Fis Book 4 Index: Instruments

FIS BOOK 4
INDEX
INSTRUMENTS
Page
Chapter Title
No.
1. Air Data Instruments 1
2. Barometric Height Measurement 5
3. Air Speed Indicator 13
4. Vertical Speed Indicator 19
5. Machmeter 23
6. Stall Warning and Angle of Attack Indication 27
7. Accelerometers 29
8. Introduction to Gyroscopes 31
9. Artificial Horizon 49
10. The Turn and Slip Indicator 59
11. Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI) 65
12. Gyro-Magnetic Compass 71
13. Air Data Computer 89
CHAPTER 1
AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS
Introduction
1. Two of the most important pieces of information for a safe flight are height and speed. Almost
from the beginning of powered flight these have been provided to the pilot by instruments that utilise
the ambient atmospheric pressure by means of a pitot static system.
PILOT AND STATIC SYSTEMS
Static Pressure
2. The ambient atmospheric pressure at any location is known as the static pressure. This
pressure, in a standard atmosphere, decreases by 1 hectopascal (hPa) for each 27 feet (ft) increase
in altitude at mean sea level. For simplicity this figure is usually approximated to 1 hPa per 30 ft gain
in altitude. The rate of change of pressure with height is fundamental to the operation of the pressure
altimeter, the vertical speed indicator and the mach meter. Each of these instruments uses static
pressure to measure aircraft altitude, or rate of change of altitude.
3. Static pressure, that is the pressure of the stationary air surrounding an aircraft, irrespective
of its height or speed, is sensed through a set of small holes situated at a point on the aircraft
unaffected by turbulence. This sensing point is known as the static source. It is typically on the side of
the fuselage or on the side of a tube projecting into the airstream.
Pitot Pressure
4. As an aircraft moves through the air it displaces the surrounding air. As it moves forward it
compresses the air and there is a pressure increase on the forward-facing parts of the aircraft. This
pressure is known as dynamic pressure.
5. Suppose a cup were to be placed on the front of an aircraft, with its open end facing forward.
When the aircraft is stationary the pressure inside the cup will be the same as the surrounding air
pressure. In other words it will be static pressure. When the aircraft begins to move forward the air
inside the cup will be compressed and dynamic pressure will be added to the static pressure. The
faster the aircraft moves, the greater the dynamic pressure will become, but static pressure will
always also be present.
FIS Book 4: Instruments 2
6. The pressure measured on

the forward-facing surfaces of an
aircraft will be the sum of static
pressure and dynamic pressure.
This is known as pitot pressure, or
total pressure, which is sensed by a
forward-facing, open-ended tube
called a pitot tube, or pitot head. Fig Fig 1-1: Pitot Head
1-1 is a simplified diagram of a pitot
head.
7. The pitot head comprises an aerodynamically shaped casing, usually mounted beneath one
wing, or on the side of the forward fuselage, clear of any turbulent airflow. Within the casing is a tube,
the rear of which is connected to the pitot system, which conveys pitot pressure to the pilot's
instruments. An electrical heating element is fitted within the tube to prevent the formation of ice,
which could otherwise block the tube and render it useless. Drain holes are provided in the bottom of
the tube to allow water to escape.
8. The dynamic element of pitot pressure is required to operate those air data instruments that
display speed relative to the surrounding air, the airspeed indicator and the mach meter.
9. Pitot and static pressure is supplied to the air data instruments through a system of tubes
known as the pitot / static system. The static source may be duplicated on either side of the rear
fuselage. This is to compensate for false readings that would occur if the aircraft were side-slipping or
in a crosswind. The pitot and static pressure supplies are connected to a duplicate set of instruments
in aircraft that have a pilot and co-pilot. In some aircraft the pitot and static sources are combined in
the pitot head (Fig 1-1) and in others they may be located separately.
10. The static source consists of a number of small holes in the side of the pitot head, connected
to an annular chamber surrounding the pitot tube. This chamber is connected to the static system,
which conveys static pressure to the pilot's instruments. A separate pipe connects the pitot tube to the
pitot system. As with the pitot head shown in Fig 1-1, an electrical heating element is fitted to prevent
blockage of the pitot and static sources due to icing and water drain holes are provided in the bottom
of the casing. In some aircraft this type of pitot head is mounted on the fuselage near the nose and it
may be duplicated, one each side, to compensate for crosswind effects.
Static Pressure Error
11. The static system of air pressure measurement will be incorrect if the airflow is turbulent, if
there is a crosswind, or if the aircraft is side-slipping. The effect of turbulence is minimised by locating
3 Air Data Instruments
the static source clear of protuberances and disturbed airflow. To eliminate the effect of crosswind or
side-slip the static source is duplicated and this is known as static balancing. Despite all the measures
taken by the aircraft designer there is often some small error in the sensed static pressure, but this
can usually be measured and compensated for by a correction card or table. In many aircraft the
correction values will differ according to the position of flaps and / or landing gear.
Malfunctions
12. Correct and reliable indications from the various air data instruments can only be achieved if
the pitot and static sources are kept clear of any blockages and the pitot static system within the
aircraft remains undamaged and pressure-tight.
13. Blockage of the pitot or static source may occur due to icing, insects, dirt or dust. It is also not
unknown for aircraft painters to forget to remove masking tape from the perforated discs that form the
static vents on the fuselage sides or for the pilots to remove the pitot covers before flight. Icing can be
prevented by the use of heaters, but this may affect the sensed pressure to some small extent. The
effect of blockages is to render the instruments dangerously inaccurate or useless.
14. Blockage of the static sources will cause the altimeter reading to remain constant regardless
of changing aircraft altitude, the vertical speed indicator will not indicate rate of change of height and
the airspeed indicator will be dangerously inaccurate.
15. Blockage of the pitot source will not affect the altimeter or vertical speed indicator, but it will
render the airspeed indicator useless and the mach meter grossly inaccurate.
16. Leakage in the piping of the pitot static system will also seriously affect the accuracy and
usefulness of the air data instruments. Loss of pitot pressure due to leakage in the pitot pressure
system will cause the airspeed indicator to under read.
17. Leakage in the static pressure system within the cabin of a pressurised aircraft is a serious
problem, since the altimeter will register an altitude equivalent to cabin altitude, which will almost
certainly be much lower than aircraft altitude. The vertical speed indicator will not function at all and
the airspeed indicator will be inaccurate.
18. In unpressurised aircraft the effect of a static system leak is less serious, since internal
pressure is much the same as external. However, it may change at a slightly slower rate when the
aircraft is climbing or descending and this would clearly affect the accuracy of the pressure
instruments during height changes.
Alternate Static Source
19. Blockage of the static source is a more probable hazard in flight and for this reason many
aircraft are fitted with an alternate static source. This may take pressure from within the cabin in the
case of unpressurised aircraft, or from a separate external source. In either case there is likely to be a
slight difference in pressure compared with that from the normal source. The aircraft flight manual
usually contains correction values to be used when the alternate static source has been selected.
Changeover is made by means of a selector cock easily accessible to the pilot.
20. In light aircraft, not fitted with an alternate static source, if the static source is blocked an
alternative source can be obtained by breaking the glass of the vertical speed indicator (VSI).
5
CHAPTER 2
BAROMETRIC HEIGHT MEASUREMENT
Introduction
1. Pressure altimeters are instruments which indicate aircraft height above a selected pressure
datum. They operate on the principle that air pressure decreases with height, and they are in fact
aneroid barometers graduated to indicate height rather than pressure. In order to be calibrated,
certain assumptions must be made concerning the manner in which air pressure decreases with
height and this has given rise to a number of model atmospheres.
Air Pressure Units
2. The pressure unit which has been used in the field of aviation for many years is the millibar
except for some countries, notably the USA, which have used 'inches of mercury'. However, the
current SI derived unit is the hectopascal and this should be used rather than the millibar.
Nevertheless the hectopascal has not yet entered the vocabulary of most aircrew and in deference to
common usage the millibar will be used in this volume. The hectopascal and the millibar are identical
for all practical purposes.
The Atmosphere
3. The atmosphere is described in detail in chapter 1 of FIS Book 1. It is a relatively thin layer of
gases surrounding the Earth, becoming more diffuse with increasing height. Water vapour is present
in variable amounts, particularly near the surface.
4. The atmosphere can be divided into a number of layers each with a tendency to a particular
temperature distribution. The names, heights and characteristics of these layers may vary according
to which standard atmosphere is being defined. However, in all cases the lower layer, the
troposphere, extends to a layer known as the tropopause. The significant characteristic of the
troposphere is the fairly regular decrease of temperature with height. The tropopause tends to
become lower towards the Earth's poles (around 25,000 ft) and higher towards the equator (up to
54,000 ft). The region above the tropopause is known as the stratosphere, extending up to the
stratopause. The height of the stratopause varies depending on which definition is being employed,
but can be taken to be about 30 miles (166,000 ft).
Pressure Lapse Rate
5. As height increases, pressure decreases, but this decrease is not proportional to the increase
in height because the density of air varies with height, as does the value of g, although to a lesser
extent. It is possible to deduce an expression for the pressure lapse rate at a constant temperature
and thus establish a relationship between pressure and height. A practical approximation for the
lower levels of the atmosphere is that a decrease in pressure of one millibar equates to an increase in
height of 30 feet.
Temperature Lapse Rate
6. Temperature does not remain constant but varies with height in a complex manner. The
temperature lapse rate depends on the humidity of the air, and is itself a function of height. This
variation greatly affects the relationship between pressure and height. To calibrate an altimeter to
indicate barometric height it is necessary to make some assumptions as to the temperature structure
of the atmosphere. The relationship can be expressed in mathematical form for each of the various
layers of the atmosphere and the instrument can then be calibrated accordingly.
Height Assumptions
7. Because of the temporal and spatial variations in the real atmosphere, and the differences
between the conditions on any occasion and the assumptions used in altimeter calibration, there is no
real correlation between indicated altitude and actual altitude. A barometrically derived height must
therefore be used with extreme caution as a basis for terrain clearance. However, provided that all
aircraft use the same datum and the same assumptions in the calibration of their altimeters, safe
vertical separation between aircraft can be achieved.
Standard Atmospheres
8. A standard atmosphere is an arbitrary statement of conditions which is accepted as a basis

for comparisons of aircraft performance and calibration of aircraft flight instruments. Because of the
extreme variability of conditions in the atmosphere, the standard can only represent the average
conditions over a limited area of the globe. Most standards so far adopted are related primarily to the
mean atmospheric conditions in temperate latitudes of the northern hemisphere.
9. The first widely accepted standard was proposed by the International Commission on Air
Navigation (ICAN) in 1924 and between 1950 and 1952 the International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) proposed and adopted another standard which varied only slightly from the ICAN model.
Equations were formulated for determining height from barometric pressure which was valid up to
65,617 ft. The ICAO standard atmosphere is taken as the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
and the assumed characteristics are:
(a) The air is dry and its chemical composition is the same at all altitudes.
(b) The value of g is constant at 980.665 cm/sec2.
7 Barometric Height Measurement
(c) The temperature and pressure at mean sea-level are 15°C and 1013.25 millibars.
(d) The temperature lapse rate is 1.98°C per 1000 ft up to a height of 36,090ft above
which the temperature is assumed to remain constant at - 56.5°C.
10. A number of other

standard atmospheres have
been formulated mainly in
response to the need to
extend the height limit of the
model beyond 65,617 ft to
accommodate the
requirements of missiles and
certain high performance
aircraft. The assumptions of
these models are very similar
to the ICAO standard and the
differences in the relation of
height to pressure are minimal
in the lower altitudes.
However in the stratosphere
and beyond, heights, lapse
rates and layer names differ
markedly. A comparison of
Fig 2-1 will reveal some of the
differences.
Fig 2-1: Standard Atmosphere
Principle of Operation of a Simple Altimeter
11 Since the first flight in 1903, knowledge of ac altitude has always been an important aspect of
aviation. In the early days to was only for records purposes and probably mere thrill of knowing the
height you could climb to. However as the radius of action increased, accurate altitude maintenance
has become an important issue of flying. Hence, accurate indication of aircraft altitude is very
important.
12. Fig 2-2 is a schematic diagram of a simple altimeter. The instrument consists of a thin
corrugated metal capsule which is partially evacuated, sealed, and prevented from collapsing
completely by means of a leaf spring, or in some cases by its own rigidity. The capsule is mounted
inside a case which is fed with static pressure from the aircraft's static tube or vent. As the aircraft
climbs the static pressure in the case decreases allowing the spring to pull the capsule faces apart.
Conversely a decrease in height compresses the capsule faces. This linear movement of the capsule
face is magnified and transmitted via a

system of gears and linkages to a
pointer moving over a scale graduated
in feet according to one of the
standard atmospheres.
13. A simple altimeter will

normally be calibrated according to
the ICAN or ICAO atmosphere and
will therefore normally be set to
indicate height above the 1013.2
millibar pressure level. The dial
adjusting knob allows the indicator
needle to be moved away from the Fig 2-2: A Simple Altimeter
normal datum. Thus, for example, the altimeter could be set on the ground to read airfield elevation
so that it will thereafter indicate height above mean sea-level, providing that the prevailing sea-level
pressure does not change. Alternatively by setting zero before take-off the altimeter will indicate
height above the airfield, again providing that the surface pressure at the airfield remains constant.
Sensitive Altimeter
14. The sensitive altimeter is designed for more accurate height measurement than the simple
altimeter although the principle of operation is the same. The single capsule is replaced by two or
more capsules to give greater sensitivity for small changes in pressure. Typically there will be three
pointers, one rotating every 1,000 ft, one every 10,000 ft and a third every 100,000 ft. Compensation
for varying temperatures within the instrument casing is incorporated in the form of a bi-metallic strip
inserted between the capsule and the transmission shaft.
15. A sensitive altimeter has a millibar scale so that it is possible to set whatever datum pressure
is desired, above which height is to be measured. Thus if airfield level pressure (QFE) is set, the
altimeter will read zero on the ground and height above airfield once airborne. If sea-level pressure
(QNH) is set, the altimeter will indicate height above sea-level (i.e., airfield elevation on the ground).
The millibar setting can be altered in the air to reflect changes of pressure with time, location or
required datum level.
Limitation
16. The chief limitation of the directly operated capsule altimeter is its increasing inaccuracy and
lack of sensitivity with increasing height above approximately 60,000 ft. At these altitudes the change
in height for a given pressure change is very much greater than at ground level. For example, a
change of pressure of 1 millibar at sea-level equates to only 30 ft, whereas at 60,000 ft a similar
pressure change relates to a height change of 325 ft. Thus small changes in pressure, which can
represent significant changes in height, have to overcome inertia in the mechanical linkages and
therefore tend to cause the altimeter to lag significantly behind the aircraft's true change of height.
Servo-Assisted Altimeter
17. The servo-assisted altimeter is designed to relieve the capsule of the work required to drive
the mechanical linkage. Changes of barometric pressure are still sensed by the contraction or
expansion of evacuated capsules, but the mechanical transmission is replaced by a position control
servo system, i.e., the movement of the capsule is transferred to the pointers by means of amplified
electrical signals.
18. In addition to increased accuracy and sensitivity,

