j. a group of people, organizations, etc. that are connected or that work
together

Practice 5.27 Complete each of the following sentences using the correct
word from the box.

1. The old man was seriously ill when he was first admitted to hospital,
but his condition has since _____________.

2. There is a _____________ of scientists working throughout the world to

find a cure for cancer.

3. She got sick and missed most of the _____________ year, so there was
no way she could pass.

4. Modernization has been associated with a _____________ in the status

of the elderly.
5. Ana has cancer but she is ready to face this _____________ and fight
for her life.

6. Chemical analysis of chromosomes shows that they consist of four basic

_____________.

7. She uses a variety of _____________ herbs to treat her illnesses.

8. The chemical balance of the brain which controls awareness can be

radically _____________ by the introduction of external agents.

9. Studies show that children who are _____________ to tobacco smoke at

home have more ear infections, and other health problems.

10. He received a heart transplant, and had to take drugs for the rest of his
life so that his body would not _____________ it.

Practice 5.28 Complete each of the following sentences using the correct
word from the box.

1. Young people need ________________ information about sex, in order

to avoid unwanted pregnancies or sexually transmitted infections.

2. During pregnancy, a woman’s uterus ________________ to 500 times

its normal size.

3. New discoveries in genetics may someday ________________ doctors

to detect many inherited diseases before people actually develop them.

4. Billions of dollars have been spent on cancer research in the last 40

years, yet the ________________ of cancer continues to increase.
5. Changing your attitude from negative to positive may
_______________ your physical health.

6. The findings of this study are quite ________________ and should be

very helpful in helping us decide the best treatment for the disease.

7. The patient had to be woken at regular ________________ to take his

medicine.

8. Doctors believe my mother’s quick ________________ from her illness

was partly due to her desire to see her grandchildren again.

9. The new budget ________________ an increase of over a billion dollars

to the Ministry of Health.

10. This new drug is able to ________________ between healthy cells and
cancerous cells, and only attacks the cancerous cells.

Focus on grammar
Phrasal verbs are very common in spoken and written English. A phrasal
verb consists of a verb plus a particle (adverb) or a preposition. The
meaning of a phrasal verb is different from the combined meanings of its
components. It is necessary for health care professionals to have an
adequate level of mastery of the most common phrasal verbs used in their
careers.
The following is a list of some common phrasal verbs used in the various
health care fields.

1. cut down on: to reduce something

Consuming too much sugar may cause obesity and

type 2 diabetes.
If you want to be healthy, you have to cut down on
sweets before it is too late.
2. come down with (something): to become sick, to catch an illness

My friend came down with the flu last week and

cancelled his trip to China.
3. phase out: to gradually stop using something

The use of this medicine will be phased out for the

next 2 years.
4. get rid of something: to eliminate it

The doctor advised the patient to use a better lotion to

get rid of the rashes on his body.
5. pull through: to recover from a serious illness, to survive

The car accident was very bad and I do not think that
the driver will pull through.
6. pass away: to die

The cancer patient passed away after a long period of

treatment.
7. bring up something/bring something up: vomit
The fish was not cooked properly and as soon as he
ate it, he brought it up.
8. pack up: to stop functioning

The doctor advised the patient to stop smoking;

otherwise, his lungs will pack up in 2 years.
9. get over something: become better after being ill, recover from being
sick

The director will resume work as soon as he gets over

the flu.
10. pass out: faint, lose consciousness

The room was so hot and stuffy that he passed out.

11. come round: recover consciousness after fainting or being
unconscious

The old man fainted but came round again after we

opened a window and got some fresh air into the
room.
12. build up your strength: become stronger, or to make someone or
something do this
The patient has had the flu and has not eaten for days.
She needs to build up her strength before she can go
back to work.
13. put on weight: increase in weight, to get fatter or heavier

I really need to go on a diet. I put so much weight on

over the holidays.
14. give birth: to have a baby

That lady gave birth to a baby girl last night.

15. cut out something: stop eating or drinking something, usually to
improve your health

He must cut out sweets and chocolates in order to

lose weight.
16. burn (oneself) out: to become very tired and almost sick from doing
something for a long time or from working too hard

After working long hours for many months, the

woman finally burned herself out.
17. have a physical (examination): to get a medical checkup

Our company sent all the employees to have a

physical last week.
18. lapse into a coma: to go into a coma

The driver lapsed into a coma soon after the accident.

19. nurse (someone) back to health: to give someone care to restore him
or her to good health

My friend spent 3 weeks with his grandmother trying

to nurse her back to health.
20. run in the family: to be a common family characteristic

The serious illness runs in the family of my friend.

21. refill a prescription: to sell/buy a second set of medicine on a doctor’s
orders

I went to the pharmacy to refill a prescription for my

mother.
22. patch someone up: to give basic medical help to someone injured

He was bleeding badly but nurses managed to patch

him up temporarily.
23. go down with something : to become ill

My grandmother went down with the flu 2 weeks ago

and her immune system is still recovering.
24. break out with something : to start suddenly (e.g., a disease or a
rash)

The young girl broke out with a rash due to her nut
allergy.
25. look into something: to examine something

I cannot say anything at this moment. I need to look

into the patient’s family disease history.
26. black out: lose consciousness, faint

The driver blacked out after the accident.

Practice 5.29 Circle the correct answer.

1. The patient is trying hard to get rid of his illness.

a. fight off b. pick up

c. go down with d. tide over

2. Another expression for vomiting is to

a. throw up b. toss out

c. pass out d. flare up

3. To become unconscious is to

a. go out b. black out

c. knock over d. burn out
4. The nurses were able to patch up all the injured people in the accident.

a. give basic medical help

b. move to hospital

c. regain consciousness

d. examine thoroughly
5. He must cut out rice and fries in order to lose weight.

a. work out b. reduce

c. quit d. toss out

6. To become very tired and almost sick from doing something for a long
time or from working too hard is to

a. work out oneself

b. burn out oneself

c. pull through

d. black out
7. To lose consciousness is to

a. break out
 b. sleep long

c. go down with something

d. lapse into coma

8. The use of this drug will be phased out in the next couple of years.

a. continue to be used

b. discontinued

c. replaced

d. modified
9. The surgeon advised the smoker to quit smoking; otherwise, his lungs
will pack up in less than 3 years.

a. continue functioning

b. swell up

c. stop functioning

d. come round
10. The two brothers broke out with chickenpox at the same time.
 a. got it suddenly

b. got it gradually

c. recovered from it

d. transmitted it

Oral communication skills

Read the following dialogue with a classmate.

