THE INDIAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE,

RAJA NAGAR
VADAKANGULAM
TIRUNELVELI-627116

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SEISMIC DESIGN OF STRUCTURES

Authors,
SANTHAKUMAR.G MAIL,ID: santhakumar945@gmail.com
FINAL YEAR

Contact Address,

Phone No: 9597502186

ABSTRACT
Throwing light towards “Earthquake Resistant Design” is the ultimate goal of
our paper. The most pronounced fact is that “Buildings are the Worst Killers than the
Earthquake”. Unlike the past when the earthquakes were rare, now India and other parts
of the world are prone to frequent earthquakes. Neglecting earthquake hazards in the
design of buildings will not be fair designing. So we aimed at projecting the applicable
techniques in design of a structure, which can sustain against the seismic waves, which
roots from Earthquake. At first we commence with earthquake analysis grasping the
method of dynamic analysis through time history and response spectrum method. The
path leads to causes of Earthquake, transfer of seismic waves into the structure.
Structural techniques concerned with the structural elements such as beams, columns,
beam column integrity, boundary elements, hidden & reduced beams have been
discussed. Generalized design concepts like short column effect; beam column design
and inverse pendulum effect are also encountered. By considering these features we
aimed at bringing a better structural integrity with desirable features. Keeping cost
effectiveness in mind; instead of discarding the structure, rehabilitant measure with
epoxy resin injection also have its position. With specific consideration to skyscrapers,
we have reported some provision corresponding to bearings, dampers, and foundation
isolation techniques. Special concern has to be given while designing shells, domes and
other curved structures and hence this path leads to usage of pretension elements. A
collection of these design details have been updated and fetched first in national level
paper presentations and report submission. Our presentation will be enumerated through
a dynamic model of a multistory building, explaining each and every concept mentioned
as above with few design details. In short we can’t fight against the earthquake
altogether, but can bring down the damage from collapsible to non-collapsible range,
since it is not only a life concerned thing, but a structural challenge too.

INTRODUCTION
The worst of all natural disasters, earthquake have become more pronounced and
have climbed a large number of lives from the start of the history. This is a subject of
growing concern among civil engineers and architects. This paper involves the various
techniques that can be adapted to make the buildings more resistant to the earthquakes,
this is important because it is not the earthquake that kills the people but it is the
buildings they live in, so some kind of design specification has to be followed while
designing and constructing the buildings. In short these are a collection of structural
details that are pointed towards seismic resistant structures.

EARTHQUAKE AND SEISMIC ENERGY

Earthquake is a violent shaking of the Earth when large Elastic Strain Energy
released spreads out through seismic waves and through the body and along the surface
of the Earth, and due to the Elastic Rebound Theory the process of strain build-up at this
modified interface between the rocks starts all over again.
Earthquake Forces Analysisss
Determination of design earthquake forces is computed as follows:
 Equivalent static lateral loading
 Dynamic Analysis
The basic principle of design of earthquake resistant structures is by
 Enhancing the ductility (rotation capacity) of the structural members.
 Increasing the energy dissipation capacity of the structure.
If the structure is designed to have the above-mentioned properties, the induced
seismic forces are considerably reduced resulting in an economical structure with the
added advantage of reduced probability of collapse of the structural system.
Typical structural systems, which are generally used to resist earthquakes, are
 Ductile moment resistant space frame.
 Dual system (Ductile moment resisting frame & Ductile flexural (shear) wall)

Dynamic Analysis
Dynamic analysis shall be performed to obtain the design seismic force, and its
distribution to different levels along the height of the building and to the various lateral
load-resisting elements, for the regular and irregular buildings.
 Regular buildings: Those greater than 40m heights in zones IV and V, and those
greater than 90m in height in zones II and III.
 Irregular buildings: All framed buildings higher than 12m in zones IV and V, and
those greater than 40m in height in zones II and III.
Dynamic analysis may be performed either by the Time History Method or by the
Response Spectrum Method. In either method, all the response quantities like member
forces, displacements, storey forces, storey shears and base reactions are taken into
account and the design base shear shall be compared with the base shear calculated using
a fundamental period.
Time history method of analysis is performed using accepted principles of
dynamics based on the appropriate ground motion. Response spectrum method of
analysis is performed using a site-specific design spectrum value.
Dynamics analysis of building is carried out including the strength and stiffness
effects if infill and inelastic deformations in the members, particularly, those in the soft
storey, and the members designed accordingly.
. The further most advanced path has led to inelastic analysis of structures named
push over analysis. As for our analysis paper is concerned we focus mostly towards
general analysis and its design

Buildings Reaction towards Earthquake

Earthquake causes shaking of the ground and hence building resting on it will
experience motion at its base. Even though the base of the building moves with the
ground, tendency of roof is to stay in its original position due to inertia force. Due to wall
and column connection, the force will drag the roof along with them. So its tendency is to
attack from the base and at beam column joint and protrude through structure.
GENERAL DESIGN PHENOMENON
Beam Column Effect
Moving for higher zones strong column and weak beam design proves better.
Since damage of beam will cause localized effect but whereas when a column damages it
leads to entire structural damage named globalize damage.