the arrangement has the advantage that the altitude
information can be easily transmitted to other systems,
e.g. IFF / SSR. In current altimeters the three needle
display is replaced by a digital display, and an auxiliary
pointer moving over a scale graduated in 50 ft
increments from 0 - 1,000 ft (Fig 2-3).
Cabin Altimeters Fig 2-3: Altimeter Digital Display
19. Cabin altimeters indicate cabin pressure in terms of altitude and are normally of the simple
type, having one pointer moving over a scale graduated in tens of thousands of feet. The static
pressure is of course cabin pressure and a change in this causes the capsules to expand or contract
in the normal way. They do not usually have error compensating devices although they may be
compensated to allow for fluctuations in cabin temperature. Cabin altimeters suffer from the errors
outlined below and at cabin altitudes below 30,000 ft the instrument should be accurate to better than
± 500 ft.
Pressure Altimeter Errors
20. Pressure altimeter errors may be considered under two categories i.e. instrument or
installation errors, and errors caused by non-standard atmospheric conditions.
21. The errors inherent in the instrument and installation are:
(a) Instrument Error. Instrument error is caused by manufacturing tolerances. It is

usually insignificant but if necessary a correction card can be provided.
(b) Pressure Error. Pressure error occurs when the true external static pressure is not
accurately transmitted to the instrument. A false static pressure can be created by the effect
of the air flow passing over the static vent. Although the error is generally negligible at low
speeds and altitudes, it can become significant at high speeds, or when services such as
flaps, airbrakes, or gear are operated. Avoidance or reduction of the effect is accomplished
by careful probe or vent design and location. Residual error is calibrated for each aircraft type
and detailed in the Aircrew Manual or ODM, or automatically in an air data computer or
pressure error corrector unit (PECU). Large transient errors can be caused by shock waves
passing over the vent during accelerations or decelerations.
(c) Lag Error. Since the response of the capsule and linkage is not instantaneous, the
altimeter needle lags whenever height is changed rapidly causing an under-read on climbs
and an over-read on descents. Clearly the latter situation could be dangerous and should be
allowed for in rapid descents. The amount of lag varies with the rate of change of height.
Time lag is virtually eliminated in servo-assisted altimeters and may be reduced in others by
the fitting of a vibration mechanism.
(d) Hysteresis Loss. A capsule under stress has imperfect elastic properties and will
settle to give a different reading after levelling from a climb compared to that obtained after
levelling from a descent.
(e) Transonic Jump. If a shockwave passes over that static source, a rapid change in
static pressure will occur. This gives an error in the altimeter indication for the duration of the
disturbance.
(f) Blockages and Leaks. Blockages and leaks are unusual occurrences. Blockages
may occur if water in the pipe work freezes, or there are obstructions such as insects. The
effect is to increase altimeter lag or, with complete blockage, to make the instrument stick at
the reading when the blockage occurred. The effect of leaks varies with the size and location
of the leak; leaks in pressurized compartments cause under-reading, while leaks in
unpressurized compartments usually produce over-reading.
22. Variations from International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) conditions may be brought about by
the development of weather systems and local geographic effects. The resulting errors in ISA-
calibrated altimeters are:
(a) Barometric Error. Barometric error occurs when the actual datum pressure differs
from that to which the altimeter has been set and can be overcome simply by the correct
setting of the millibar scale. The effect of the error on an altimeter which is not reset when
flying from an area of high pressure to one of low pressure at a constant indicated height is
illustrated in Fig 2-4. In this case the aircraft flies from an area where the MSL pressure is
1030 mb to one where the MSL pressure is 1010 mb, but the 1030 mb setting is retained on
the altimeter. In effect the datum is lowered during the flight so that the altimeter reads high.
Conversely if the flight was from an area of low pressure to one of high pressure the altimeter
would read low if not corrected. In summary, from HIGH to LOW the altimeter reads HIGH,
and from LOW to HIGH the altimeter reads LOW.
Fig 2-4: Effect of Barometric Error
(b) Temperature Error. Temperature error arises when the atmospheric conditions
differ from those assumed by the standard atmosphere used to calibrate the altimeter. The
ICAO standard atmosphere assumes a temperature lapse rate of 1.98°C per 1,000 ft up to
36,090 ft, with a constant temperature of -56.5°C above that. If the actual temperatures differ
from the assumed ones, as they very often do, then the indicated height will be incorrect. In a
cold air mass the density is greater than in a warm air mass, the pressure levels are more
closely spaced and the altimeter
will over-read (Fig 2-5) - the error
being zero at sea-level and
increasing with altitude. The error
is not easy to compensate for,
since in order to do so it would be
necessary to have knowledge of
the temperature structure from the
surface to the aircraft. The
magnitude of the error is
approximately 4ft/1,000ft for every
1°C that the air generally differs Fig 2-5: Effect of Temperature Error
from ISA. Corrections can be made for low altitudes by use of the table in the Flight
Information Handbook and this may be necessary, for example, when calculating decision
heights in arctic conditions.
(c) Orographic Error. When a current of air meets a barrier of hills or mountains there
is a tendency, often marked, for much of the air to sweep round the ends of the barrier, so
avoiding the ascent. This gives rise to areas of low pressure to the lee of the barrier. The
altimeter readings may therefore be affected due to barometric error as described in sub-para
a. Additionally, if standing waves are present above the barrier, the rising or descending air in
the wave will change temperature at very nearly the normal adiabatic lapse rate. The
temperature profile in the affected area may then be significantly different from the unaffected
air mass thereby inducing temperature error effects as described in sub-para b, on altimeter
readings.
13
CHAPTER 3
AIR SPEED INDICATORS
Introduction
1. Knowledge of the speed at which an aircraft is travelling through the air, i.e., the air speed, is
essential both to the pilot for the safe and efficient handling of the aircraft and to the navigator as a
basic input to the navigation calculations. The instrument which displays this information is the air
speed indicator (ASI).
Principle
2. An aircraft, stationary on the ground, is subject to normal atmospheric or static pressure

which acts equally on all parts of the aircraft structure. In flight the aircraft experiences an additional
pressure on its leading surfaces due to a build up of the air through which the aircraft is travelling.
This additional pressure due to the aircraft's forward motion is known as dynamic pressure and is
dependent upon the forward speed of the aircraft and the density of the air according to the following
formula:
Pt = ½ρV2 + S (3.1)
Where Pt = Pitot pressure, also known as total head pressure or stagnation pressure.
ρ = Air Density.
V = Aircraft Velocity.
3. Rearranging the formula, the difference between the Pitot and the Static pressures is equal to
Dynamic pressure (½ρV2). The air speed indicator measures this pressure difference (Dynamic
pressure) and provides a display indication graduated in units of speed.
4. Fig 3-1 illustrates the principle, in

its most simple form, on which all air
speed indicators function. The ASI is a
sensitive differential pressure gauge
operated by pressures picked up by a
pressure head, which is mounted in a
suitable position on the airframe. The
simplest pressure head consists of an Fig 3-1: A Simple Altimeter - Schematic
open ended tube, the Pitot tube, aligned with the direction of flight, and a second tube, the static tube,
which is closed and streamlined at the forward end but which has a series of small holes drilled
radially along its length.
5. When moved through the air, the Pitot tube will pick up Pitot pressure made up of static
pressure and dynamic pressure. The Pitot pressure is led through a pipe-line to one side of a sealed
chamber, divided by a thin flexible diaphragm. The static tube is unaffected by dynamic pressure as
its end is closed, however, the small holes will pick up local static pressure. The static pressure is led
through a second pipe-line to the other side of the diaphragm.
6. The diaphragm is subjected to the two opposing pressures. However, the static pressure
component of the Pitot pressure is balanced by the static pressure on the other side of the diaphragm
so that any diaphragm movement is determined solely by the dynamic, or Pitot excess, pressure.
Movement of the diaphragm is transmitted through a mechanical linkage to a pointer on the face of
the ASI where the Pitot excess pressure (Pt - P) is indicated in terms of speed.
7. In some installations the

Pitot tube and the static tube are
combined into a single pressure
head with the Pitot tube built inside
the static tube. A heater is placed
between the Pitot and static tubes to
prevent ice forming and causing a
blockage. Drain holes in the head Fig 3-2: A combined Pressure Head
allow moisture to escape and various traps may be used to prevent dirt and water from affecting the
instrument. A combined pressure head is shown in Fig 3-2.
Construction
8. Most air speed indicators in current use have a capsule instead of a diaphragm, however, the
principle of operation is exactly the same. The capsule, acting as the pressure sensitive element is
mounted in an airtight case. Pitot pressure is fed into the capsule and static pressure is fed to the
interior of the case, which thus contains the lower pressure. A pressure difference will cause the
capsule to open out, the movement being proportional to pressure. A link, quadrant and pinion can be
used to transfer this movement to a pointer and dial calibrated in knots.
9. As stated in paragraph 2, the Pitot excess pressure varies with the square of the speed and a
linear pressure / deflection characteristic in the capsule produces an uneven speed / deflection
characteristic of the pointer mechanism, giving unequal pointer movements for equal speed changes.
To produce a linear scale between the capsule and pointer it is necessary to control the
15 Air Speed Indicator
characteristics of the capsule and / or the

mechanism. Control of the capsule is difficult due,
among other reasons, to the magnification factor of
the mechanism. It is more usual to control the
mechanism to produce a linear scale shape by
changing the lever length as the pointer advances.
Depending on the manufacturer of the ASI, detailed
points of construction will vary, however, the basic
principle holds good for all. A typical simple ASI is
shown in Fig 3-3.
10. Sensitive and Servo Air Speed Indicators.

Fig 3-3: A typical Simple ASI
Sensitive and servo ASIs are identical in principle to
the simple ASI and operate from the normal pitot /
static system. Extra sensitivity is achieved by an
increase in the gear train from the capsule, so that
two pointers may be moved over an evenly calibrated
dial. Because of this increase in the gear train, more
power is required to operate the gears and this is
provided by a stack of capsules. This capsule
assembly has a linear pressure / deflection
characteristic which is more closely controlled than
the single capsule used in the simple ASI. In a servo
ASI the mechanical linkage is replaced by an
electrical linkage utilizing error actuation and power
amplification. A typical sensitive ASI display is Fig 3-4: A Two Pointer Sensitive ASI
shown in Fig 3-4.
Calibration
11. Since dynamic pressure varies with air speed and air density, and since air density varies with
temperature and pressure, standard datum values have to be used in the calibration of air speed
indicators. The values used are the sea level values of the standard ICAO atmosphere. The formula
given in para 2 is only an approximation and one of two formulae is used for calibration of a particular
ASI depending on the speed range of the instrument.
ASI Errors
12. The ASI pointer registers the amount of capsule movement due to dynamic pressure.
However, the dial is calibrated according to the formulae mentioned above which assume constant air
density (standard sea level density) and no instrument defects. Any departure from these conditions
or disturbance in the pitot or static pressures being applied to the instrument will result in a difference
between the indicated and the true air speed and thus an error in the display. There are four sources
of error:
(a) Instrument error.

(b) Pressure error.
(c) Compressibility error.
(d) Density error.
13. Instrument Error. Instrument error is caused by manufacturing tolerances in the

construction of the instrument. The error is determined during calibration and any necessary
correction is combined with that for pressure error (see paragraph 14).
14. Pressure Error. Pressure error results from disturbances in the static pressure around the
aircraft due to movement through the air. Depending upon aircraft type, the error may be influenced
by:
(a) The position of the pressure head, Pitot head or static vent.
(b) The angle of attack of the aircraft.
(c) The speed of the aircraft.
(d) The configuration of the aircraft (i.e., ‘clean’/ flaps/gear/airbrakes/etc.).
(e) The presence of sideslip.
15. Most of the error results from variations in the local static pressure caused by the airflow over
the pressure head. In lower speed aircraft the static head is often divorced from the Pitot tube and
positioned where the truest indication of static pressure is obtained e.g., on the fuselage midway
between nose and tail. In such a case the static pipeline terminates at a hole in a flat brass plate
known as the static vent. It is usual to have two static vents, one either side of the aircraft to balance
out the effects of sideslip which produces an increase of pressure on one side of the aircraft and a
corresponding decrease in pressure on the other side. The use of static vents eliminates almost all
the error caused by the pressure head. Any remaining error is determined by flight trials.
Unfortunately the use of a static vent becomes less acceptable for high performance aircraft since at
Mach numbers exceeding 0.8, the flow of air around the static vent may be unpredictable. In such
cases a high speed Pitot-Static head is used and, as before, pressure error is determined by flight
trials. The pressure error correction (PEC) is tabulated in the Aircrew Manual for the aircraft type and
is also combined with that for instrument error correction (IEC) and recorded on a correction card
mounted at an appropriate place in the cockpit. The card correction (IEC + PEC) should be applied to
the indicated air speed (IAS) to obtain calibrated air speed (CAS).
16. Compressibility Error. The calibration formulae contain a factor which is a function of the
compressibility of the air. At higher speeds this factor becomes significant. However the calibration
17 Air Speed Indicator
formulae use standard mean sea level values and an error is introduced at any altitude where the
actual values differ from those used in calibration. At altitude, the less dense air is more easily
compressed than the denser air at sea level, resulting in a greater dynamic pressure which causes
the ASI to over-read. In addition compressibility increases with increase of speed, therefore
compressibility error varies both with speed and altitude. Compressibility error and its correction can
be calculated by using the circular slide rule of the DR Computer Mk4A or 5A. Application of the
compressibility error correction (CEC) to CAS produces equivalent air speed (EAS).
17. Density Error. As has already been explained, dynamic pressure varies with air speed and
the density of the air. Standard mean sea level air density is used for calibration purposes. Thus, for
any other condition of air density, the ASI will be in error. As altitude increases, density decreases
and IAS, and thus EAS, will become progressively lower than True air speed (TAS). The necessary
correction can be calculated from the formula:
EAS = ρ (3.2)
ρ0
Where ρ = The air density at the height of the aircraft.