Patient: Good afternoon.

Doctor: Good afternoon. Have a seat. What have you come in for today?

Patient: Thank you. I don’t feel well. I’ve got a bad cough, and I have a
fever as well.

Doctor: I see. How long have you had these symptoms?

Patient: Oh, I’ve had the cough for 3 weeks. It has come worse in the last
3 days.

Doctor: Are you having any other problems?

Patient: Well, I’ve got a headache. I’ve also had a little bit of diarrhea.

Doctor: Do you produce any phlegm when coughing?

Patient: Sometimes, but it’s usually pretty dry.

Doctor: Do you smoke?

Patient: Yes, a few cigarettes a day. No more than 10 cigarettes a day.

Doctor: How about allergies? Do you have any allergies to food?

Patient: Not that I’m aware of.

Doctor: Does your head feel stuffy?

Patient: Yes, for the past few days.

Doctor: OK. Now let’s have a look. Could you please open your mouth
and say “ah”?

Doctor: It seems that you have throat infection. Your tonsils are a little bit
swollen. I will give an injection and some medicines. You also need to
gargle with salt and warm water three times a day. I hope that you will
feel better within 3 days.

Patient: Thank you doctor. I will follow your advice.

Doctor: If you don’t get better within 4 days, you need to see me again.
 FIGURE 5.24 A doctor and his patient.

Practice 5.30 Act out the dialogue.

Use the following terms or phrases in sentences of your own.

1. to feel ill

2. to have a cough

3. phlegm

4. allergy

5. to feel stuffy

6. headache

Focus on writing
Referral letters
Very often doctors need to refer their patients to certain specialists for
more advanced checkups and investigation. When you need to write a
referral letter, you need to follow the following steps:

1. Greet the specialist and indicate which specialization you are referring
your patient to.

2. Introduce your patient and his/her case. State the patient’s personal
information including his/her name, age, date of birth, gender, and contact
details. State why are you referring him/her to this doctor. Include the
patient’s medical details.

3. Explain how you came to know the patient, for how long, and in what
circumstances.

4. Conclude the letter by informing the specialist that you are available for
any enquiry.

Read the following sample referral letter.

Dear Dr Mathews,
217 Jefferson Street
Building 23, Apartment 12
Subject: Irregular heartbeat

Dear Dr Mathews,
Greetings! I am referring one of my patients to you for further
examination and treatment of his heart. I believe that you are the right
person to do that in light of your good reputation as a cardiologist. Mr
Jack visited my clinic complaining of a tingling sensation in his hands and
chest. After checkup, I found that he may have a problem in his heart
because it was beating faster than normal.
Mr Jack is a 45-year-old male who was born on March 2, 1972. He may be
contacted through his home phone number . . . or through his mobile
phone number. . ., although he prefers to be contacted through his mobile
phone number.
I will be glad to answer any questions that you may have regarding his
case. You can contact me through my work phone number. . . .
Best regards,
Dr James Lyon
3rd Ave. Bldg. 24, Apartment 10

Practice 5.31 Imagine that you are a GP and you need to refer one of your
patients to an oncologist. Write a letter to refer this patient to an
oncologist.

Pronunciation of medical terms

The following are the medical terms introduced in this chapter. You are
supposed to read them aloud as many times as you need to master their
pronunciation. In this activity, you are also required to give the meaning of
each term in order to retain them active in your memory.
Read the following medical terms and know their meanings.