Joint displacement due to seismic waves Column Beam Design Concept

Inverse Pendulum Effect

Due to space restraints reinforced concrete frame buildings in recent times have
the ground storey left open for the purpose of parking i.e., columns in the ground storey
do not have any partition walls. These are named open ground storey buildings. It is
analyzed to have more flexibility hence too weak to carry earthquake force due to its
collapse at ground storey and this effect termed as inverse pendulum effect.

Design Phenomenon
Open ground storey buildings are inherently poor systems. In the current practice,
stiff masonry walls are avoided and bare frames are considered in design calculations. In
practical, steel sections will be raised as vertical reinforcement and hollow blocks will be
hoisted as partitions. Thus, the inverted pendulum effect is not captured in design.

Beams as a Structural Member

Beams are the horizontal members in a structure. It is likely to have two types of
failure. One is the flexural failure, which is the propagation on vertical cracks; this can be
contracted by provision on longitudinal bar along the length. If the structure is likely to
experience more thrust then we will be having longitudinal bars on both faces.

Open Ground Storey Design Practice having lightweight walls

 Shear Failure will result in propagation of inclined cracks. To counteract this we
hereby provide closed loops called stirrups. The ends are bent to an angle of 1350 to resist
the thrust effectively. Loops are provided closely at ends and laps. Density can be
reduced at mid span. Its presence will carry vertical shear, protect bulging of concrete.

Column as a Structural Member

Columns, the vertical members in RC buildings, contain two types of steel
reinforcements. Long straight bars placed vertically along the length to sustain axial force
and transverse ties placed horizontally at regular intervals along its full length.
Columns can sustain two types of Damage, namely axial-flexural (or combined
compression bending) Failure and shear failure. Shear damage is brittle and must be
avoided in columns as by providing transverse ties at close spacing, which carry the
horizontal shear forces and hold concrete and vertical bars together.

Horizontal Bands and its Role

Horizontal bands are the most important Earthquake-resistant feature in masonry
buildings, since it hold a masonry building as a Single unit by tying all the walls together.
There are four types of bands in a typical Masonry building, namely gable band, roof
band, lintel Band and plinth band.

Horizontal Bar (Location, Design)

Lintel band is the most Important of all, since it ties the walls together and also
breaks the monotonous continuity of wall. The gable band is employed only in Buildings
with pitched or sloped roofs. In buildings with flat R.C or reinforced brick roofs, the Roof
band is not required. In buildings with pitched or sloped roof, the Roof band is very
important. Plinth bands are primarily used where uneven settlement of foundation in soil
undergoes bending and pulling actions. It will be better to use RC bands.

Shear Wall
Reinforced concrete buildings often have vertical plate-like RC walls called Shear
Walls. These walls generally start at foundation level and are continuous throughout the
building height. Their thickness varies from 150mm to 400mm. Shear walls are usually
provided along both length and width of buildings.
 Shear wall (Provision, Location)

Shear walls are like vertically oriented wide beams that carry earthquake loads
downwards to the foundation. Just like reinforced concrete (RC) beams and columns, RC
shear walls also perform much better if designed to be ductile. Overall geometric
proportions of the wall, types and amount of reinforcement, and connection with
remaining elements in the building help in improving the ductility of walls.

Boundary Elements
Under the large overturning effects caused by horizontal earthquake
forces, edges of shear walls experience high compressive and tensile stresses.
To ensure that shear walls behave in a ductile way, concrete in the wall end
regions must be reinforced in a special manner to sustain these load reversals without
loosing strength. End regions of a wall with increased confinement are called boundary
elements, which have high bending strength.

Boundary Elements (Design, Location)

Short and Long Columns

During past earthquakes, reinforced concrete (RC) frame buildings that have columns
of different heights within one storey, suffered more damage in the shorter columns as
compared to taller columns in the same storey.

Short Column Behavior

Poor behavior of short columns is due to the fact that in an earthquake, a tall
column and a short column of same cross-section move horizontally by same amount.
However, the short column is stiffer as compared to the tall column, and it attracts larger
earthquake force. Therefore it causes X-shaped cracks.
 Short Column (Failure, Location with Mezzanine floor)

Stiffness of a column means resistance to deformation – the larger is the stiffness,

larger is the force required to deform it. This behavior is called Short Column Effect.

Design Phenomenon
If it is not possible to avoid short columns, this effect must be addressed in
structural design. As per Indian Standard the reinforcement must extend beyond the short
column into the columns vertically above. In case of stone or brick masonry the width has
to be increased accordingly for short column.

Beam Column Joint

The points where the beams and columns intersect is a beam column joint. Since
they too made of same material we can’t expect to have more strength. So have to take
care on these unavoidable joints. During earthquake the upper bars and lower bars act in a
different direction causing elongation or damage of joint.

Design Strategy
In design practice large column size, having large closed loops are placed inside.
These should follow some design specification. Normally we will go for the anchoring of
the bars at the ends. Micro concreting can be gone in the congested junction.