ρ0 = The air density at mean sea level.
In practice, the Density error correction (DEC) is obtained from a graph or by the use of a circular
slide rule such as the DR Computer Mk 4A/5A.
18. Summary. The relationship between the various air speeds and the associated errors can
be summarized as follows:
CAS = IAS + PEC + IEC

EAS = CAS - CEC
TAS = EAS + DEC
BLOCKED OR LEAKING PRESSURE SYSTEMS
19. Blockages
(a) Pitot. If the Pitot tube is blocked e.g. by ice, the ASI will not react to changes of air-
speed in level flight. However, the capsule may act as a barometer producing an indication of
increase in speed if the aircraft climbs or a decrease in speed if the aircraft dives. If the Pitot
tube contains a small bleed hole for drainage, partial blockage of the 'nose' of the tube (the
most common effect of icing) will result in an under-reading. More extensive icing will cause
the reading to reduce towards zero as the dynamic pressure leaks away through the bleed
hole.
(b) Static. If the static tube is blocked, the ASI will over-read at lower altitudes and
under-read at higher altitudes than that at which the blockage occurred.
20. Leaks.
(a) Pitot. A leak in the Pitot tube causes the ASI to under-read.
(b) Static. A leak in the static tube, where the pressure outside the pipe is lower than
static (i.e., most unpressurised aircraft), will cause the ASI to over-read. Where the outside
air is higher than static (i.e., in a pressurized cabin) the ASI will under-read.
21. Effects. The under-reading or over-reading of an ASI is potentially dangerous. The former
may cause problems in adverse landing conditions (e.g., in a strong cross-wind), and the latter
condition may result in an aircraft stall at a higher indicated airspeed than that specified for the
aircraft.
19
CHAPTER 4
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS
Introduction
1. A vertical speed indicator (VSI), also known as a rate of climb and descent indicator (RCDI),
is a sensitive differential pressure gauge, which displays a rate of change of atmospheric pressure in
terms of a rate of climb or descent.
Principle
2. The principle employed is that of measuring the difference of pressure between two
chambers, one within the other. Static atmospheric pressure is fed directly to the inner chamber, or
capsule, and through a metering unit to the outer chamber, which in effect forms the instrument case.
The metering unit restricts the flow of air into and out of the case, whereas the flow to the inside of the
capsule is unrestricted. Therefore, if the static pressure varies due to changing altitude, the pressure
change in the case lags behind that in the capsule. The resultant differential pressure distorts the
capsule and this movement is transmitted to the pointer by means of a mechanical linkage. A bleed
valve is fitted in many VSIs to prevent damage and to improve the instrument's reaction time (by
reducing lag) when levelling off from a high speed descent. The schematic construction and a typical
display of a VSI is shown in Fig 4-1.
Fig 4-1: Schematic Construction and Typical Display of a VSI
3. It is important that any given pressure difference between the inside and outside of the
capsule should represent the same rate of climb or descent, regardless of the ambient atmospheric
pressure and temperature variations with altitude. The function of the metering unit, in the manner in
which it restricts the flow into the case, is to compensate for these changes in ambient conditions.
4. In level flight the pressure inside the capsule and the case are the same, and the pointer
remains at the horizontal, zero, position. When the aircraft climbs, the static pressure decreases and
the capsule collapses slightly, causing the pointer to indicate a rate of climb. The fall in pressure in
the case lags behind that in the capsule until level flight is resumed and the pressures equalize. In a
descent, the increase in pressure in the case lags behind the increase in static pressure in the
capsule, and the capsule is expanded.
Metering Units
5. The unit shown in Fig 4-2 is

known as ‘capillary -and -orifice’ type
metering unit. The two devices in
combination provide compensation for
the effects of the atmospheric pressure
and temperature variables, as explained
below.
6. The pressure difference across

a capillary, for a constant rate of climb,
Fig 4-2: Capillary and Orifice type Metering Unit
increases with increasing altitude and at
a constant temperature. Thus, the use of a capillary alone would introduce a positive error in
instrument indications at altitudes above sea level. With an orifice, the effect is exactly the opposite.
The primary reasons for the difference are that the airflow through a capillary is a laminar one while
that through an orifice is turbulent, further more, the rate of flow through a capillary varies directly as
the differential pressure. In combining the two devices we can therefore obtain satisfactory pressure
compensation at a given temperature.
7. The differential pressure across a

capillary also depends on the viscosity of the
air, and as this is proportional to the
absolute temperature, it therefore decreases
with decreasing temperature. The differential
pressure across an orifice varies inversely
as the temperature, and therefore increases
with decreasing temperature. Thus,
satisfactory temperature compensation can
Fig 4-3: Pressure Compensation provided by
be obtained by combining the two devices the Metering Unit
(Fig 4-3). The sizes of the orifice and
capillary are chosen so that the readings of the indicator will be correct over as wide a range of
temperature and altitude conditions as possible.
21 Vertical Speed Indicators
8. A feature, which meets a common requirement for all types of vertical speed indicators, is
adjustment of the pointer to the zero graduation. The form taken by the adjustment device depends
on the instrument design, but in general the mechanism is connected by gear wheel to the underside
of the capsule, and as a result the capsule is moved up or down, the movement being to transfer to
the pointer via the magnifying system and the pointer gearing. The range of pointer adjustment
around zero depends on the climb and the descent range of the instrument but + 200 and + 400 feet
per minute are typical values.
Errors
9. The VSI can suffer from the following errors:
(a) Pressure Error. If the static head or vent is subject to a changing pressure error,
the VSI may briefly indicate a wrong rate of climb or descent.
(b) Instrument Error. Instrument error is the result of manufacturing tolerances and is
usually insignificant.
(c) Transonic Jump. Movement of a shock-wave over the static vents results in a
rapid change in static pressure which briefly produces a false reading on the VSI.
(d) Lag. Because of the time required for the pressure difference to develop, when an
aircraft is rapidly manoeuvred into a steady climb or descent there is a few seconds delay
before the pointer settles at the appropriate rate of climb or descent. A similar delay in the
pointer indicating zero occurs when the aircraft is levelled.
(e) Static Line Blockage. If the static line or vent becomes blocked by ice or any other
obstruction the VSI will be rendered unserviceable and the pointer will remain at zero
regardless of the vertical speed.
INSTANTANEOUS (OR INERTIAL LEAD) VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (IVSI)
10. This instrument is designed to give an immediate response to a vertical departure from
horizontal flight path. This is achieved by adding an accelerometer unit to the conventional VSI
components. The accelerometer unit comprises an assembly of two dashpots, each of which contains
an inertial mass in form of a piston balanced by a spring, one spring being stronger than the other.
11. The cylinders are fed with static pressure from the aircrafts static pressure system and
connected by a tube to the inside of the pressure capsule. A soon as the change in vertical speed
occurs, inertia causes the piston to be displaced so the accelerometer unit creates a pressure
differential which produces an

immediate response by indicator
pointer (Fig 4-4). After a few
seconds, the effect of
accelerometer piston response
dies away, but by this time the
actual static pressure change
becomes effective so that the
instrument is then operated by
Fig 4-4: Schematic Layout of an IVSI
the pressure differential
produced by the metering unit in the normal way.
Errors
12. The IVSI suffers from the following errors:
(a) Instrument Error. As conventional VSI. Zero adjustment screw fitted.
(b) Pressure Error. As conventional VSI.
(c) Lag Error. Virtually eliminated.
(d) Manoeuvre Induced Error. Also virtually eliminated.
(e) Turning Error. As the dashpots are not vertically stabilized, some error is produced
during turns, and at bank attitudes in excess of 400, the IVSI is unreliable.
23
CHAPTER 5
MACHMETER
Introduction
1. Mach Number. As an aircraft's speed approaches the speed of sound, the airflow around
the aerofoils exhibits a marked change, characterized by the occurrence of shock waves. These will
occur locally, depending on the aircraft design, at some speed below the speed of sound and will
increase in effect and extent as the speed is further increased. They can cause loss of aerodynamic
lift, changes in aerodynamic stability, erratic control loads, loss of control effectiveness and buffeting.
The onset of these shock waves and their subsequent effects occur, for a given aircraft type, when
the true air speed is a certain proportion of the local speed of sound. For convenience, the ratio of
true air speed to the local speed of sound is considered as a single entity. It is called Mach number
and is usually expressed as:
Mach number (M) = V

a
Where: V = True air speed
a = Local speed of sound
2. Machmeter. Because of the effect of the shock waves on stability and control of the aircraft,
it is important that the pilot knows his speed in terms of Mach number. This is achieved by an
instrument called a Machmeter which gives a direct display of Mach number and may have an
adjustable index which is usually set to the Limiting Indicated Mach Number of the aircraft in which it
is installed.
Basic Principle
3. As explained in paragraph 1, the local Mach number varies with the true air speed and the
local speed of sound. True air speed is a function of pitot excess pressure i.e. the difference between
pitot and static pressure, and density. The local speed of sound is a function of static pressure and
density. As the density factor is common to both functions, Mach number can be expressed as:
M = V α (Pt - P)
a P
Where: V = True air speed.
a = Local speed of sound.
Pt = Pitot pressure.
P = Static pressure.
The Machmeter uses an air speed capsule to measure Pt – P, an altitude capsule to measure p, and
is calibrated to show the quotient as the corresponding Mach number.
4. The actual calibration of the instrument is more complex than the basic principle suggests,
since the behaviour of air changes as speed is increased, especially once shockwaves form. As
Mach number increases therefore, the actual formula used to derive an indicated Mach reading
requires and receives considerable modification.
Construction
5. A typical Machmeter is shown in Fig 5-1. It

consists essentially of a sealed case containing two
capsule assemblies and the necessary mechanical
linkages. The interior of the case is connected to the
static pressure pipeline. The interior of one capsule
unit, the air speed capsule, is connected to the pitot
pressure pipeline. The second capsule unit, the
altitude capsule, is sealed and evacuated to respond
to static pressure changes.
Fig 5-1: A Typical Machmeter
6. The air speed capsule measures the pressure difference between pitot and static pressure
and therefore expands or contracts as air speed increases or decreases. The movement of the
capsule is transferred by the air speed link to the main shaft, causing it to rotate and move a pivoted
arm (the ratio arm) in the direction A-B (Fig 5-2).
Fig 5-2: Principle of Operation of a Machmeter

25 Machmeter
_
7. The altitude capsule responds to changes of static pressure, expanding or contracting with
variation of altitude. The movement of the capsule is transferred to the ratio arm, via a spring and pin,
causing it to move in the direction C-D. The pin is pointed at both ends and rests in cups on the
altitude capsule and ratio arm; the spring providing the tension necessary to retain the pin in position.
8. The position of the ratio arm depends, therefore, upon both pitot excess and static pressures.
Movement of the ratio arm controls the ranging arm which, through linkage and gearing, turns the
pointer thus displaying the corresponding Mach number. An increase of altitude and/or air speed
results in a display of higher Mach number.
9. Critical or Limiting Mach Number is indicated by a specially shaped lubber mark located over
the dial of the Machmeter. It is adjustable so that the relevant Mach number for the particular type of
aircraft in which the Machmeter is installed may be preset. Presetting can be carried out by an
adjusting screw on the front of the instrument.
Errors in Machmeters
10. As Mach number is effectively a function of the ratio of pitot excess pressure to static
pressure, only those errors in the measurement of this ratio will affect the Machmeter. There are only
two such errors; instrument error and pressure error. Variations in air density and temperature from
the standard mean sea level values have no effect.
11. Instrument Error. Like all instruments, machmeters are subject to tolerances in
manufacture which produce errors that vary from instrument to instrument. These are, however, small
and are, typically, of the order of ± 0.01M over a range of 0.5 to 1.0M.
12. Pressure Error. The Machmeter operates from the same pressure source as the air speed
indicator and is therefore subject to the same pressure errors. However, the effect of pressure error is
relatively greater on the machmeter as the ratio of pitot excess pressure (Pt – P) to static pressure (P)
is being measured rather than just the pitot excess pressure (Pt – P) in the case of the ASI.
27
CHAPTER 6
STALL WARNING AND ANGLE OF ATTACK INDICATION
Introduction
1. For any given configuration, an aircraft will stall or depart from controlled flight once a specific
angle of attack (AOA) is exceeded. In straight and level flight this angle of attack will be reached at a
particular airspeed for a given aircraft weight, but since there will be variations in aircraft weight both
during and between flights, there is no simple correlation between airspeed and angle of attack.
During manoeuvre the situation becomes considerably more complex, and the critical angle of attack
can be induced by the pilot at almost any airspeed. The airspeed indicator is therefore of limited use
in warning the crew of the approach to this potentially dangerous situation, and some other means
must be devised.
2. The pilot of an aerodynamically unsophisticated aircraft will usually be given warning by the
onset of airframe buffet which can be felt through the control column. However, in modern, more
complex, aircraft this is less likely to be the case, and moreover the situation is more difficult to
recover if the limit should be exceeded. It is therefore necessary to have a system which will warn the
crew of the onset of departure, either by artificially inducing buffet on the controls, or by giving some
audio or visual indication, or both, once a designated AOA is exceeded.
3. Whereas a simple stall warning device can give adequate warning to the crew, it cannot
indicate the margin of safety that exists at any time. Furthermore, in high performance aircraft it is
usually desirable to fly at the optimum angle of attack for any stage of flight. Such aircraft are often
therefore fitted with an AOA indexer to indicate when the aircraft is flying at the optimum approach
AOA regardless of aircraft weight, and this may be replaced by or supplemented with an AOA gauge
to enable the aircraft to be flown efficiently during other stages of flight.
4. Simple Stall Warner. A typical simple stall warning device comprises a forward facing
vane, edge on to the airflow, mounted on the leading edge of the wing. The vane is spring loaded to
the central position and in flight the vane is held in place by air pressure when the AOA is safe, but is
pushed upwards when it is not. This upward movement operates a micro-switch which triggers an
audio or visual stall warning device in the cockpit, or can be used to initiate a stick shaker or pusher.
Airstream Direction Detector (ADD)
5. Where a more sophisticated system is needed, some form of airstream direction detector
(ADD) is employed which measures the direction of the localized airflow striking it, and relays this
information to an indexer, gauge, warning device, or any combination of these. A simple example
may consist of a trailing aerofoil, mounted on the outside of the aircraft, which aligns itself with the
direction of the local airflow.
6. A paddle type of ADD

is illustrated in Fig 6-1. A
cylindrical casing carries a
central shaft which is free to
rotate through a restricted
angular range (typically 50°).
The shaft protrudes through
one end of the casing and
through the aircraft skin to Fig 6-1: Paddle Type of Airstream Direction Detector (ADD)
form a probe into the local
airflow. Two rows of forward facing slots are cut near the outer end of the probe, and each row is
connected by internal ducts to two paddle chambers located within the casing. Operating in these
chambers are paddles which are attached to the central shaft. Pressure from one of the ducts acts on
both paddles to induce clockwise rotation of the shaft while pressure from the other duct similarly
induces anti-clockwise rotation. Thus, if the pressures in the two ducts are equal, the probe will not
rotate. This equal pressure state can only occur if the two rows of slots are equally disposed about
the direction of the local airstream. In conditions of misalignment the pressure in one duct will be
greater than in the other, and the paddles will be caused to rotate until the probe is once again aligned
with the airstream, whence the pressures will be equalized and the probe will stop rotating. Thus,
providing that there is sufficient airflow to operate the system (typically above 50 kts), the probe will
follow any changes in the direction of the local airflow.
7. The position of the central shaft relative to the casing, and therefore to the aircraft, is
transmitted to potentiometer assemblies by means of wiper arms, and the output voltage, which is
related to AOA, may be used to operate the particular aircraft indicators or warning devices. In some
installations two ADDs are provided to add a measure of redundancy, and so that the output voltage
from the two can be compared, and the higher taken, to provide an additional margin of safety.
8. An ADD can only measure the direction of the local airflow, and not the AOA explicitly,
although changes in this measured direction reflect changes in AOA. Accordingly, an AOA gauge is
marked in arbitrary units (usually 0 - 30) rather than in angles (of attack).
29
CHAPTER 7
ACCELEROMETERS
Introduction
1. An indicating accelerometer is an instrument used in aircraft to provide a visual indication of