acetabulectomy

acromial

adenoid

adenoidectomy

adenopathy

adiposis

adrenocorticotropic

adrenomegaly

alveolitis
amblyopia

amniocentesis

anal

angiogram

ankylosis

anthracosis

aortic stenosis

aphakia

appendectomy

appendicitis

arteriolitis

arteriosclerosis

arthritis

asynovia

atherosclerosis

audiometer

aural

auriculocranial

balanitis

biliary
blepharoptosis

brachialgia

bradykinesia

bronchiolectasis

bronchitis

buccogingival

calcaneodynia

calioplasty

calicectomy

capnogram

cardiology

cardiovascular

carpoptosis

cecoptosis

celioma

cephalad

cerebral

ceruminolytic

cervical

cervicitis
cheiloplasty

cholangioma

cholecystectomy

choledochotomy

cholestasis

clavicular

clitorectomy

coccygeal

cochleitis

colostomy

colonoscopy

colpostenosis

condylectomy

conjunctivoplasty

coreoplasty

corneoblepharon

coronary

corticospinal

craniotomy

cyclodialysis
cystitis

dacryorrhea

dactylitis

dermal

dermatology

duodenostomy

dysentery

dyslexia

dystocia

dystonia

edentulous

embolectomy

embryonic

encephalitis

epididymotomy

epiglottitis

episiotomy

ergograph

erythroblastosis

esophageal
extrapulmonary

fasciodesis

femoral

fetometry

fibulocalcaneal

galactopoiesis

ganglionectomy

gastrojejunostomy

gastroscopy

gingivitis

glioma

glomerulitis

glossoplegia

glucogenesis

glycolysis

gonadotropin

gynecologist

hemangioma

hepatitis

hidradenitis
humeroscapular

hypophyseal

hysterectomy

ichthyosis

ileitis

iliac

immunization

inosclerosis

insular

interatrial

intervertebral

intravenous

intraventricular

iridocele

iridopupillary

ischiodynia

karyolysis

keratolysis

kinesis

kinesitherapy
kyphosis

labium

labyrinthitis

lacrimotomy

lactogenesis

laminectomy

laryngoscope

leiomyoma

lentiform

leptomeningopathy

ligamentous

lingual

lipocele

lithotripsy

lobectomy

lordosis

lumbar

lymphadenopathy

lymphangitis

lymphocyte
lymphocytic

lymphoma

mammography

mastitis

mastoiditis

maxillofacial

meatotomy

mediastinitis

medullary

melanocyte

meningococci

menopause

metacarpectomy

metropathy

endometrium

muscular

mycology

myelgenous

myelitis

myocardial
myositis

myringotomy

narcosis

nasal

nephrologist

neuroplasty

ocular

onychomalacia

oocyte

oophorectomy

oophoritis

ophthalmologist

optometer

oral

orchiopexy

orchidectomy

orchitis

oropharynx

orthodontics

orthopedist
oscheal

ossiculectomy

osteoma

otitis

ovarian cyst

ovariopexy

ovoid

ovulatory

oximeter

palatine

palpebral

pancreatitis

parathyroidectomy

patellectomy

pectoralgia

pedograph

peribursal

perinecele

perisacral

peritonitis
phagocyte

phalangeal

pharyngospasm

phlebitis

phonometer

phrenicotripsy

phrenitis

pilonidal

pleurocentesis

pneumoconiosis

pneumonia

pneumectomy

podiatry

polyspermia

prenatal

proctopexy

prognathic

prostatometer

psychoactive

pubococcygeal
pyelogram

pyloroplasty

rachiocentesis

radiculitis

rectocele

renal

retinitis

rhabdoid

rhabdomyoma

rhinoplasty

salpingitis

salpingoscope

sclerectasia

scoliosis

scotometer

seborrhea

septoplasty

septostomy

serology

sialoadenitis
sialogram

sigmoidoscopy

sinusotomy

somnolence

sphygmomanometer

spirometer

splenomegaly

splenorrhagia

spondylosis

steatorrhea

steatosis

sternad

stethoscope

subchondriac

subchoroidal

subcostal

subcutaneous

sudoresis

supracerebellar

suprapelvic
pelvioscope

supraventricular

tendinitis

tenodesis

testosterone

thalamotomy

thoracoschisis

thoracotomy

thrombocytosis

thymectomy

thymopathy

thyroadenitis

thyrotoxic

tibiafemoral

tonsillar

tonsillectomy

tracheotome

trichophagia

trigonitis

tympanoplasty
ulnocarpal

ungual

uremia

nocturia

ureterectasis

urethrostenosis

uteroplastsy

uveitis

uvulotome

vaginitis

valvar

valvuloplasty

varicocele

vasodepressor

vasostomy

venulitis

vesical

vesiculogram

vestibulotomy

vulvitis
xenograft

xeroderma

xerostomia

Review exercises
A. Case study: Read the following case study and answer the questions
following it.

N.J., a 79-year-old man, was admitted to Al Qasimia Hospital on October

23, 2005. Prior to being admitted to the hospital, N.J. had been in excellent
health. His troubles apparently began 3 weeks prior to being admitted. On
October 23, N.J.’s son found him lying on the floor confused, and soaked
in urine.
Mr J. was diagnosed as having an acute cerebral vascular accident. This
disorder can also be described as a “stroke.” It occurs when there is an
interruption of normal blood flow in one or more of the blood vessels that
supply the brain. Thrombosis, embolism, and hemorrhage are the primary
causes of a CVA. The tissues of the brain become ischemic, leading to
hypoxia or anoxia with destruction or necrosis of the neurons, glia, and
vasculature. Complications of CVA include unstable blood pressure,
sensory and motor impairment, infection, pneumonia, contractures, and
pulmonary emboli. CVA is the third leading cause of death in the USA and
affects more than 500,000 Americans annually.
He was widowed in November 2002. One of his daughters has coronary
artery disease; one son died of an MI at age 35; the other one died with
lung cancer at 52. N.J. had been the primary caregiver of his daughter until
she was admitted to the hospital 3 weeks ago. She is dying with a short
bowel syndrome and cirrhosis and is now being taken care of in hospice.
Soon after being left alone, Mr N.J.’s appetite decreased and he had
become congested. He was placed on Xanax to treat symptoms of
depression. He had also been taking Augmentin for congestion. Also his
family noticed that he was suffering from confusion. As a result, they
brought him into the Emergency Room for evaluation. The Emergency
Room doctors performed a CT scan of the brain which revealed evidence
of old strokes. The doctors stopped the Augmentin and placed him on Z-
pack. This seemed to improve his state of confusion, as well as reduce his
symptoms of congestion.
On October 22, 2005, he was seen for the congestion. The doctor
examined him thoroughly. This exam included giving him a chest X-ray.
The chest X-ray proved to be normal. His white blood count was elevated
and he was found to be mildly dehydrated. He was prescribed Amoxicillin
500 three times a day, and Guaifenesin. His past medical history is short
including depression, stroke, and presbyacusis. He has not had any prior
surgery and there are no known allergies.

I. Circle the best answer

1. Ischemic stroke is generally caused by

a. hemorrhage

b. hematoma

c. thrombosis

d. hemiparesis

2. Signs and symptoms that occur together are

termed

a. prodrome

b. syndrome
 c. exacerbation

d. remission
II. Write a medical term from the case study for each of the following
meanings:

1. obstruction or occlusion of a blood vessel

____________________

2. coagulation of the blood within a blood vessel in

any part of the circulatory system
____________________

3. pertaining to the lungs ____________________

4. the condition of being unable to perform as a

consequence of physical or mental unfitness
____________________

5. deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching

body tissues ____________________

6. the delicate web of connective tissue that

surrounds and supports nerve cells
____________________
 7. an acute or chronic disease marked by
inflammation of the lungs
____________________

8. a liver disease in which normal liver cells are

gradually replaced by scar tissue, causing the
organ to shrink, harden, and lose its function
____________________
III. What does each of the following abbreviations stand for:

a. CVA
_______________________________________
______

b. CT
_______________________________________
_______

c.
CAD___________________________________
__________
IV. Describe orally the case of N.J. briefly.

V. Name three medicines he was given.

B. Answer the following questions.

1. Identify the organ/structure at number 1.

a. larynx

b. pharynx
c. epiglottis

d. sinuses

2. Identify the structure at number 2.

a. pharynx

b. larynx

c. trachea

d. epiglottis

3. Identify the structure at number 3.

a. pharynx

b. sinuses

c. epiglottis

d. external nares

4. Identify the structure at number 4.

a. external nares
b. nasal passages

c. sinuses

d. pharynx

5. Identify the structure at number 5.

a. external nares

b. pharynx

c. larynx

d. sinuses

6. Identify the structure at number 6.

a. larynx

b. pharynx

c. trachea

d. bronchus

7. Identify the structure at number 7.

a. larynx

b. bronchus

c. trachea

d. epiglottis

8. Identify the structure at number 8.

a. lung

b. diaphragm

c. epiglottis

d. pharynx

9. Identify the structure at number 9.

a. trachea

b. bronchus

c. epiglottis

d. sinuses
 10. Identify the organ/structure at number 10.

a. larynx

b. pharynx

c. epiglottis

d. diaphragm
C. Circle the correct answer.