Beam Column Joint (Location, Failure without proper anchorage)

Concrete Repair –Epoxy Resin Injection

For the reuse of damaged concrete we can go for epoxy resin injection. The
concrete surface is done with initial preparation by Wire brushing by hand, compressed
air. Once the surface was prepared, entry ports were placed along the crack and an epoxy
surface seal was applied depending upon the size to the exposed surface of the crack.
 Four Point Loading

Concrete Repair (Plot Placing, Epoxy Injection)

Rubber grommets (ports) with a small inside diameter were used to inject epoxy
resin of grade 1, 2 and 3 corresponding to the size of cracks. Then after nailing, epoxy
resin should be filled completely, until it flowed out from adjacent side. Four points
loading is done for testing and as its alternate loading.

Hidden Beams
These are also called as concealed beams which have their depth equal to that of
the slab. These can be provided either on longer or on the shorter span. When provided
along longer span it is found that the load carrying capacity increase to 135% with an
economical increase of just 0.4 – 0.5%.

Reduced Beam Section

This is a section of beam, which is provided along the length of beam. These will
have their area of cross section lesser than the proceeding section to an extent that it will
just act as a plastic hinge. In case of steel section also a circular arc will be cut in the
required portion of span

Reduced Beam Section Hidden Beam

Pre tensioning Technique

In case of domes and shell structures, the lateral thrust experienced will be more.
This fault is answered well by pre-tensioned concrete. In case of huge structures like
nuclear rectors, large spanning domes we will be having a thin walled cylindrical tube of
diameter about 10 to 15 cm and steel rods will be packed tightly.
Then stressing will be done as per design and then the micro concrete is injected
in pressure into the tube. This setup is then done with normal concreting. It will resist the
lateral thrust in an effective manner.

Pre tension elements (After & Before Concreting)

Techniques to Adopt on Sky Scrappers

While speaking about large multistoried buildings we can’t simply go in for
normal strengthening of beams, columns, and other structural elements. There we had an
alternative to speak about some elements such as Bearing, Bracing, Friction pendulum
and Dampers, which are primarily meant to take Vibration produced by lateral force.

Rubber Bearings
Rubber bearings are made from layers of rubber with thin steel plates between
them, and a thick steel plate on the top and bottom. The bearings are placed between the
bottom of a building and its foundation . The bearings are designed to be very stiff and
strong for vertical load to carry the weight of the building and designed to be much
weaker for horizontal loads, so that they can move sideways due to lateral thrust.

Rubber Bearing Viscous Dampers

Viscous Dampers
Viscous fluid dampers are meant as shock absorbers. They consist of a closed
cylinder containing a viscous fluid and a piston having small holes in its head. As the
piston move in and out of the cylinder oil is forced in and out causing friction. The
damper is usually installed as part of a building's bracing system using single diagonals.
As the building sways to and fro, the piston is forced in and out of the cylinder.
Friction Dampers
Friction dampers are designed to have moving parts that will slide over each
other. The damper is made up from a set of steel plates, with slotted holes in them, and
they are bolted together. At high enough forces, the plates can slide over each other
creating friction causing energy dissipation. The plates are specially treated to increase
the friction between them
.

Friction Dampers Cross Bearings (In foundation)

Cross Bracings
These are very common in case of vertical load distribution. But we can also
adopt this technique to foundation, in which the entire building will be laid in a cross
horizontal bracing rather than placing it directly on foundation. It will distribute the load
to joints and through foundation finally.

Friction Pendulum
Considering about the large multistory buildings, we can always expect some
appreciable movement in it base due to the vibration. Instead to resist against it
completely we can allow the structure to deform at its foundation level by provision of
friction pendulum without damaging the structural integrity.

Friction bearing (Location, Appearance)

CONCLUSION
The cities of the world are undergoing vertical development with the construction
of more and more skyscrapers, which are very densely populated. Still a lot of studies
have been going in bracing and bearings. Strengthening of structural elements had taken a
different path like rebuked section and large spanning elements are also shown special
considerations. Constraint is that, human has to satisfy his unlimited wants through
limited resources. The techniques, which have been detailed here, are those, which
already exist in the field. As a part of the civil engineering world, we all have a role to
play in developing newer and more effective techniques to increase the seismic resistance
of buildings to make them invulnerable to an appreciable intensity of earthquakes.
REFERENCE
I Journals
(a) “New Building Material and Construction World”
(b) “Civil Engineering and Construction Review”
(c) “American society for Civil Engineers”
II Textbooks: (Contents)
(a) “Disaster Management” – S L Goel
(b) “Design of reinforced concrete elements” – P C Varghese
(c) “Earthquake Architecture” – Belen Gavcice
(d) “Design of Concrete Structures” – S N Sinha
III Pictures:
(a) www.ideers.com
(b) www.nicee.org
(c) www.mceer.org
(d) www.mfaaa-epd.org
IV Papers: (Over view)
(a) National Conference on Disaster Resisting Techniques
(b) Testing of Epoxy Resins Injection and repair on Concrete
(c) Basic concepts of Seismic codes - 1980
V IS Codes: (Design Details)
(a) IS 1893: 2002
(b) IS 4326:1993
(c) IS 13935:1993