acceleration components in the direction
of the aircraft Z axis (Fig 7-1). In
addition auxiliary pointers are provided
which preserve a reading of the maximum
and minimum accelerations sustained
during any period; these can be reset as
required.
Fig 7-1: Aircraft Axes
2. The purpose of the instrument is to indicate loadings due to manoeuvre and turbulence, so
that excessive loadings may be avoided.
3. Although the accelerometer gives a reasonably accurate indication of the accelerations

encountered in flight, indications of the instrument with respect to accelerations of extremely short
duration, such as landing shocks, should be treated with caution since the accuracy under these
conditions is dependent on the damping characteristics and no generalization is possible.
4. The instrument should be mounted on a rigid part of the aircraft structure in the cockpit.
Accurate results cannot be obtained from accelerometers mounted on anti-vibration mountings which
would tend to reduce the effect of accelerations on the instrument.
Principle of Operation
5. An accelerometer depends upon the

displacement of a mass under the influence of
acceleration. Fig 7-2 illustrates the principle of
operation, although other mechanisms may be used.
The mass-weight, suspended between 2 springs, is
free to move along the aircraft Z axis and is coupled to
a main shaft so that when vertical acceleration forces
along the Z axis are imposed on the mass, the main
shaft is caused to rotate. The linear movement is thus
converted to the rotary movement of a set of three Fig 7-2: Accelerometer Mechanism
pointers, one to indicate instantaneous acceleration and the other two to remain at the maximum
indications, plus or minus, until reset manually.
6. A cranked lever is attached to the shaft, and the horizontal arm of this lever is interposed
between positive and negative pointers so that they will be moved when the shaft rotates, and will
remain in their new positions on the return of the shaft to the neutral position. The recording pointers
may be reset to the neutral position when desired. A device is fitted to damp out vibrations and
prevent violent pointer fluctuations under short period accelerations.
7. Fig 7-3 shows a typical cockpit display.
8. The cockpit accelerometer should not be

confused with the aircraft fatigue meter. This instrument
will normally be installed outside the cockpit (often in the
undercarriage bay) to monitor cumulative acceleration
forces on the airframe.
Fig 7-3: Accelerometer Display

31
CHAPTER 8
INTRODUCTION TO GYROSCOPES
Introduction
1. Description. A conventional gyroscope

consists of a symmetrical rotor spinning rapidly
about its axis and free to rotate about one or more
perpendicular axes. Freedom of movement about
one axis is usually achieved by mounting the rotor in
a gimbal, as in Fig 8-1 and complete freedom can be
approached by using two gimbals, as illustrated in
Fig 8-2.
2. The physical laws which govern the Fig 8-1: Gyroscope with One Degree of
Freedom
behaviour of a gyroscope are identical to those
which account for the behaviour of the Earth itself.
The two principal properties of a gyro are rigidity in
inertial space (inertial space being a fixed spatial
datum) and precession. These properties are
exploited in heading reference systems and inertial
navigation systems, and some aircraft instruments.
Definition of Terms
3. The following fundamental mechanical

definitions provide the basis of the laws of
gyrodynamics: Fig 8-2: Gyroscope with Two Degrees of
Freedom
(a) Momentum. Momentum is the product of mass and velocity (mv).
(b) Angular velocity. Angular velocity (ω) is the instantaneous velocity (v) at the
periphery of a circle of radius r, divided by r (ω = v / r). Angular velocity is normally measured
in radians per second.
(c) Angular Momentum. If the mass (m) of a body is concentrated at a radius (r) from
the axis of rotation, the angular momentum is the product of the instantaneous linear
momentum (mv) and the radius. Angular momentum = mvr or mr2ω
(d) Moment of Inertia. The moment of inertia (I) of a body is the summation of mr2 for
every particle of mass m located at radius r from the centre of the mass, which goes to make
up the mass of the body. In the case of a disc or wheel of uniform mass distribution
throughout its radius r, the moment of inertia I about its axle is mr2 / 2. For a cylinder of
outside radius r1 and inner radius r2:
I = m (r12 + r22)
2
(An alternative expression for Angular Momentum is the product of Moment of Inertia I, and
Angular Velocity ω.)
(e) Radius of Gyration. The radius of gyration of a body is that distance from the axis
of rotation at which all the mass of that body can be considered to act. It is normally denoted
by k. Consequently, in calculations of moments of inertia of bodies of irregular shapes,
2
I = mk , where m is the mass of the body.
(f) Gyro Axes. In gyrodynamics it is convenient to refer to the axis about which the
torque is applied as the input axis and that axis about which the precession takes place as the
output axis. The third axis, the spin axis, is self evident. The XX¹, YY¹ and ZZ¹ axes shown in
the diagrams are not intended to represent the x, y and z axes of an aircraft in manoeuvre.
Classification of Gyroscopes
4. Gyroscopes are classified in Table 8-1 in terms of the quantity they measure, namely:
(a) Angular displacement from a known datum.

(b) Rate of angular displacement of a vehicle.
(c) The integral of an input with respect to time.
Type of Gyro Uses in Guidance and Gyro Characteristics

Control
Rate Gyroscope. 1. Aircraft Instruments. 1. Modified single degree of freedom gyro.
2. Illustrates the principle of secondary
precession.
Rate Integrating 1. Inertial Navigation. 1. Modified single degree of freedom gyro.
Gyroscope. 2. Can also be a two degree of freedom gyro.
Displacement 1. Heading Reference. 1. Two degrees of freedom.
Gyroscope. 2. Inertial Navigation 2. Defines direction with respect to space,
System. thus it is also called a space gyro, or free
3. Aircraft Instruments. gyro.
Table 8-1: Classification of Gyros

33 Introduction to Gyroscopes
5. It should be realized however that the above classification is one of a number of ways in
which gyroscopes can be classified. Referring to Table 8-1 it will be seen that a displacement
gyroscope could be classified as a two degree of freedom gyro or a space gyro. Note also that the
classification of Table 8-1 does not consider the spin axis of a gyroscope as a degree of freedom. In
this chapter a degree of freedom is defined as the ability to measure rotation about a chosen axis.
LAWS OF GYRODYNAMICS
Rigidity in Space
6. If the rotor of a perfect displacement gyroscope is spinning at constant angular velocity, and
therefore constant angular momentum, no matter how the frame is turned no torque is transmitted to
the rotor axis. The law of conservation of angular momentum states that the angular momentum of a
body is unchanged unless a torque is applied to that body. It follows from this that the angular
momentum of the rotor must remain constant in magnitude and direction. This is simply another way
of saying that the rotor spin axis continues to point in the same direction in inertial space. This
property of a gyro is defined in the First Law of Gyrodynamics.
The First Law of Gyrodynamics
7. If a rotating body is so mounted as to be completely free to move about any axis through the
centre of mass, then its spin axis remains fixed in inertial space however much the frame may be
displaced.
8. A space gyroscope loses its property of rigidity in space if the spin axis is subjected to
random torques, some causes of which will be examined later.
Precession
9. Consider the free gyroscope in Fig 8-3, spinning

with constant angular momentum about the XX’ axis. If a
small mass M is placed on the inner gimbal ring, it
exerts a downward force F, producing a torque T about
the YY’ axis. By the laws of rotating bodies this torque
should produce an angular acceleration about the YY’
axis, but this is not the case:
(a) Initially the gyro spin axis will tilt through

a small angle (Φ in Fig 8-3), after which no
further movement takes place about the YY’ Fig 8-3: Precession
axis. The angle Φ is proportional to T and is a measure of the work done. Its value is almost
negligible and will not be discussed further.
(b) The spin axis then commences to turn at a constant angular velocity about the axis
perpendicular to both XX’ and YY’, i.e. the ZZ’ axis. This motion about the ZZ’ axis is known
as precession, and is the subject of the Second Law of Gyrodynamics.
The Second Law of Gyrodynamics
10. If a constant torque T is applied about an axis perpendicular to the spin axis of an
unconstrained, symmetrical spinning body, then the spin axis will precess steadily about an axis
mutually perpendicular to the spin axis and the torque axis. The angular velocity of precession W is
given by:
Ω = _T_ (8.1)
Iω
11. Precession ceases as soon as the torque is withdrawn, but if the torque application is
continued, precession will continue until the direction of spin is the same as the direction of the
applied torque. If, however, the direction of the torque applied about the inner gimbal axis moves as
the rotor precesses, the direction of spin will never coincide with the direction of the applied torque.
Direction of Precession
12. Fig 8-4 shows a simple rule of thumb

to determine the direction of precession:
(a) Consider the torque as being

due to a force acting at right angles to
the plane of spin at a point on the
rotor rim.
(b) Carry this force around the

rim through 90° in the direction of rotor
spin.
(c) The torque will apparently act

through this point and the rotor will
precess in the direction shown. Fig 8-4: Determining Precession
CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Explanation
13. In linear motion, if the mass is constant, changes in momentum caused by external forces will
be indicated by changes in velocity. Similarly in rotary motion if the moment of inertia is constant,
then the action of an external torque will be to change the angular velocity in speed or direction and in
this way change the angular momentum. If, however, internal forces (as distinct from external
torques) act to change the moment of inertia of a rotating system, then the angular momentum is
unaffected. Angular momentum is the product of the moment of inertia and angular velocity, and if
one is decreased so the other must increase to conserve angular momentum. This is the Principle of
Conservation of Angular Momentum.
14. Consider the ice-skater starting her pirouette with arms extended. If she now retracts her
arms she will be transferring mass closer to the axis of the pirouette, so reducing the radius of
gyration. If the angular momentum is to be maintained then, because of the reduction of moment of
inertia, the rate of her pirouette must increase, therefore:
(a) If the radius of gyration of a rotating body is increased a force is considered to act in
opposition to the rotation caused by the torque, decreasing the angular velocity.
(b) If the radius of gyration is decreased a force is considered to act assisting the original
rotation caused by the torque, so increasing the angular velocity.
Cause of Precession
15. Consider the

gyroscope rotor in Fig
8-5a spinning about
the XX’ axis and free
to move about the YY’
and ZZ’ axes. Let the
quadrants (1, 2, 3 and
4) represent the
position of the rotor in
spin at one instant
during the application
of an external force to
the spin axis,
producing a torque Fig 8-5: Instant of Spin and Precession
about the YY’ axis. This torque is tending to produce a rotation about the YY’ axis while at the same
instant the rotor spin is causing particles in quadrants 1 and 3 to recede from the YY’ axis, increasing
their moment of inertia about this axis, and particles in quadrants 2 and 4 to approach the YY’ axis
decreasing their moment of inertia about this axis. Particles in quadrants 1, 2, 3 and 4 tend to
conserve angular momentum about YY’, therefore:
(a) Particles in quadrants 1 and 3 exert forces opposing their movement about YY’.
(b) Particles in quadrants 2 and 4 exert forces assisting their movement about YY’.
16. Hence 1 and 4 exert forces on the rotor downwards, whilst 2 and 3 exert forces upwards.
These forces can be seen to form a couple about ZZ’, (Fig 8-5b), causing the rotor to precess in the
direction shown in Fig 8-5c.
Gyroscopic Resistance
17. In demonstrating precession it was stated

that after a small deflection about the torque axis
movement about this axis ceased, despite the
continued application of the external torque. This
state of equilibrium means that the sum of all torques
acting about this axis is zero. There must, therefore,
be a resultant torque L acting about this axis which is
equal and opposite to the external torque, as shown
in Fig 8-6. This resistance is known as Gyroscopic
Resistance and is created by internal couples in a
Fig 8-6: Gyroscopic Resistance
precessing gyroscope.
18. Formation of Gyroscopic Resistance. Consider now the gyroscope in Fig 8-5c spinning
about an axis XX’ and precessing about the ZZ’ axis under the influence of a torque T, about the YY’
axis. The rotor quadrants represent an instant during the precession and spin. Using the argument of
para 15, the particles in quadrants 1 and 3 are approaching the ZZ’ axis and exerting forces acting in
the direction of precession, while in quadrants 2 and 4 the particles are receding from the ZZ’ axis and
exerting forces in opposition to the precession. The resultant couple is therefore acting about the YY’
axis in opposition to the external torque. This couple is the Gyroscopic Resistance. It has a value
equal to the external torque thus preventing movement about the YY’ axis.
19. Caging. Gyroscopic Resistance is always accompanied by precession, and it is of interest

to note that if precession is prevented, gyroscopic torque cannot form and it is as easy to move the
spin axis when it is spinning as when it is at rest. This can be demonstrated by applying a torque to
the inner gimbal of a gyroscope with one degree of freedom. With the ZZ’ axis locked the slightest
touch on the inner gimbal will set the gimbal ring (and the rotor) moving. This behaviour is exploited
in caging devices.
Secondary Precession
20. If a sudden torque is applied about one of the degrees of freedom of a perfect displacement
gyroscope the following phenomena should be observed:
(a) Nodding or nutation occurs. Here it is sufficient to note that nutation occurs only for a
limited period of time and eventually will cease completely. Additionally nutation can only
occur with a two degree of freedom gyro and to a large extent it can be damped out by gyro
manufacturers.
(b) A deflection takes place about the torque axis, (dip), which remains constant provided
that the gyro is perfect and the applied torque is also constant.
(c) The gyro precesses, or rotates, about the ZZ’ axis.
21. If, however, an attempt is made to demonstrate this

behaviour, it will be seen that the angle of dip will increase
with time, apparently contradicting sub-para 20b.
22. To explain this discrepancy, consider Fig 8-7. If the

gyro is precessing about the ZZ’ axis, some resistance to
this precession must take place due to the friction of the
outer gimbal bearings. If this torque T is resolved using the
rule of thumb given in para 12, it will be seen that the torque
T causes the spin axis to dip through a larger angle. This
Fig 8-7: Precession Opposed by
precession is known as secondary precession.
Secondary Precession
23. Secondary precession can only take place when the gyro is already precessing, thus its
name. Note also that secondary precession acts in the same direction as the originally applied
torque.
THE RATE GYROSCOPE
24. Fig 8-8 shows a gyroscope with freedom about one axis YY’. If the frame of the gyro is
turned about an axis ZZ’ at right angles to both YY’ and XX’, then the spin axis will precess about the
YY’ axis. The precession will continue until the direction of rotor spin is coincident with the direction of
the turning about ZZ’.
Fig 8-8: Gyro with One Degree of Fig 8-9: Rate Gyroscope
Freedom - Precession
25. Suppose the freedom of this gyroscope about the gimbal axis is restrained by the springs
connecting the gimbal ring to the frame as in Fig 8-9. If the gyroscope is now turned about the ZZ’
axis, precession about the YY’ axis is immediately opposed by a torque applied by the springs. It has
been shown that any torque opposing precession produces a secondary precession in the same
direction as the original torque (para 23). If the turning of the frame is continued at a steady rate, the
precession angle about the YY’ axis will persist, distending one spring and compressing the other,
thereby increasing the spring torque. Eventually the spring torque will reach a value where it is
producing secondary precession about ZZ’ equal to, and in the same direction as, the original turning.
When this state is reached the gyroscope will be precessing at the same rate as it is being turned and
no further torque will be applied by the turning. Any change in the rate of turning about the ZZ’ axis
will require a different spring torque to produce equilibrium, thus the deflection of the spin axis (Φ in
Fig 8-9) is a measure of the rate of turning. Such an arrangement is
known as a Rate Gyroscope, and its function is to measure a rate of
turn, as in the Rate of Turn Indicator.
26. The relationship between the deflection angle and rate of

turn is derived as follows:
Spring Torque is proportional to φ or

Spring Torque = Kφ (where K is a constant)
At equilibrium:
Rate of Secondary Precession = Rate of Turn
i.e. _K_ = Rate of Turn Fig 8-10: Rate of Turn
Iω Indicator
∴ φ is proportional to Rate of Turn X I ω