1. All of the following are basic tissue types, except

a. muscle tissue

b. epithelial tissue

c. nervous tissue

d. bone tissue

2. Morphology is the study of

a. metabolism

b. energy
c. form

d. chemicals

3. Cytogenesis is

a. formation of cells

b. division of the nucleus

c. formation of proteins

d. formation of fibers

4. A megakaryocyte is a cell with a large

a. membrane

b. nucleus

c. cytoplasm

d. wall

5. In adiposuria, the urine contains

a. sugar
b. carbohydrate

c. protein

d. fat

6. Another name for growth hormone is

a. neoplasm

b. acidophilin

c. somatotropin

d. gonadotropin

7. Steatorrhea is the discharge of

a. digestive enzymes

b. fats

c. alcohol

d. mucus

8. Lithotripsy is
a. measurement of a calculi

b. surgical removal of a stone

c. crushing of a stone

d. removal of a calculi

9. Arthroplasty is

a. measurement of a joint

b. fusion of a joint

c. surgery on the ear

d. plastic repair of a joint

10. In gastropexy, the stomach is

a. widened

b. surgically fixed

c. dilated

d. stapled for weight loss

11. In a hepatorrhapy, the liver is

a. divided

b. drained

c. stained

d. repaired

12. A sphygmomanometer is used to measure

a. pulse

b. temperature

c. sounds

d. blood pressure

13. A small vein is a/an

a. lymphatic duct

b. lymphatic capillary

c. arteriole
d. venule

14. Which of the following is not considered to be

part of the lymphatic system?

a. spleen

b. tonsils

c. nodes

d. liver

15. Cardioptosis is

a. downward displacement of the heart

b. irregularity of a heartbeat

c. rupture of the heart

d. caridomyopathy

16. A valvotome is a/an

a. flap of a valve

b. instrument for incising a valve

c. instrument for measuring a valve

d. cusp of a valve

17. Angiography is a/an

a. X-ray study of vessels

b. study of pressure in vessels

c. X-ray study of the ventricles

d. spasm of vessels

18. A term that means around a vessel is

a. retrovascular

b. isovascular

c. supravascular

d. perivascualr

19. A term that means within a vein is

a. intervenous
b. intravenous

c. intervascular

d. extravascular

20. Phlebectasia is

a. constriction of a vein

b. spasm of a vein

c. dilation of a capillary

d. dilation of a vein

21. Polyarteritis is

a. constriction of two arteries

b. inflammation of many arteries

c. formation of tissue around arteries

d. removal of tissue from an artery

22. Aortostenosis is
a. dilation of the aorta

b. narrowing of the aorta

c. fissure of the aorta

d. rupture of the aorta

23. Arteriosclerosis is

a. widening of an artery

b. growth of an artery

c. shrinking of an arteriole

d. hardening of an artery

24. Lymphadenopathy is

a. inflammation of a lymphatic vessel

b. removal of a lymph node

c. any disease of a lymph node

d. shrinking of a lymph node

25. Asplenia is

a. enlargement of the spleen

b. hardening of the spleen

c. absence of the spleen

d. resection of the spleen

26. A lymphocyte is a

a. lymph node

b. cell found in the lymphatic system

c. cell that migrates to the heart

d. location within the lymphatic system

27. A lymphangioma is a/an

a. tumor of lymph nodes

b. inflammation of lymphatic vessels

c. tumor of lymphatic vessels

d. removal of lymph nodes

28. The root in ischemia means

a. heart

b. lack

c. hardening

d. blood

29. Thrombosis is

a. transportation of lipids in the blood

b. formation of a blood clot

c. an increase in blood supply

d. a tumor of a lymph node

30. Phonocardiography is a/an

a. photograph of the heart in action

b. recording of heart sounds

c. X-ray study of the heart

d. study of the heart using a catheter

31. The abbreviation CPR stands for

a. cardiovascular resuscitation

b. chronic pulmonary resuscitation

c. cardiopulmonary resuscitation

d. creatine phosphoreaction

32. The abbreviation ECG stands for

a. electrocardiogram

b. elevated creatine glutamine

c. electrocardiovascular

d. elevated coronary enzymes

33. Erythropoiesis is

a. formation of white cells

b. formation of red cells

c. destruction of red cells

d. formation of platelets

34. A leukoblast is a/an

a. immature platelet

b. immature thrombocyte

c. mature white blood cell

d. immature white blood cell

35. The term myelogenous means

a. deficiency of blood

b. deficiency of bone marrow

c. excess platelets in the blood

d. originating in bone marrow

36. The membrane that covers the lungs is

a. tonsil

b. phrenic

c. pleura

d. glottis

37. The pharyngeal tonsils are also called the

a. bronchi

b. wheeze

c. rhonchi

d. adenoids

38. The epiglottis is the

a. lower end of the trachea

b. throat

c. cartilage around the bronchioles

d. cartilage that covers the trachea during

swallowing
39. The scientific name for the throat is

a. trachea

b. larynx

c. epiglottis

d. pharynx

40. The muscle under the lungs is the

a. palate

b. cannula

c. diaphragm

d. sphincter

41. The nerve that activates the diaphragm is

a. diaphragmatic

b. carotid

c. mediastinal
d. phrenic

42. Bronchiectasis is

a. constriction of the bronchi

b. inflammation of the bronchi

c. dilation of the bronchioles

d. dilation of the bronchi

43. An endotracheal polyp is located

a. below the trachea

b. outside the trachea

c. near the trachea

d. within the trachea

44. Pleurocentesis is

a. surgical puncture of the lungs

b. excision of the pleura

c. pain in the lungs

d. surgical puncture of the pleura

45. Pneumonopathy is

a. study of respiration

b. study of the lungs

c. faulty development of the lungs

d. any disease of the lungs

46. A spirogram is a/an

a. X-ray examination of the lungs

b. record of lung measurements

c. measurement of the pleura

d. record of breathing measurements

47. Stomatosis is any disease of the

a. stomach
b. pylorus

c. hepatic flexure

d. mouth

48. The term glossolabial refers to

a. tongue and lips

b. palate and gums

c. uvula and salivary gland

d. lips and cheek

49. A term that means within the cheek

a. supragingival

b. intrabuccal

c. buccogingival

d. gnatholabial

50. Radiographic study of the salivary glands and

ducts is
a. glossography

b. palatoplasty

c. labiometry

d. sialography

51. The term perioral means

a. above the nose

b. within the sinuses

c. around the mouth

d. around the jaw

52. An enterovirus infects the

a. mouth

b. throat

c. tonsils

d. intestine
53. Duodenoscopy is

a. endoscopic examination of the appendix

b. endoscopic examination of the first part of the

small intestine

c. resection of the small portion of the small

intestine

d. formation of an opening into the pancreas

54. Surgical creation of an opening into the middle

portion of the small intestine is a/an

a. jejunostomy

b. ileostomy

c. cecoduodenostomy

d. jejunectomy

55. Inflammation of the ileum is

a. ileumitis
b. ileitis

c. iliitis

d. ileosis

56. Proctopexy is

a. surgical repair of the sigmoid colon

b. irrigation of the rectum

c. surgical fixation of the rectum

d. plastic repair of the anus

57. Cholangiography is

a. a radiographic study of the gallbladder

b. an X-ray image of the liver

c. a radiographic study of the bile ducts

d. the presence of bile in the blood

58. In pancreatolysis
a. a biopsy specimen is taken from the pancreas

b. bile is regurgitated

c. the pancreas is excised

d. pancreatic tissue is destroyed

59. Something that is harmful to the kidney is

described as

a. nephrotome

b. postrenal

c. nephritic

d. nephrotoxic

60. Pyelectasis is

a. lysis of the renal pelvis

b. swelling of the calyx

c. dilation of the upper part of the ureter

d. softening of the renal medulla

61. Ureteropyeloplasty is

a. excision of the renal pelvis

b. surgical fixation of the ureter

c. plastic repair of the ureter and renal pelvis

d. inflammation of the renal pelvis

62. The root in the term prevesical means

a. urination

b. glomerulus

c. iliac artery

d. urinary bladder

63. A cystocele is a

a. dilation of the bladder

b. shrinking of the bladder

c. dropping of the bladder

d. hernia of the bladder

64. The sex glands are the

a. spermatozoa

b. androgens

c. gonads

d. glans

65. The epididymis is a

a. type of cell that secrets semen

b. hormone active in reproduction

c. coiled tube on the testis that stores sperm cells

d. cord that aids in the descent of the testis

66. Orchialgia is

a. Pain in the prostate

b. narrowing of the epididymis

c. pain in the testis

d. pain in the seminal vesicle

67. Excess secretion of semen is

a. polyspermia

b. multisemia

c. oligospermia

d. spermatopenia

68. Destruction of sperm cells is

a. spermaturia

b. spermatogenesis

c. semispermia

d. spermatolysis

69. An oscheolith is a/an

a. sclerosis of the scrotum

b. inflammation of the epididymis

c. stone in the scrotum

d. overgrowth of the prostate

70. Vesiculotomy is

a. removal of the seminal vesicle

b. incision of the ejaculatory duct

c. suture of the scrotum

d. incision of the seminal vesicle

71. Surgical fixation of the testis is

a. orchiopexy

b. orchiostomy

c. spermatopexy

d. spermatosis

72. Benign prostatic hyperplasia is

a. removal of the prostate

b. measurement of the prostate

c. ultrasound study of the prostate

d. enlargement of the prostate

73. The endometrium is the

a. muscular layer of the uterus

b. membrane that covers the outside of the uterus

c. lining of the uterus

d. upper portion of the vagina

74. A laparoscope is induced into the body

a. through a vein

b. through the vagina

c. rectally

d. through the abdominal wall

75. Oogenesis is

a. formation of an egg cell

b. fertilization of an egg cell

c. rupture of an egg cell

d. release of an egg cell from an ovary

76. Ovariorrhexis is

a. dropping of an ovary

b. repair of an ovary

c. rupture of an ovary

d. pain in an ovary

77. Any disease specific to women is

a. gynecology

b. gynecopathy

c. gynodynia
d. genealogy

78. Hysterotomy is