(I ω is the angular momentum of the rotor and is therefore constant).
The angle of deflection can be measured by an arrangement shown at Fig 8-10 and the scale
calibrated accordingly.
THE INTEGRATING GYROSCOPE
27. An integrating gyroscope is a single degree of freedom

gyro using viscous restraint to damp the precessional rotation
about the output axis. The integrating gyro is similar to the rate
gyro except that the restraining springs are omitted and the only
factor opposing gimbal rotation about the output axis is the
viscosity of the fluid. Its main function is to detect turning about
the input axis (YY’ in Fig 8-11), by precessing about its output
axis (ZZ’ in Fig 8-11).
28. The integrating gyro was designed for use on inertial

navigation stable platforms, where the requirement was for
immediate and accurate detection of movement about three
Fig 8-11: Simple Integrating
mutually perpendicular axes. Three integrating gyros are used,
each performing its functions about one of the required axes. These functions could be carried out by
displacement gyros, but the integrating gyro has certain advantages over the displacement type.
These are:
(a) A small input rate causes a large gimbal deflection (gimbal gain).
(b) The gyro does not suffer from nutation.
29. Fig 8-11 shows a simple integrating gyro. It is basically a can within which another can (the
inner gimbal) is pivoted about its vertical (ZZ’) axis. The outer can (frame) is filled with a viscous fluid
which supports the weight of the inner gimbal so reducing bearing torques. The rotor is supported
with its spin (XX’) axis across the inner gimbal. In a conventional non-floated gyro, ball bearings
support the entire gimbal weight and define the output axis. In the floated integrating gyro the entire
weight of the rotor and inner gimbal assembly is supported by the viscous liquid, thereby minimizing
frictional forces at the output (ZZ’) axis pivot points. The gimbal output must however be defined and
this is done by means of a pivot and jewel arrangement. By utilizing this system for gimbal axis
alignment, with fluid to provide support, the bearing friction is reduced to a very low figure.
30. The gyroscope action may now be considered. If the whole gyro in Fig 8-12 is turned at a
steady rate about the input axis (YY’), a torque is applied to the spin axis causing precession about
the output axis (ZZ’). The gimbal initially accelerates (precesses) to a turning rate such that the
viscous restraint equals the applied torque. The
gimbal then rotates at a steady rate about ZZ’
proportional to the applied torque. The gyro output (an
angle or voltage) is the summation of the amount of
input turn derived from the rate and duration of turn
and is therefore the integral of the rate input. (Note
that the rate gyro discussed in paras 24 - 26 puts out a
rate of turn only). The movement about the output
axis may be made equal to, less than, or greater than
movements about the input axis by varying the
viscosity of the damping fluid. By design the ratio
between the output angle (θ) and the input angle (q)
can be arranged to be of the order of 10 to 1. This
increase in sensitivity is called gimbal gain.
Fig 8-12: Function of Integrating
Gyroscope
31. A gyro mounted so that it senses
rotations about a horizontal input axis is known
as a levelling gyro. Two levelling gyros are
required to define a level plane. Most inertial
platforms using conventional gyros align the
input axis of their levelling gyros with True North
and East.
32. Motion around the third axis, the vertical

axis, is measured by an azimuth gyro, i.e. one in
Fig 8-13: Azimuth Gyroscope
which the input axis is aligned with the vertical,
as in Fig 8-13.
THE DISPLACEMENT GYROSCOPE
Definition
33. A displacement gyro is a two degree of freedom gyro. It can be modified for a particular task,
but it always provides a fixed artificial datum about which angular displacement is measured.
Wander
34. Wander is defined as any movement of the spin axis away from the reference frame in which
it is set.
35. Causes of Wander. Movement away from the required datum can be caused in two ways:
(a) Imperfections in the gyro can cause the spin axis to move physically. These
imperfections include such things as friction and unbalance. This type of wander is referred
to as real wander since the spin axis is actually moving. Real wander is minimized by better
engineering techniques.
(b) A gyro defines direction with respect to inertial space, whilst the navigator requires
earth directions. In order to use a gyro to determine directions on earth, it must be corrected
for apparent wander due to the fact that the earth rotates or that the gyro may be moving from
one point on earth to another (transport wander).
36. Drift and Topple. It is more convenient to study wander by resolving it into two
components:
(a) Drift, which is defined as any movement of the spin axis in the horizontal plane
around the vertical axis.
(b) Topple, which is defined as any movement of the spin axis in the vertical plane
around a horizontal axis.
37. Summary. Table 8-2 summarizes the types of wander. From para 35 it should be apparent
that the main concern when using a gyro must be to understand the effects of earth rotation and
transport wander on a gyro.
Table 8-2 - Types of Wander

Earth Rotation
38. In order to explain the effects of earth rotation on a gyro it is easier to consider a single
degree of freedom gyro, since it has only one input and one output axis. The following explanation is
based on knowledge of rotational vector notation.
39. Consider a gyro positioned at a point A in

Fig 8-14. It would be affected by earth rotation
according to how its input axis was aligned, namely:
(a) If its input axis was aligned with the

earth's spin axis, it would detect earth rate
We 15.04 degrees per hour.
(b) Azimuth Gyro. If its input axis was

aligned with the local vertical it would detect
15.04 X sin Latitude (sin f)°/hr. Note that by
definition this is drift.
Fig 8-14: Components of Earth Rate

(c) North Sensitive Levelling Gyro. If its
input axis were aligned with local North, it would detect 15.04 X cos Latitude (cos f) °/hr. Note
that by definition this is topple.
(d) East Sensitive Levelling Gyro. Finally if the input axis were aligned with local East,
that is, at right angles to the earth rotation vector, it would not detect any component of earth
rotation.
Transport Wander
40. If an azimuth gyro spin axis is aligned with

local North (i.e. the true meridian) at A in Fig 8-15
and the gyro is then transported to B, convergence
of the meridians will make it appear that the gyro
spin axis has drifted. This apparent drift is in
addition to that caused by Earth rotation. The gyro
has not in fact drifted; it is the direction of the True
North which has changed. However, if the gyro is
transported North-South, there is no change in the
local meridian and therefore, no apparent drift.
Fig 8-15: Apparent Drift
Similarly, as all meridians are parallel at the Equator,
an East-West movement there produces no apparent drift. Transport rate drift thus depends on the
convergence of the meridians and the rate of crossing them; i.e. the East-West component of ground
speed (U). The amount of convergence between two meridians is ch long x sin lat. Any given value
of U thus produces an increase in apparent gyro drift as latitude increases. The amount of drift due to
transport rate may be found as follows:
Meridian conv. C (°/hr) = [ch long/hr] X sin φ.

Now ch long/hr = ch Eastings (nm / hr) X sec φ and
60
since 1° = 60 nm and ch Eastings (nm/hr) = U
C = _U_ X sec φ X sin φ (o / hr)

60
But sec φ X sin φ = __1__ X sin φ
Cos φ
= sin φ X tanφ
cosφ
∴ C = _U_ X tan φ (0 / hr)
60
This can be converted to radians/hour by multiplying by _π_
180
∴ C = _U_ X φ X _π_
60 180
= U X tan φ X ____π____
60 X 180
Now an arc of length 60 nm on the earth's surface subtends an angle of 1° (π / 180°) at the
centre of the earth.
∴ R X _π_ = 60 where R = earths radius
180
or _1_ = ___π___
R = 60 X 180
Substituting into the above equation for Meridian Convergence (radians/hour)

C = U X tan φ 1
R
or
C = U X φ (radians / hour)
R
41. Consider now two levelling gyros, whose input axes are North and East respectively, and
whose output axes are vertical.
(a) The East component of aircraft velocity in Fig

8-16 will be sensed by the North gyro as a torque of
about its input axis. If the gyro is not corrected for this
transport wander, it is said, by definition, to topple.
(b) Similarly, due to the effect of aircraft velocity

North, the East gyro will topple at the rate of V/R.
Apparent Wander Table
42. All the equations derived in the study of earth rate and
transport wander rate are summarized in Table 8-3. Fig 8-16: Transport Wander
Local North Local East Local Vertical Correction Sign

Earth Rate degrees or radians per hour Nil +
Transport Wander radians per hour
Topple Drift
Table 8-3: Components of Drift and Topple - Earth Rate and Transport Wander Rate
Where = Angular Velocity of the Earth

R = Earth's radius
φ = Latitude
U = East/West component of groundspeed
V = North/South component of groundspeed
The units for earth rate can be degrees or radians, whilst for transport wander they are radians.
43. Correction Signs. The correction signs of Table 8-3 apply only to the drift equations, and
they should be applied to the gyro readings to obtain true directions. These correction signs will be
reversed for the Southern Hemisphere.
Practical Corrections for Topple and Drift
44. If all the corrections of Table 8-3 were applied to three gyros with their input axes aligned to
true North, true East and the local vertical, true directions would be defined continuously, and in effect
the gyros would have been corrected for all apparent wander. However, these corrections make no
allowance for the real wander of a gyro and consequently an error growth proportional to the
magnitude of the real drift and topple will exist. As a rough rule of thumb, an inertial platform
employing gyros with real drift rates in the order of 0.01°/hr will have a system error growth of 1-2
nm/hr CEP.
45. Twin gyro platforms (TGPs), on the other hand, employ cheaper lower quality gyros whose
drift rates may be in the order of 0.1°/hr. If these real drift rates were not compensated for, system
inaccuracies would be unacceptably large. For this reason, most TGP systems make use of the local
gravity vector to define the level plane, thus compensating for both real and apparent drifts.
46. Specifically, gyro wander may be corrected in the following ways:
(a) Topple. Topple is normally

corrected for in gyros by the use of
either gravity switches (Figs 8-17a, b
and c), or by case levelling devices
(Figs 8-18a, b and c). These devices
sense movement away from the vertical,
and send appropriate signals to a torque
Fig 8-17a: Gravity Sensitive Switch
motor until the vertical is re-established.
The levelling accuracy of these methods is approximately 1°.
Fig 8-17b: Gravity Levelling Fig 8-17c: Schematic Electrical

Erection System
(b) Drift. Drift corrections can be achieved by:
(i) Calculating corrections using Table 8-3 and applying them to the gyro
reading.
(ii) Applying a fixed torque to the gyro so that it precesses at a rate equal to the
earth rate for a particular latitude. Drift will be fully corrected for only at the selected
latitude.
(iii) Applying variable torques, using the

same approach as in (ii) above, but being able
to vary the torque according to the latitude.
These azimuth drift corrections make no
allowance for real drift, which can only be
limited by coupling the azimuth gyro to a flux
valve.
47. To complete this study of the displacement gyro, it

remains to mention a limitation and an error peculiar to this
type of gyro, gimbal lock and gimbal error. Fig 8-18a: Electrical Case
Levelling
Fig 8-18b: Commutator Sensing Device Fig 8-18c: Syncro Sensing Device
Gimbal Lock
48. Gimbal lock occurs when the gimbal orientation is such that the spin axis becomes coincident
with an axis of freedom. Effectively the gyro has lost one of its degrees of freedom, and any
attempted movement about the lost axis will result in real wander. This is often referred to as
toppling, although drift is also present.
Gimbal Error
49. Gimbal error occurs when there is a misalignment between the aircrafts aerodynamic axes
and the navigation system axes. Most modern systems automatically compensate for these errors.
THE RING LASER GYRO
Introduction
50. The ring laser gyro is now a serious competitor to conventional gyros for a number of
applications including aircraft inertial navigation systems and attitude - heading reference systems.
The ring laser gyro has no moving parts and is therefore particularly suitable for strap down inertial
navigation systems.
51. The laser gyro makes use of the high

sensitivity of the laser's oscillating frequency
to variations of the dimensions of its resonant
structure. The resonant structure consists of
an optical system of three or more mirrors in
which a light wave can travel continuously
along a closed path in both clockwise and anti-
clockwise directions. The closed path is filled
with ionized helium-neon gas which provides Fig 8-19: Ring Laser Gyro
gain over a very narrow bandwidth. The assembly can oscillate at any frequency within this
bandwidth. By careful control of both gain and the circumference of the closed path a condition can
be achieved where the gain is only high enough to sustain oscillation at one resonant frequency.
52. If the ring laser is stationary the resonant frequency for both clockwise and anti-clockwise
waves are identical. If the ring laser is rotated about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the closed
path, the resonant frequencies of the clockwise and anti-clockwise waves are different. This is
because the light travelling in the direction of the rotation must travel a slightly longer path to complete
one revolution, while the opposite wave will travel a shorter path. Thus the frequencies of oscillation
are determined by the rate of rotation of the assembly.
The frequency difference Df of the two waves is:

∆f = 4AΩ
λL
Where A is the area enclosed by the path
l is the oscillating wavelength
L is the length of the closed path
W is the rate of rotation
If the value of ∆f is measured by the mixing of an output signal for each wave on a photodetector, a
signal is obtained which is proportional to rotation rate.
Advantages of the Ring Laser Gyro
53. The advantages of the ring laser gyro are:
(a) Performance is unaffected by high "g".