a. removal of the cervix

b. removal of the uterus

c. surgical fixation of the uterus

d. incision of the uterus

79. Vaginometry is

a. hernia of the vagina

b. rupture of the vagina

c. measurement of the vagina

d. radiography of the vagina

80. The term uterovesical refers to the

a. vagina and cervix

b. vagina and uterus

c. uterus and urinary bladder

d. urinary bladder and ovary

81. Colpectasia is

a. dilation of the vagina

b. dilation of the cervix

c. constriction of the vagina

d. surgical fixation of the uterus

82. Episiorrhaphy is

a. plastic repair of the cul-de-sac

b. removal of the cervix

c. prolapse of the uterus

d. suture of the vulva

83. Mastitis is

a. inflammation of the clitoris

b. absence of a breast

c. absence of lactation

d. inflammation of the breast

84. The endocrine glands secrete

a. mucus

b. serous fluid

c. hormones

d. saliva

85. Hypophysectomy is

a. rupture of the hypophysis

b. surgical removal of the pituitary gland

c. ptosis of the pituitary gland

d. endoscopic examination of the hypophysis

86. A parathyrotropic substance

a. acts on the adrenal glands

b. acts on the thyroid gland

c. is attracted to the thymus gland

d. acts on the parathyroid glands

87. A thyrolytic substance

a. stimulates the thyroid gland

b. destroys thyroid tissue

c. interacts with the adrenal gland

d. stimulates the thymus gland

88. Hernia of the meninges is

a. a meningocele

b. meningitis

c. meningodysplasia

d. a meningioma
89. A glioma is a/an

a. tumor of the meninges

b. inflammation of the spinal cord

c. tumor of a ganglion

d. tumor of neuroglia

90. A ganglionectomy is

a. excision of a spinal nerve root

b. surgical removal of a ganglion

c. incision into a neuroglia

d. pain in a nerve

91. Surgical creation of an opening into a brain

ventricle is a

a. ventricectomy

b. ventriculitis

c. ventriculoma
d. ventriculostomy

92. The term intacerebellar means

a. within the cerebrum

b. between the brain stem and the cerebrum

c. within the cerebellum

d. between the cerebrum and the midbrain

93. Audiometry is measurement of

a. taste

b. hearing

c. muscle strength

d. vision

94. A myringotomy is the same as

a. presbycusis

b. tympanotomy
c. stapedioplasty

d. ophthalmology

95. The adjective lacrimal refers to

a. taste

b. odors

c. sounds

d. tears

96. Conjunctivitis affects the

a. membrane that lines the eyelid

b. layer of the eye between the retina and sclera

c. layer of the eye between the retina and the

choroid

d. substance that fills the eyeball

97. Blepharospasm is

a. drooping of the eyelid

b. a stone in the tear duct

c. paralysis of the eyelid

d. sudden contraction of the eyelid

98. Keratoplasty is

a. plastic repair of the uvea

b. incision of the lens

c. removal of the lacrimal apparatus

d. plastic repair of the cornea

99. Retinoschisis is

a. degeneration of the retina

b. infection of the ciliary body

c. prolapse of the retina

d. splitting of the retina

100. An iridodilator
a. narrows the pupil

b. shortens the ciliary body

c. widens the iris

d. changes the color of the iris

101. The cranial bones are part of the

a. sacrum

b. sternum

c. ribs

d. skull

102. The cervical vertebrae are in the

a. chest

b. lower back

c. upper back

d. neck
103. Chondrogenesis is the formation of

a. bone

b. bone marrow

c. cartilage

d. synovial fluid

104. A bursolith is a/an

a. stone in a bursa

b. incision into a bursa

c. region near a bursa

d. repair of bursa

105. The term infracostal means

a. within cartilage

b. under a vertebra

c. below the ribs

d. above the coccyx

106. The sacroiliac joint is between the

a. skull and first cervical vertebra

b. zygomatic and temporal bones

c. ribs and sternum

d. spine and the pelvis

107. A coccygectomy is

a. fracture of the coccyx

b. malformation of the coccyx

c. removal of the coccyx

d. degeneration of the coccyx

108. In spondylolysis

a. a rib is separated

b. the pelvis ossifies

c. the ilium is measured

d. a vertebra is destroyed

109. The term costochondral refers to

a. skull and spine

b. rib and cartilage

c. rib and vertebra

d. cartilage and bone marrow

110. The acetabulum is

a. the upper portion of the skull

b. part of the intervertebral disk

c. a socket in the hip bone

d. the anterior joint of the pelvis

111. Tenotomy is

a. tearing of a tendon
b. movement of a tendon

c. incision of a tendon

d. splitting of a tendon

112. Dyskinesia is

a. contraction of a muscle

b. malformation of muscle fibers

c. rapid movements

d. abnormality of movement

113. The layer of the skin above the dermis is the

a. subcutaneous layer

b. sebaceous layer

c. epidermis

d. hypodermis

114. The subcutaneous layer is located

a. above the dermis

b. just below the epidermis

c. along the shaft of a hair

d. below the dermis

115. Hidradenitis is

a. inflammation of a sweat gland

b. infection of the hair

c. inflammation of melanosomes

d. loss of pigment

116. The term onychoid refers to a

a. sebaceous gland

b. follicle

c. hair

d. nail
117. Trichomycosis is a

a. bacterial infection of a sweat gland

b. bacterial infection of a nail

c. fungal infection of hair

d. viral infection of the epidermis

118. Keratogenesis is

a. a tumor containing keratin

b. formation of keratin

c. destruction of keratin

d. lysis of keratin

119. A word that means the same as subcutaneous

is

a. sudoriferous

b. hypodermis

c. hidrosis
 d. seborrheic

120. In hypohidrosis, one would expect

a. reduced amount of sweat

b. excess production of saliva

c. reduced production of salivary enzymes

d. excess release of sebum

D. What do the following medical abbreviations stand for?

1. OS
_______________________________________
__________________

2. NVA
_______________________________________
________________

3. PERRLA
_______________________________________
_____________
4. ROM
_______________________________________
________________

5. IM
_______________________________________
__________________

6. TKA
_______________________________________
_________________

7. ACS
_______________________________________
_________________

8. ASHD
_______________________________________
_______________

9. CABG
_______________________________________
_______________

10. CPR
_______________________________________
_________________
11. HDL
_______________________________________
________________

12. LV
_______________________________________
__________________

13. HAART
_______________________________________
______________

14. SLE
_______________________________________
_________________

15. CNS
_______________________________________
________________

16. ADHD
_______________________________________
______________

17. CSF
_______________________________________
_________________
18. ALS
_______________________________________
_________________

19. MRI
_______________________________________
_________________

20. FSH
_______________________________________
_________________

21. GTT
_______________________________________
_________________

22. PGH
_______________________________________
________________

23. TSH
_______________________________________
_________________

24. COLD
_______________________________________
_______________
25. CPAP
_______________________________________
_______________

26. IPPM
_______________________________________
________________

27. SIDS
_______________________________________
________________

28. RUL
_______________________________________
________________

29. BMI
_______________________________________
_________________

30. ALT
_______________________________________
_________________

31. CKD
_______________________________________
________________
32. CAPD
_______________________________________
_______________

33. DRE
_______________________________________
________________

34. IVF
_______________________________________
_________________

35. STD
_______________________________________
_________________

36. TURP
_______________________________________
_______________

37. VDRL
_______________________________________
_______________

38. HIV
_______________________________________
_________________
 39. HD
_______________________________________
_________________

40. ADH
_______________________________________
________________
E. In each of the following sets, circle the word that does not fit with
the rest and explain the reason for your choice.

F. Write T if the statement is true or F if it is false. Correct the false

ones in the second blank.
1. Myelogenous means originating in the spinal
cord. ________ ________

2. Thrombocytopenia means deficiency of platelet

in the blood. ________ ________

3. A hematoma is a localized collection of blood.

________ ________

4. The vocal cords are located in the pharynx.

________ ________

5. Pyothorax is the accumulation of fluid in the

chest. ________ ________

6. Above the diaphragm is termed superphrenic.

________ ________

7. From its name you might guess that the

buccinators muscle is in the tongue. ________
________

8. Hernia of the rectum is termed proctocele.

________ ________

9. Pyelitis is inflammation of the kidney. ________

________
10. A lithotomy is an incision to remove a calculus.
________ ________

11. The adjective oscheal refers to the seminal

vesicle. _________ ________

12. The lining of the uterus is the myometrium.

________ ________

13. Thyrolytic means destroying the thyroid glands.

________ ________

14. A narcotic is a drug that causes sleep. ________

________

15. The cervical nerves are in the region of the

neck. _________ ________

16. A myringotomy is incision of the vitreous body.

________ ________

17. Synovectomy is excision of bursa. ________

________

18. The study of the efficient use of energy during

work is termed ergonomics. ________ ________
 19. To measure your blood pressure, you may use
sphygmomanometer. ________ ________

20. Capnogram means record of breathing.

________ ________
G. Define each of the following words, and give the meaning of the
word parts in each.

1. phonocardiography

a. phon/o _______________________

b. cardi/o ________________________

c. -graphy ________________________

2. lymphangiophlebitis

a. lymph/o ______________________

b. angi/o ________________________

c. phleb/o _______________________

d. -itis ___________________________

3. hemocytometer
a. hem/o ________________________

b. cyt/o __________________________

c. -meter ________________________

4. intrapulmonary

a. intra- _________________________

b. pulmon/o _____________________

c. -ary ___________________________

5. supravesical

a. supra- _________________________

b. vesic/o ________________________

c. -al ____________________________

6. vesiculogram

a. vesicul/o ____________________

b. -gram _______________________
7. hysteropexy

a. hyster/o _____________________

b. -pexy ________________________

8. adenocorticotropic

a. adenocortic/o __________________

b. -tropic ________________________

9. myelodysplasia

a. myel/o ______________________

b. dys- _________________________

c. -plas _________________________

d. -ia ____________________________

10. polyneuroradiculitis

a. poly- ________________________

b. neur/o ______________________
c. radicul/o ____________________

d. -itis _________________________

11. circumcorneal

a. circum- _______________________

b. corne/o ________________________

c. -eal __________________________

12. rachioschisis

a. rachi/o _________________________

b. -schisis ______________________

13. spondylosyndesis

a. spondyl/o ____________________

b. syn- _________________________

c. -desis _______________________

14. amyotrophic
 a. a- ___________________________

b. my/o ________________________

c. troph/o ______________________

d. -ic __________________________

15. choledochotomy

a. choledoch/o _________________

b. -tomy _______________________
H. Label each numbered part. Write its name in the table below.
 Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Self-assessment
Check ( ✓) what you learned. If you need more information or practice,
refer to the relevant section in the chapter.

( ) I can name all the body systems.

( ) I can differentiate between the terms system, organ, and tissue.

( ) I can identify the organs of each system.

( ) I know the functions of each system.

( ) I can define and use the roots pertaining to each body system.

( ) I can analyze medical terms into their components.

( ) I can interpret the abbreviations pertaining to each system.

( ) I can use the new medical collocations and academic words properly.

( ) I can pronounce medical terms properly.

( ) I can skim and scan medical texts for main ideas and details.

( ) I can write a referral letter.

( ) I can spell and pronounce the new medical terms in the chapter.
Glossary
Index

A
Abbreviation, 21, 223t
abdomin/o, 65–67t
Acronym, 21
Acute disease, 21
Adenitis, 14
Adjective forming suffixes, 40t
Alimentary canal, 233f
Al-Razi, 29
angi/o, 7–8t
Angioplasty, 79f
Anoxia, 75f
Antigen, 124f
Arteries, 211, 213f
Artery, cut-away views, 72f
arthr/o, 7–8t
Arthritis, 98
Atoms, 155

B
Benign, 21
bi/later/al, 13
Blood, 211

vessels, 211
Body,

muscles, 206f
parts, 4t
Body structure, 155

abdominopelvic regions, 172–173

atoms, 155
axial plane, 161
body cavity, 168–174
cells, 155
combining forms, -, 157–160
coronal plane, 160
directional terms, 155, 164f
frontal plane, 160
lateral plane, 161
levels of organization, 156f
orientation, terms, 155
planes of, 160–161, 161f
positions, 166, 169f
principal, -, 158–160
sagittal plane, 161
terms for, 169f, 170f
transverse plane, 161
Body systems, 197–247

dermis, 199
epidermis, 199
images for cells, 198f
subcutaneous layer, 199
types of organs, 198
brady/card/ia, 13
Brain,

major components, 221f

lobes, 221f
limbic system, 222f
anatomy of, 81f
Brain stroke, 77f
types, 77f
bronch/o, 7–8t
Bypass, 2–3

C
Cancer, 175
Canon of Medicine, 30
Capillaries, 211
carcin/o, 7–8t
Carcinoma, 14, 21, 84t
Cardi, 13
Cardiovascular system, 158, 210–211

abbreviations, 215t
roots for, 214t
Cartilage, 205
Case report, 94–97
Cells, 155, 197–198

hyperplasia, 128f
hypertrophy, 128f
Central nervous system (CNS), 218
cephal/o, 7–8t
Cephalic, 14
cerebr/o, 7–8t
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), 21–22
cervic/o, 7–8t
Chair, 98
chron/o, 7–8t
Chronic disease, 21
col/o, 7–8t
Colonoscopy, 6f
Combining form, 7–8, 14, 18, 65–67, 116

list of, 65–67

Combining vowel, 14, 17, 17t, 18
Confusing verbs, 182–183
Cyanosis, 119f
cyst/o, 7–8t
Cystoscope, 15f
cyt/o, 7–8t

D
Depressive disorder, 95
derm/o, 7–8t
dermat/o, 7–8t
Diagnosis, 20
Differential diagnosis, 21
Digestive system, 159, 232

abbreviations, 237t
anus, 233
colon, 233, 234f
esophagus, 232
gallbladder, 233
liver, 233
mouth, 232
pancreas, 233
rectum, 233
roots, 234–235t
small intestine, 232
stomach, 232
Diplopia, 75f
Dodick, David, 85
duoden/o, 7–8t
Dyslexia, 73f
Dysplasia, 121f