(b) It has no moving parts and therefore high reliability and low maintenance
requirements.
(c) It has a rapid turn-on time.
49
CHAPTER 9
ARTIFICIAL HORIZON
Introduction
1. In the early days of aviation, aircraft instrumentation was limited to giving the pilot empirical
data about his aircraft. However, as people started flying in or above clouds and in poor visibility
conditions, it was soon realized that interpretation of these basic instruments to understand what the
aircraft was doing and what it was likely to do in the immediate future was rather tricky. This need of
interpreting the attitude of the aircraft instantaneously and easily led to the development of the
Artificial Horizon.
Principle
2. An artificial horizon employs a vertical axis earth gyro having freedom in all three planes and
indicates the aircraft’s attitude in pitch and roll. The gyro axis is maintained vertical with reference to
the centre of the earth. In flight an aircraft roll and pitches about the gyro axis which remains rigid and
indications are instantaneous.
3. Indication of pitch and bank attitude may be presented in one of two ways. In older
instruments (the artificial horizon), the aircraft is represented by a fixed symbol and the horizon by a
bar stabilized parallel to the Earth's surface. In more modern displays (the attitude indicator), the
horizon bar is replaced by a moving 'ball' marked with a horizon line and with graduated pitch angle
markings. The areas of the ball above and below the horizon are typically coloured blue and brown
respectively. In both cases supplementary indication of bank angle is presented by the position of a
gyro stabilized pointer against a fixed bank angle scale at the bottom of the display. Fig 9-1 shows an
Fig 9-1: Artificial Horizon Indicators Fig 9-2: Attitude Indicator

artificial horizon in various attitudes; Fig 9-2 illustrates an attitude indicator (note the integrated Turn
and Slip indication).
Construction
4. The rotor of the gyro is

encased in a sealed case which acts
as inner gimbal. It is pivoted parallel to
the aircraft’s lateral axis (YY1 in Fig
9-3). The inner gimbal is mounted in
the outer gimbal with its axis parallel
to the aircraft’s longitudinal axis XX1.
The outer gimbal (ring) pivots are
located at the front and rear ends of
the instrument case. The element
symbolizing the aircraft may be either
rigidly fixed to the case or externally
Fig 9-3: Artificial Horizon Principle
adjusted up and down for pitch datum
setting. The horizon bar is pivoted at the side and to the rear of the outer ring, and engages the
actuating pin fixed to the inner ring, thus forming a magnifying lever system.
5. Freedom of gimbal system movement about the roll and pitch axis is 360O and 85O
respectively, the latter being restricted by a resilient stop. This is done so as to prevent a gimbal lock.
The inner gimbal controls the indications in pitch attitude while the outer gimbal controls the
indications in the rolling plane.
Indications
6. In operation the gimbal system is stabilized so that in level flight the three axes are mutually
at right angles. When there is a change in the aircraft attitude to say a climb, the instrument case and
outer ring will turn about the axis YY1 of the stabilized inner ring.
7. In this attitude, the horizon bar pivot carries the rear end of the bar upwards causing it to pivot
about the stabilized actuating pin. The front end of the bar and the pointer therefore move downwards
through a greater angle than that of the outer ring, and since movement is relative to the aircraft
symbol, a climb attitude is indicated.
8. Changes in the lateral attitude of the aircraft, i.e. banking, displaces the instrument case
about the axis XX1 and the whole stabilized gimbal system. Hence, lateral attitude changes are
51 Artificial Horizon
indicated by movement of the aircraft symbol relative to the horizon bar and also by relative
movement between the bank angle scale and the pointer.
9. The bank indication is given by an index on the sky plate which is directly connected to the
outer gimbal. The index reads against a scale printed on the glass face of the instrument. When an
aircraft banks, the rotor, inner gimbal and outer gimbal remain rigid in level position and the
instrument case together with the printed scale move with the aircraft. Thus, the position of the index
on the sky plate indicates the bank angle against the scale.
Gyro Construction
10. One of the requirements of any gyroscope is to have the mass of the rotor concentrated as
near to the periphery as possible, thus ensuring maximum inertia. This is achieved by designing the
rotor so that it rotates on the outside of the stator. The gyroscope is a three phase squirrel cage
induction motor.
Principle
11. If a conductor is set at right angles to a moving magnetic field, the conductor experiences a
force moving it in the same direction as the moving magnetic field. As the conductor follows the field,
the relative motion is reduced, thereby reducing the conductor current and the force on the conductor.
Thus, the conductor speed is limited to something less than that of the field, otherwise there will be no
relative motion, no current and
no torque.
12. The squirrel-cage rotor

(Fig 9-4) of the induction motor,
set in the rotating field of the
stator, should accelerate until it
is running steadily at a speed
which is slightly less than the
synchronous speed at which the
magnetic field rotates. An
electrically driven artificial
horizon needs a 115 V, three
phase 400 Hz ac supply and Fig 9-4: Torque Motor and Levelling Switch System
rotates at approximately 22,500
rpm.
Gyro Control
13. This system is used in a number of electrically operated gyro horizons and consists of two
torque control motors independently operated by mercury levelling switches, which are mounted one
parallel to the lateral axis and the other parallel to the longitudinal axis (Fig 9-4).
14. The laterally mounted switch detects displacement of the gyroscope in roll and is connected
to its torque motor so that a corrective torque is applied around the pitch axis. Displacement of the
gyroscope in pitch is detected by the longitudinally mounted levelling switch is connected to its torque
motor so that corrective torques are around the roll axis.
15. Each levelling switch is in the form of a sealed glass tube containing three electrodes and a
small quantity of mercury. They are mounted in adjustable cradles set at right angles to each other
on a switch bock positioned beneath the gyro housing. The tubes are filled with an inert gas to
prevent arcing at the electrodes as the mercury makes contact and also to increase the rupturing
capacity.
16. The torque motors comprise a squirrel cage type laminated iron rotor mounted concentrically
about a stator, the iron core of which has two windings, one providing a constant field and called the
control winding’. Both winding are powered from a step-down auto-transformer connected between
phases A and B of the 115V supply to the gyro horizon.
17. When the gyro is running and in its normal operating position, the mercury in the levelling
switches lies at the centre of the tubes and is contact with the centre electrode. The two outer
electrodes, which are connected across the control windings of the torque motor stators, remain open.
The auto-transformer reduces the voltage to a selected value (typically 20V) which is then fed to the
centre electrode of the switches and the reference windings of the torque motors, thus in the normal
operating position of the gyroscope, current flows through the reference windings only.
Errors
18. Like any other instrument, the artificial horizon is also subject to certain errors. These are:
(a) Turning errors.

(b) Acceleration errors.
19. Turning Error. Turning errors are of two types:
(a) Erection errors.

(b) Pendulosity errors.
Erection Error
20. Erection errors occur during turns as a result of displacement of the roll levelling switch by
centrifugal force and the consequent departure of the rotor axis from the true vertical.
21. In Fig 9-5, the aircraft at point ‘A’

is about to turn from a northerly heading
through 360º to starboard. At the start of
the turn the rotor axis is vertical. As the
turn is entered, centrifugal force causes
the mercury in the roll levelling switch to
move outwards which is interpreted by the
torque motor mechanism as a movement
of the top of the rotor assembly to the
port. This is corrected and consequently
the top of the rotor assembly moves to
starboard. Thus the centrifugal force
experienced by the gyro axis is constant
and at right angles to the instantaneous
Fig 9-5: Turning Errors
heading. This means that when the
aircraft changes its heading at a constant rate during a 360O turn, the top of the gyro axis will trace a
circular path which is 90O in advance of the aircraft heading. This path is represented by the dotted
circle in the following figure.
22. Any chord of this circle will represent the tilt of the gyro axis in relation to the true vertical.
Thus, the chord AB’ represents the direction of tilt after a 90º turn to starboard. This tilt can be
resolved into two components along and across the flight path of the aircraft. At point ‘B’ this is
resolved into two components, one forward and the other to starboard, giving erroneous indications of
a climb and an under-reading of bank. Similarly, the chord AC’ indicates the direction of tilt after a
180º turn, when the tilt is at its maximum and is resolved at C into a forward tilt of the gyro axis in
relation to the aircraft, giving a false indication of climbing. At point D the components of the tilt error
represented by the chord AD’ are shown, their resultant being forward and to port giving an erroneous
indication of climb and an over-reading to bank. When the aircraft returns to point A the gyro axis tilt is
zero.
Compensation for Erection Errors
23. Erection errors may be compensated by any of the following three methods:
(a) Inclination of the gyro spin axis.
(b) Erection cut-out.
(c) Pitch bank compensation.
24. Inclination of the Gyro Spin Axis. It has been shown that during a 360º turn to starboard
at a constant rate the top of the rotor axis departs from the vertical, describes a circle in a clockwise
direction, thereby causing variable turn errors, and returns to the original vertical position after 360º of
turn. A brief consideration reveals
that if it could be arranged for the
top of the axis to describe a circle
about itself during the turn, there
would no longer be a variety of turn
errors, but a single constant error
which might be eliminated by a
single constructional modification.
This is achieved by tilting the rotor
axis top forward from the true
vertical. The angle of tilt varies but is
usually 1.6O or 2.5O. This is done by
fixing the pitch mercury switch in a
tilted position. The effect of this is
shown in the above figure which is Fig 9-6: Compensation of Turning Error
interpreted as earlier.
25. Erection Cut-Out. This method involves cutting off the power supply to the bank levelling
switch when the angle of bank exceeds 10O thus eliminating the error creating mechanism. In such a
system, no erection is possible about the bank axis if the gimbal system is tilted by more than 10O
about this axis when the power supply is switched on and “fast erection” needs to be resorted to.
26. Pitch-bank compensation. This is a method in which the bank levelling switch is
disconnected during a turn and its erection system is controlled by the pitch levelling switch. It is
intended to correct the varying pitch and bank errors and operates only when the rate of turn causes a
centrifugal acceleration exceeding 0.18g which is equal to a 10O tilt of the bank erection switch.
Pendulosity Error
27. Pendulosity errors occur during turns as a result of displacement of the rotor assembly,
initiated by centrifugal force, and the consequent departure from the true vertical of the rotor axis.
28. In the following figure the aircraft at point A is about to turn from a northerly heading through
360º to starboard. At the start of the turn the rotor axis is vertical. As the turn is entered, centrifugal
force acts on rotor assembly, which is bottom-heavy and tends to swing its base to port. This
tendency is precessed through 90º

and, for a gyro rotating in the anti-
clockwise direction when viewed
from the top, the base of the rotor
assembly moves towards the pilot,
i.e., the top of the rotor axis moves
away from the pilot.
29. The path of the gyro axis

top through the whole of the turn to
standard is denoted by the small,
dotted circle which is interpreted
as for erection errors. For Fig 9-7: Pendulosity Error
example, AB’ represents the direction of tilt after turning 90º to starboard. Since the relationship
between the axis top and the true vertical varies during the turn, the nature and extent of indication
error vary accordingly.
Compensation for Pendulosity Errors
30. The above figure also shows the locus of the gyro axis top of an artificial horizon that has
been compensated for pendulosity errors by inclining the gyro axis top to the port. The amount of
inclination is governed by the type of instrument, two typical values being 0.5º and 1.75º.
Acceleration Error
31. Acceleration error occurs when the artificial horizon is subject to acceleration of the aircraft in
the fore-and-aft plane, and the effect is particularly noticeable during take-off.
32. In order to ensure rapid initial erection, the rotor assembly of the artificial horizon is
constructed slightly bottom-heavy. When acceleration occurs, the base of rotor assembly tends to lag
behind owing to inertia, i.e. it tends to swing towards the pilot exactly as it would if a force were
applied from the front of the aircraft towards the base of the pendulous unit. This force precesses
through 90º and the base of the pendulous unit in fact moves towards the port side of the aircraft.
This movement causes a slight turning of the gimbal ring, and with it of the horizon bar. The direction
of rotation of the horizon bar in this instance is clockwise as seen by the pilot, i.e., the effect is an
indication to the pilot of an apparent slight bank to port.
33. The initial cause, acceleration, also results in a rearward movement of the mercury in the
pitch levelling switch owing to its inertia which is interpreted by the torque motor mechanism as a
movement of the top of the rotor assembly towards the pilot. This is corrected and consequently the
top of the rotor assembly moves away from the pilot, thereby indicating an apparent climb.
34. Thus, the overall effect of acceleration on this instrument is the indication of a slight bank to
port and a climb. During the initial climb immediate after take-off it is therefore, advisable to use the
slip needle for reliable indications of lateral level, the air speed indicator as the master pitch reference
on piston-engined aircraft, and the rate of climb and descent indicator as the master pitch reference
on jet-engined aircraft.
35. It is not possible to specify a definite time interval after which the pilot may assume that
acceleration errors have ceased to exist, because the extent of the error depends on the magnitude
and duration of the acceleration to which the artificial horizon is subjected; both of which factors vary
from one type of aircraft to another. It is known, however, that acceleration error no longer exists after
twice for, say, 45 seconds before setting into a steady climb, then the acceleration errors will
disappear after a further 45 seconds.
Erection Rate
36. This is the term used to define the time taken, in degrees per minute, for the rotor axis of a
vertical gyroscope to take up its vertical position under the action of its gravity sensing erection
system.
37. For the ideal gyro horizon the erection rate should be as fast as possible under all conditions,
but in practice such factors as speed, turning and acceleration of the aircraft and Earth’s rotation all
have their effect and must be taken into account. During turns the erection system is acted upon by
centrifugal forces and is displaced to make the gyro follow it by precession. Therefore the maximum
erection rate that can be used is dependant on the maximum error that can be tolerated during turns.
The minimum rate is governed by the Earth’s rotation, the speed of the aircraft and random changes
of precession due to bearing friction, variations in rotor speed and gimbal system unbalance.
38. Thus erection systems must be designed so that, for small angular displacements of the rotor
axis from the vertical, the erection couple is proportional to the displacement, while for larger
displacements it is made constant. It is also arranged that the couple gives equal erection rates for
any rotor axis displacement in any direction in order to reduce the possibility of a slow cumulative
error during manoeuvres.
39. Normal erection rates are 8O per minute for vacuum driven gyro horizons and 3O to 5O per
minute for electrically driven gyro horizons.
Fast Erection
46. A push-button switch marked “Fast Erection – PUSH” is fitted at the bottom left hand corner of
the instrument. Operation of this switch increases the erection rate to 180º/ minute. It is important to
note that although the fast erection button will erect the instrument, the gyro readiness time must be
allowed to elapse before reliable indications are given. When the fast erection button is held in for
longer than necessary, arcing occurs across the erection switch and damages the instrument. After
the instrument power supply has been switched on, the fast erection button must not be use until 10
seconds have elapsed, otherwise the horizon bar will oscillate violently and damage the instrument. If
the instrument is toppled during flight the fast erection button must only be used in unaccelerated
level flight, otherwise the horizon bar will erect to give a false indication of level flight. Less
pendulosity of the gyro is needed when a fast erection button is fitted, therefore the turning and
acceleration errors are reduced.
59
CHAPTER 10
TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR
Introduction
1. The TSI was the first of the aircraft flight instruments to use a gyroscope as a detecting
element, and in conjunction with a magnetic compass, it made valuable contribution to the art of flying
without external references, it was thus considered an essential primary blind flying instrument for all
types of aircraft. However with continued aircraft development, changes in operational requirements
and introduction of more advanced flight instruments and systems the place of a TSI should occupy in
the flight instrument group formed the subject of much discussion. In the smaller types of aircraft, it
still functions as a primary instrument, but in large and sophisticated aircraft, it may be used in a
secondary role, or maybe even dispensed with altogether.
2. A TSI contains two independent mechanisms- a gyroscopically controlled pointer mechanism