E
Ectomy (removal, excision), 83t
electr/o, 7–8t
encephal/o, 7–8t
encephal/o/graphy, 16
Endocrine,
glands, 125t
system, 159, 224
Endocrine system, 224

abbreviations, 227–228t
roots, 225t
enter/o, 7–8t
Epigastric region, 172
Eponym, 21
Ergotamine tartrate, 86
erythr/o, 7–8t
Erythrocyte, 12f
esophag/o, 7–8t
Exacerbation, 21
Exocrine glands, 125t
Exophthaloms, 126f
Extemporaneous delivery, 42

F
Female reproductive system, 224f, 242f

abbreviations, 244–245t
roots for, 243t
Four roots, 4t
Fructose:, 76f
G
gastr/o, 7–8t
Gastrectomy, 14
Gastroduodenostomy, 10f
Gastroscopy, 3–4, 3f
Geriatric Depression Scale, 95
gingiv/o, 7–8t
Gland, adenectomy excision of, 9f
glyc/o,
gnos/o,
Graphy (act of recording data), 84t
gynec/o,

H
Hard “c”, 28t
Hard “g”, 28t
Headaches,

mild, 85
research in, 85
severe, 85
symptoms of, 85
treating methods, 85
Heart,

attack, 98
components of, 212f
hem/ohemat/o, 7–8t
hemat/o/ur/ia, 16
Hematuria, 14
Hemodialysis, 94
hepat/o, 71
hepat/o, 7–8t
Histology, 155
Human skeleton, 204f
Hyperglycemia, 12
Hypogastric region, 173
hyster/o, 7–8t

I
Immune system, 159, 216f, 246, 246f

abbreviations, 247t
roots for, 246t
Impromptu delivery, 41
In vitro techniques, 133–135
In vivo tests, 133–135
Infrascapular, 123f
Integumentary system, 158, 198–199

abbreviations, 202t
roots for, 199–201t
vocabulary development, 250–255
International Headache Society, 85
Irregular spelling and pronunciation, 27t
Itis (Inflammation), 83t

J
Joints, 205

K
Kidney, anatomy of, 18f

L
lapar/o, 7–8t
laryng/o, 7–8t
Laryngectomy, 20f
Learning medical vocabulary, 2–3
leuk/o, 7–8t
Ligaments, 205
Lithotripsy, 71f
Lobes, 81f
Lymph, 216f
Lymphatic (lymph) system, 158, 216

abbreviations, 218t
root, 217t
Lymphocytes, 217f
M
Macrodactyly, 130f
Male reproductive system, 242f

abbreviations, 244–245t
roots for, 243t
Malignant, 21
mamm/o, 7–8t
Mammogram, 69f
manuscript delivery,
mast/o, 7–8t
Mayo Clinic subacute rehabilitation unit, 94
Medical terms, 2–4, 65–67

pronunciation of, 99–102, 143–145, 261–265

meaning/s of, 2
constituents of, 18
plural forms of, 37–41
singular forms of, 37–41
Medicine, nuclear concepts, 132–135
Melanoma, 78f
Memorized delivery, 41
Migraine, 85–88
Mirtazapine, 94
Multicellular cells, 118f
Musculoskeletal system, 158, 203

abbreviations, 210t
roots for, -, 201t, 209
Myocardial infarction (MI), 21, 98
Myocardial, 98

N
National Cancer Institute, 175
Nerves, 198
Nervous system, 159, 218

abbreviations, 223t
brain, 219–220
cerebellum, 219
cerebrum, 219
roots, 222t
spinal cord, 220
stem, 219–220
Neuralgia, 9, 14
Neuritis, 9
Neuroplasty, 9
Noun forming suffixes, 40t
O
Oligodontia, 128f
One root, 4, 16t
Oral skills, 41–45, 97, 141, 183–184, 258–260
Organs, 197–198
Otorhinolaryngology, 8f

P
Paraphrasing, 46

steps for effective, 46

Parathyroid glands, 123f
Passive voice, 92
Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 218, 219f
Phrasal verbs, 255
Postpresentation skills, 45
Prefix, 12, 13–14, 18, 115

colors, 119t
combining forms for fingers (Dactyl/O), 131t
degree, 127t
direction, 122t, 124t
disease, 121t
infectious diseases, 122t
numbers, 118t
position, 120t, 122t, 124t, 125t
size and comparison, 129t
time, 120t
types of, 117
writing, 142–143
Pre-presentation skills, 42
Prognathic, 120
Prognosis, 21
Prolaps, 82f
Prophase, 120
Prosthesis, 120f
Psychotropic medications, 95

Q
Quadrants, 173, 173f
Quadriplegia, 13f

R
Radioimmunoassay (RIA), 133–135
Reading, 132–135
Relapse, 21
Remission, 21
Reproductive system, 159
Respiratory system, 159, 228, 229f
abbreviations, 231–232t
roots, 229–230t
Reproductive system, 159, 241
“rh” rule, 19t
Roots, 3–8, 18, 222t

S
Sarcoma, 21, 84t
Scanning, 2–3
Scintillation camera, 132
Screening, 2–3
Shut, 98
Sign, 21
Significant, 98
Silent letters, 27t
Skeletal muscles, 205
Skeletal system, parts of, 205f
Soft “c”, 28t
Soft “g”, 28t
Spinal column, divisions of, 174, 174f, 220f
Sublingual, 14f
Suffixes, 9, 18, 65, 68–80

blood, 70t
body chemistry, 76t
case report, 94–97
diagnosis, 68t
drugs, 71t
eye and vision, 74t
for diseases, 76t
identification, 68
medical specialties, 68t
mixed, -, 79–80t, 80
nervous system, 74t
respiration, 74t
senses, 69t
surgical procedures, 70t
words for diseases, 78t
Symptoms, 21
Synapse, 127f
Syndrome, 21

T
tachy/card/ia, 13
Tendons, 205
“the Prince of Philosophers”, 30
Therapy (treatment), 83t
Three roots, 4t
Tomy (incision, cutting into), 83t
Two roots, 4t

U
Umbilical region, 173
uni/later/al, 13
Uremia, 16
Urinary system, 159, 238, 239f

abbreviations, 241t
bladder, 238
kidneys, 238
roots, 239t
ureters, 238f

V
Veins, 211, 213f
Venules, 211
Vocabulary development, 33–37, 88–92, 135

W
While-presentation skills, 42
Writing, 45–48, 98–99
guidelines for, 99

X
“x” Rule, 20t