for the detection and indication of the rate at which the aircraft turns, and a mechanism for the
detection of bank and /or slip. The instrument is also invaluable while spinning; in a spin it always
indicates the direction of yaw. The slip indicator shows whether or not corrective rudder is required to
achieve balanced flight.
THE TURN INDICATOR
Construction
3. The construction of a
basic turn indicator is illustrated in
Fig 10-1, where the X (roll), Y
(pitch), and Z (yaw) gyro axes are
shown. The instrument consists
of a rate gyro mounted with its
spin axis arthwartships, and with
only one gimbal such that it has
freedom in roll only. This freedom
is, however, limited by a
restraining spring connecting the
gimbal to the outer casing.
Movement of the gimbal is
Fig 10-1: Turn Indicator - Simplified Construction
transmitted to a pointer on the
instrument face via a reverse gearing. This gearing is so arranged that gimbal tilt to the right causes
the pointer to move to the left and vice versa. The gimbal is damped and gimbal stops prevent
instrument damage at high turn rates. The scale is non-linear, the calibrations representing standard
rate turns (Rate 1, 180° per min; Rate 2, 360° per min; Rate 3, 540° per min). As gyro speed is
critical to accuracy, any change is sensed by centrifugal switches which control the DC motor.
4. When the instrument is in its normal operating position, due to the spring restraint the rotor
spin axis will always be horizontal and the turn pointer will be at the zero datum mark. With the rotor
spinning, its rigidity will further ensure that the zero condition is maintained.
5. Let us assume for a moment that a gyroscope has no spring restraint and that the instrument
is turned about a vertical input axis. The gimbal ring will also turn but as rigidity of the gyroscope
resists this turning movement it will precess about the axis XX1. A turn to the left causes a force to be
applied at the front pivot of the gimbal ring, and this is the same as trying to push the rotor round at
the point ---- on its rim. In following this through 90 deg in the direction of rotation, precession will take
place at point ---, thus causing the gimbal ring and rotor to tilt about the longitudinal axis. If a pointer
were fixed to the gimbal ring, it too would tilt through the same angle and indicate a turn and also its
direction. However we are more interested in the rate of turn and to obtain an indication of this, we
control the angular deflection of the gimbal ring by connecting it to the instrument case through the
medium of a spring.
6. Considering once again the left turn indicated, the gyroscope will now precess and will stretch
the spring until the force it exerts prevents the further deflection of the gyro. Since the precession of
this type of gyroscope is equal to the product of angular momentum of the gyroscope and the rate of
turn, then spring force is a measure of the rate of turn. If the spring is linear i.e. its force is proportional
to the gimbal ring deflection, and the deflection is small, the actual movement of the spring from the
zero or the rest position can be taken as the required measure of the rate of turn. A system of
damping out oscillations of the gyroscope is also incorporated and is adjusted so that the turn pointer
will respond to fast rate - of - turn changes and at the same time respond to a definite turn instantly. It
should also be noted that a rate gyroscope requires no erecting device or correction for random
precession, for the simple reason that it is always centered by the control spring system.
7. Consider, in respect of Fig 10-1, a banked turn to the left. When the instrument casing
rotates around the X axis, the gyro's rigidity causes it to remain spatially fixed, extending the spring
which exerts an anti-clockwise torque. This torque in turn produces a secondary (or indirect)
precessionary force about the Z axis in the direction in which the aircraft is starting to turn. In fact, the
gyroscope has no freedom to move independently about its Z axis, but a state of equilibrium will be
reached when the rate of turn of the aircraft equals the rate of secondary precession induced in the
gyroscope. If the aircraft rate of turn becomes faster than the secondary precession rate of the
61 Turn and Slip Indicator
gyroscope, primary (or direct) bearing-induced precession will tilt the gyro further to the right with
respect to the casing, so increasing the spring tension and causing increased secondary precession
until a balance is once again restored. Conversely, if the aircraft rate of turn decreases, primary
bearing-induced precession will tilt the gyro to the left with respect to the casing, reducing spring
tension and reducing the rate of secondary precession until it matches the aircraft turn rate. At
equilibrium the tilt angle of the gyroscope within its casing is related to the aircraft rate of turn and the
dial can be calibrated accordingly.
8. If the instrument casing is not airtight, air will be drawn in from leaking points due to suction
inside the case and the loss of efficiency will result. If the rotor speed is less than the rated speed, the
primary and secondary precession will be less and the pointer will indicate a lesser rate of turn;
similarly, if the speed is too high, it will indicate a higher rate of turn. Constant rotor speed is therefore
essential.
9. The spring is adjusted for a given rate of turn, usually rate one, and the spring is designed to
be linear but in practice at all other rates the indication will be progressively in error. Movement in the
looping plane theoretically will have no effect on the gyro provided that the aircraft is not in a turn or
subject to slip or yaw, since the aircraft loops about a gyro axis and not against it as it does when it
enters into a turn. Being a rate gyroscope, there is neither need for any erecting mechanism nor
correction for random precession, as the control spring maintains the gyro axis horizontal in straight
and level flight and it has no freedom in azimuth.
Errors
10. Pitching Error. The turn indicator measures the rate of turn about the yaw axis and
movement about the pitch axis, which coincides with the gyro spin axis, would not, ideally produce
any gyro precession. However, if the aircraft is simultaneously yawed and pitched nose up, gyro axis
cross-coupling can cause a torque to be applied such that the indicated rate of turn will exceed the
true rate of turn. The error is dependent on the rate of yaw and the rate of pitch and in some
circumstances can cause full scale deflection of the indicator. The error is unlikely to be corrected
until the rate of pitch is significantly reduced and as a consequence it may continue to indicate a turn
in one direction while the aircraft turns in the other. Conversely, with nose down pitch, the instrument
will under-read, and in extreme cases may indicate zero regardless of actual turn rate.
11. Gyro Speed Errors. The angle of tilt, θ, of a rate gyro is given by:
Kθ = Rate of turn X I X ω
Where K = Spring tension
I = Moment of inertia of the gyro AND
ω = Angular velocity of the gyro
Thus if the angular velocity (rotor speed) of the gyro is altered a different angle of tilt is generated by
the same rate of turn. An over-speeding gyro is uncommon because of the speed governing system,
but electrical faults or excessive bearing friction may produce under-speeding. This will be manifest
as under-reading and an oversensitive, badly damped, needle.
THE SLIP INDICATOR
12. The position that the ball takes in flight whether straight and level or in a banked condition
depends upon the resultant of the two forces acting on it, the force of gravity and the centrifugal force.
The indicator case and the scale move with the aircraft, of course, and because of the turn, centrifugal
force in addition to that of gravity acts upon the weight and tend to displace it outward from the centre
of the turn. However, when the turn is executed at the correct bank angle then there is a balanced
condition between the two forces and so the weight and the pointer will still remain at the zero position
but this time along the resultant of the two forces. If the airspeed were to increased during the turn,
but so long as the bank angle is correct the weight and pointer will still remain at the zero position
along the new resultant of forces.
13. In a typical TSI, the direction of rotation of gyroscope is such that with the indicator installed a
point at the top of the rotor moves in the direction of flight. The pointer moves over the scale, which
has a centre zero mark and a mark at each end. Adjustment of the gyroscope sensitivity is provided
by a screw attached to one end of the rate control spring the screw protruding through a bracket
mounted on the front plate of the mechanism. A stop is provided to limit the movement of the gimbal
ring to an angle which causes slightly more than full scale deflection of the pointer. A feature common
to all indicators is damping of gimbal ring movement to provide dead beat indications.
Operation
14. The slip indicator consists of a ball mounted in a

curved, clear tube filled with a damping liquid. When the
aircraft is in straight, balanced flight the only force acting
on the ball is gravity, and the ball will be in the centre of
the tube (Fig 10-2)
15. If the aircraft is in straight but unbalanced flight,

the pilot will be countering the rudder-induced yaw with
opposite bank. The tube is tilted with respect to the
outside world and gravity takes the ball to the lowest Fig 10-2: Straight and Balanced
Flight
position of the tube (Fig 10-3).
63 Turn and Slip Indicator
16. In a properly balanced turn, centrifugal force acts on the ball in addition to gravity, and the
resultant of these two forces causes the ball to remain in the centre of the tube (Fig 10-4).
Fig 10-4: Balanced Flight

Fig 10-3: Unbalanced Flight
17. The rule of interpretation is that if the rate of turn pointer and the ball are displaced in the
same direction, the aircraft is slipping inwards towards the centre of the turn. If the two are displaced
in the opposite direction, the aircraft is skidding outward. If the turn is indicated but the slip pointer is
at zero position, then the turn is a balanced turn. If the aircraft is slipping inwards (i.e. the relative
airflow is coming from the inside of the turn), the ball will be displaced towards the low wing.
Conversely if the aircraft is skidding outwards (with the relative airflow coming from the outside of the
turn), the ball will be displaced towards the high wing. In all cases the corrective action is to move the
feet to 'kick' the ball back to the centre (i.e. if the ball is to the right of the tube, more right rudder is
needed).
Failure Warning Indication
18. A power failure warning flag is actuated by a stirrup arm provided pivoted on the gimbal ring.
When the rotor is stationary, the stirrup arm is drawn forward by the attraction between a magnet
mounted on it and an extension (flux diverter) of the permanent magnet stator. In this condition the
flag which is spring loaded to its retracted position is depressed by the stirrup arm so that OFF
reading appears through an aperture in the dial. As the rotor speed is increases, eddy currents are
induced in the rotor rim by the stirrup magnet, and at a predetermined speed, reaction between the
magnet and the induced current causes the stirrup arm to lift and the OFF reading to disappear from
view.
Serviceability Check
19. While standing on level ground both pointers should indicate zero position. While taxiing,
check indications by a slight turn. The turn should be indicated in the correct direction and slip pointer
or ball should indicate a skid (insufficient bank!!)
Summary of Turn and Slip Indications
20. Fig 10-5 summarizes various situations that the turn and slip indicator can show, together with
the correct sense of rudder movement required.
Fig 10-5: Summary

65
CHAPTER 11
DIRECTIONAL GYRO INDICATOR (DGI)
Introduction
1. Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI) employs a horizontal axis gyro and utilises the principle of
rigidity to indicate aircraft’s heading. A spinning rotor, as we saw in the previous chapter, has the
property chapter, has the property of rigidity in space. Thus once the DGI rotor attains its full speed
and its axis is manually aligned with a datum (true or magnetic north) it will continue to point in that
direction in space during the rest of the flight. When the aircraft alters its heading it does so relative to
the gyro axis, that is, the aircraft and the gyro case turn about the gyro axis. Changes in headings are
thus indicated instantaneously. It also utilises the property of precession for two purposes:
(a) To provide gyro control.

(b) To compensate for apparent wander.
Construction
2. The DGI rotor is mounted in two rings call the inner gimbal and outer gimbal. Each gimbal has
movement independent of the other. The rotor is mounted in the inner gimbal, the gimbal itself lies in
the horizontal plane and the rotor which it holds spins in the vertical plane. The inner gimbal is
mounted in the outer gimbal pivoted at two points on the inner gimbal which are 90° removed form the
rotor axis. This allows the rotor to move about the horizontal axis. This movement however is
restricted to 110°, that is, 55° either side of the rotor’s vertical place. This limits the aircraft’s
manoeuvres in pitch and roll and if the limits are exceeded the inner gimbal will come in contact with a
mechanical stop and the gyro will precess. The restriction is necessary in order to prevent the inner
gimbals from coming in contact with the outer gimbal and damaging the instrument.
3. The outer gimbal is mounted in the case of the instrument and pivots about the vertical plane.
This ring has freedom of 360° and carries the scale card. In the air driven gyros, the rotor is driven by
a jet of air from a nozzle, air entering the rotor case through a hole in the periphery of the case. Air
impinges on small buckets carved out on the rim and spins the rotor at about 12,000 rpm.
4. The initial setting of the heading and subsequent resetting during the flight are carried out by
use of the gyro caging control. The caging knob on the instrument is depressed and turned until the
required heading appears in the window. When the knob is so depressed, the bevel pinion engages a
system of bevel gear forming a part of the outer gimbal. Thus, by turning the knob, the outer gimbal
carrying the scale card is turned. The knob when depressed also locks the inner gimbal by means of a
caging arm. This prevents the rotor from toppling while the force is being exerted on the outer gimbal
(set the heading when the aircraft is flying straight and level as otherwise a small error may occur in
the reading).
5. The gyro should be caged during violent manoeuvre likely to exceed the limits. The caging
control is also used to erect the gyro should inadvertently topple. This is because the caging arm
rights the rotor before it locks it. Finally, it is important to remember that the gyro must be uncaged
and resynchronized before the DGI is used again.
Errors
6. During flight the plane of rotation of the rotor appears to change direction. This characteristic
is known as drift and may be investigated under two main headings i.e. mechanical drift and apparent
drift.
Mechanical Drift
7. Mechanical drift may be caused due to precessional forces inducted by bearing friction, static
unbalance of gimbals, shift of the centre of gravity, also called warping, or excessive air turbulence
(air driven gyros). Drift due to these causes should not exceed 4° in 15 minutes, and is minimised by
accurate manufacture and assembly, and by care of the instrument. Drift caused by re-erection of the
gyro may also be included under this heading. On air driven gyros, an examination of the 90° rule
reveals that a corrective force is exerted by the air jets when the rotor is tilted while movement of the
outer gimbal ring is taking place thus causing a small change in the indicated heading. For this reason
the instrument should be uncaged or resynchronized only when the aircraft is level.
Apparent Drift
8. Apparent drift may be caused by either:
(a) The effect of the earth’s rotation, or,

(b) The effect of change of longitude.
In Fig 11-2, three direction indicators are shown, one at each of the poles and one on the equator. An
observer starting at point ‘A’ at 0600 hours and reading the D.I. scale as 090° would be at point B at
1800 hours, and would then read the D.I. scale as 270°. The D.I. would not have moved at all, but the
earth’s rotation during the 12 hours of observation would have caused an apparent drift of minus
180°, i.e. minus 15° per hour.
9. An observer standing at point C on the equator at 0600 hours and reading the D.I, scale as
zero, would be at point D at 1800 hours but would still read the scale as zero, since apparent drift is
not experienced at the equator.
67 Directional Gyro Indicator
Fig 11-2: Drift Due to the Earth’s Rotation
10. An observer standing at point E at 0600 hours would be completely inverted relative to the
observer at point A. The observer at point E would therefore read the D.I. scale as 270° at 0600 hours
and as 090° at 1800 hours, i.e. an apparent drift of plus 180° per 12 hours, or plus 15° per hour,
would have been observed.
11. This apparent drift of minus 15° per hour at the North Pole and plus 15° per hour at the South
Pole varies proportionately in the intermediate latitudes, as is shown graphically in Fig 11-2.
Compensation for Apparent Drift Caused by the Earth’s Rotation
12. Apparent drift due to the earth’s rotation is compensated in the D.I. by the application of a
precessional force to the inner gimbal ring to cause an equal and opposite drift. This compensation
force is provided by the weight of an adjustable drift nut fastened to the inter gimbal ring. The nut is
adjusted for the latitudes in which the aircraft is operating and readjusted whenever a change of
latitude of more than 60° is contemplated. As normal rotor speeds vary the effectiveness of this
compensating device, at rotor speeds below normal (caused by incorrect suction, leaks, or choked
filters) the nut over corrects because of diminished rotor rigidity. Conversely, at rotor speeds above
normal, the increased rigidity results in under correction by the drift nut.
Apparent Drift Caused by Change of Longitude
13. When an aircraft is flying on a great circle track across the meridians in polar regions, it is
changing heading rapidly in relation to the pole. As the D.I. gives a constant reading (ignoring other
draft factors) it appears to have a large apparent drift when checked against the magnetic compass.
Under these conditions the D.I. gives a more useful indication of direction than the magnetic compass.
Gimballing Errors
14. Gimballing errors are

not concerned with gyro
precession but are the result
of the geometry of the gimbal
system in that, unless the
gyro frame (i.e. the aircraft) is
rotated about one of the gyro
axes, the outer gimbal ring
must itself move if the
direction of the rotor axis is to
remain undisturbed. The error
thus introduced can therefore
be truly described as
gimballing error, and can best
be understood from an
examination of Fig 11-3.
15. In Fig 11-3, the gyro

frame carrying the outer ring
bearings is fixed to the a/c,
the rotor axis is pointing north-
south, and in the first four
sections (A to D) the ac is
Fig 11-3: Gimballing Errors
heading west. In A the aircraft
is flying straight and level, so that the outer ring is vertical, the bearings of the inner ring are
horizontal, and the inner ring is itself in the horizontal plane. In B the aircraft is being banked to port
and the gyro frame and bearings of the outer ring are tilted to port the rotor axis must not change its
direction, which means that the outer ring pivots about the horizontal fore-aft axis of the inner ring. No
angular movement of the outer ring relative to the gyro frame occurs, so that there is no error in
indications read from the cylindrical scale on the outer ring against the lubber line on the gyro frame.
16. In C the aircraft dives, therefore the gyro frame, outer ring, and inner ring all rotate about the
rotor axis, while retaining the same relationship to each other, and there is still no error in indication.
Exactly the same conditions apply, incidentally, if an aircraft heading south banks either to port or
standard. Thus there is no error in the indication when flying on cardinal headings if the rotor axis is
also aligned with cardinal heading.
69 Directional Gyro Indicator
17. In D, however, the aircraft is made to bank to port and drive. The rotor axis must still point in
the same direction, and the inner ring can only rotate, therefore, about the rotor axis, and the pivot
points of the inner ring in the outer ring must move in a vertical plane. For this to happen and for the
outer ring to tilt to port as well as forward, the outer ring must also rotate about its own axis in the gyro
frame, thus causing a change in the indicated heading. No actual change of heading occurs,
therefore, the indication given by the instrument is erroneous and this is known as gimballing error.
18. Exactly the same thing happens if the aircraft is flying on an inter cardinal heading, as in E
(with the rotor axis north-south), and then simply banks to port (F) while retaining its level pitch
altitude.
19. Thus gimballing error can occur during simple banking on an inter cardinal headings, or
during combined pitch and roll changes on all headings except when the plane of the rotor concedes
with the plane of the resultant attitude change or a plane at high angles to the resultant.
20. Fig 11-4 shows the gimballing error on all headings at various angles bank and reveals that
the error reaches a maximum on headings of 045°, 135°, 225°, and 315°. It can be seen that the error
is small during moderately banked turns.
Fig 11-4: Gimballing Errors on all Headings at Angles of Bank of 10°, 20°, 30°, 40° and 50°.
71
CHAPTER 12
GYRO-MAGNETIC COMPASSES
Introduction
1. The direct indicating compass is subject to errors due to two main causes, magnetic fields of
the aircraft structure and flight accelerations. In the case of the direct indicating compasses, magnetic
fields due to aircraft magnetism are accentuated by the necessary positioning of the compass so that
it can be read by the pilot/navigator, i.e. in the cockpit where the deviating effects due to hard iron
(including DC fields) and soft iron fields are large. The pendulously suspended magnet system is
subject to errors due to accelerations.
2. In addition to these errors, the effect of reduction in the directional force acting on the
detecting element renders the direct reading instrument unreliable in high magnetic latitudes where
the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field is weak. This has the effect of making the
compass sluggish in indicating a change of heading. After an alteration of heading, the detecting
element will oscillate for a considerable time before settling down.
3. A further disadvantage of the direct indicating compass is that indications of direction can be
given at only one position in the aircraft. Since the Earth’s magnetic field strength cannot provide
sufficient torque for driving repeater indicators from one master detector element, separate compass
systems must be provided for each crew member requiring a heading readout.
4. The remote indicating compass was developed to reduce the errors of the direct indicating
compass and to evolve an instrument giving automatic continuous direction which could be fed to
other instruments. Although a number of these systems have been designed using different detecting
and stabilizing techniques, the gyro stabilized remote indicating (gyro-magnetic) compass gradually
evolved.
General
5. The gyro-magnetic compass consists essentially of a magnetic compass whose indications

are stabilized gyroscopically so that the effects of turning and acceleration errors are reduced. A
gyroscope is unaffected by changing magnetic fields or by normal aircraft accelerations but its
heading indications may be inaccurate due to the effect of precessional forces caused by friction,
incorrect balance etc. Since the commonly used detecting element, the fluxvalve, is pendulously
suspended, it is affected by accelerations. Therefore, the principle underlying the gyro-magnetic
system is to integrate the heading indication of the magnetic compass with the directional properties
of a gyroscope so that a compromise between the two is achieved. The net result is to reduce the
individual errors of each. The technique most commonly used is to reference the azimuth gyroscope
initially to the magnetic meridian and to maintain the relationship by applying precessional forces to
the gyroscope based on long term magnetic azimuth information from the fluxvalve detector. The
degree of control of the fluxvalve over the gyroscope, or the monitoring rate, is of considerable
importance. For example, in a turn the fluxvalve heading is likely to be in error so the control rate
must be engineered so that the induced heading is that of the gyro. At the same time there must be
sufficient control to correct the gyro drift.
Basic Components
6. When considering the various units associated with the design of gyro-magnetic compass
systems, it is logical to break them down into three basic components, the fluxvalve, the transmission
and display system, and the gyroscope.
7. The Fluxvalve. A fluxvalve is the detecting element of many remote indicating compasses
and it provides the long term azimuth reference for the gyroscope. It is usually remotely located in a
wing tip or fin in an area relatively free from aircraft magnetic disturbances.
8. The Transmission and Display System. The transmission system provides data
transmission between compass system components and to associated equipments. Control synchros
are usually used for this purpose. For a heading display, the rotor of a control receiver can be
attached to a digital counter, a moveable pointer against a fixed card or a moveable card against a
fixed lubber line.
9. The Gyroscope. Short term azimuth stability is typically provided by a two degree-of-
freedom gyro with the input axis vertical, i.e. the spin axis in the local horizontal plane.
Fluxvalve Theory
10. The fluxvalve (Fig 12-1),

consists of a sensitive pendulous
element which is free to swing within
limits (usually ± 25°) but fixed to the
aircraft in azimuth. The element is
suspended by a Hooke’s Joint with the
whole assembly being hermetically
sealed in a case partially filled with oil
to dampen oscillations. A deviation
compensator is usually mounted on
Fig 12-1: Fluxvalve
top of the unit.
73 Radio Magnetic Compass
11. The pendulous detector element resembles a three spoke wheel with the spokes 120° apart
and slotted through the rim. The rim forms a collector horn for each spoke. The horns and spokes
are made up of a series of metal laminations
having a high magnetic permeability. Each
spoke has a vertical cross-section similar to that
shown in Fig 12-2. The spoke consists of two
superimposed legs which are separated by
plastic material and opened out to enclose the
Fig 12-2: Vertical Cross-section of Spoke
central hub cone. This cone has an exciter coil
wound round it on a vertical axis, and each spoke has a pick-off coil wound round both legs on a
horizontal axis. The exciter coil is fed with 400 Hz single phase AC. The output of the secondary or
pick-off coil is an 800 Hz single phase AC current, the amplitude and phase representing the
relationship of magnetic North to the aircraft longitudinal axis (magnetic heading).
12. In order to appreciate the operation of the fluxvalve it is necessary to consider an individual
spoke. The function of a spoke will be developed in a series of diagrams (Figs 12-3 to 12-10).
13. If a single coil is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic flux passing through the coil is
maximum when the axis of the coil is in line with the direction of the field, zero when the coil lies at
right angles to the field, and maximum but of opposite sense relative to the coil when turned 180°
from its original position. For a coil placed at
an angle θ to a field of strength H (Fig 12-3)
the field can be resolved into two components,
one along the coil equal to H cos θ and the
other at right angles to the coil equal to H sin
θ. The H cos θ component is parallel to the
coil and is the effective flux producing
element. Therefore, the total flux passing
Fig 12-3: Magnetic Flux Components
through the coil is proportional to the cosine of
the angle between the direction of the coil axis
and the direction of the field. The coil output
curve is shown at Fig 12-4. If the coil is in the
horizontal plane with its axis parallel with the
aircraft longitudinal axis, its output is affected
by the horizontal component of the Earth’s
Fig 12-4: Variation of Flux with Theta
magnetic field and the flux passing through the
coil is proportional to the magnetic heading of the aircraft.
14. Unfortunately, the simple concept just described cannot be used without modification as a
heading reference system for two important reasons. Firstly, the voltage induced into a coil depends
on the rate of change of flux. Therefore, once established on a heading, there would be no change of
flux and, consequently, no induced voltage. Secondly, the output of the simple detection device
would be subject to heading ambiguity, i.e. there are always two headings which cause the same
induced output voltage. Therefore, the problem that must be solved is how to produce an output
waveform which is proportional in some way (frequency, phase or amplitude) to the components of
the Earth’s field and linked with the coil. This is achieved in the fluxvalve by introducing an alternating
magnetic field in addition to the static field caused by the horizontal component of the Earth’s
magnetic field.
15. Fig 12-5 shows the relationship

between flux density (B) and
magnetizing force (H) known as the
hysteresis loop for the permalloy
commonly used in the legs of the flux
valve spokes. Permalloy has a very
high magnetic permeability (µ = B/H)
and a corresponding low hysteresis
loss. In the following discussion the
hysteresis loop is represented by a Fig 12-5: Hysteresis Curve for Permalloy
single line curve.
16. One spoke of the three-spoke

fluxvalve is shown diagrammatically in
Fig 12-6. It consists of a pair of soft iron
(usually permalloy) cones each wound Fig 12-6: Simple Fluxvalve
with a primary coil. The winding on one

core is the reverse of that on the other.
The AC supply is just sufficient, at peak
power, to saturate magnetically each of
the parallel soft iron cores. A secondary
coil, wound round the two primaries, is
linked with the circuit, and any change
of flux through it induces a voltage and
current flows.
17. Fig 12-7 shows the 400 Hz

alternating flux induced in the top leg by
the excitation current considering only
the top leg of the spoke and the effect of
Fig 12-7: The Effect of Excitation Current in the Top
the excitation. Leg Only
18. Now considering the bottom leg only; the flux induced in this leg by the excitation current will
at any instant be in the opposite direction to that induced in the top leg, i.e. the flux in the bottom leg is
180° out of phase with the flux in the top leg as shown in Fig 12-8.
19. Since the top and bottom legs are identical, the amplitudes of the flux of the two legs are
equal but 180° out of phase with each other relative to the pick-off coil, which is wound round both
legs. Therefore, the resultant flux cutting the pick-off coil, which is the algebraic sum of the flux in the
top and bottom legs is zero as shown in Fig 12-9.
Fig 12-8: The Effect of the Excitation Fig 12-9: The Effect of the Excitation
Current in the Bottom Leg Only Current in Both Legs
20. If the horizontal component

of the Earth’s magnetic field (H) is
now added in line with the spoke, it
will induce a steady flux in both legs
of the spoke which will be added to
the flux due to the excitation current.
The effect, as shown in Fig 12-10,
will be to bias the datum for the
magnetizing force, due to the
excitation current, on the B-H curve
by an amount equal to H. The
strength of the excitation current is
so arranged that the effect of the
Fig 12-10: The Combine Effects of the Excitation
introduction of the Earth’s magnetic Current and the Component of the Earth's Field
field component is to bring the flux
density curves in Fig 12-10 onto the saturation part of the hysteresis curve. The resultant flux cutting
the pick-off coil, which is the algebraic sum of the fluxes in the top and bottom legs, will no longer be
zero but will have a resultant proportional in amplitude to heading. The emf induced in the pick-off coil
is proportional to the rate of change of flux cutting the coil and therefore will have a waveform
approximating to a sine wave at 800 Hz, i.e. twice the frequency of the excitation current as shown in
Fig 12-10. It has been found by experiment that the amplitude of the emf is proportional to H.
Therefore, the emf in the pick-off coil is a measure of H, i.e. the horizontal component of the Earth’s
magnetic field in line with the spoke. This should be apparent from Fig 12-10 in that, if a greater H
is detected, the excitation current is biased further from the mid-point of the hysteresis curve, and the
imbalance between the upper and lower leg fluxes will increase. Therefore, a greater resultant flux
exists which will induce an emf of greater amplitude in the pick-off coil. A plot of the amplitude of the
pick-off coil output voltage would show that it varies as the cosine of the magnetic heading.
21. Limitations of the Simple

Single Spoke Detector. It should
be apparent that there are two
magnetic headings corresponding to
zero flux (90° and 270°) and two
headings corresponding to a
maximum flux. The two maximum
values give the same reading on an
AC voltmeter since the instrument
cannot take into account the direction Fig 12-11: Detector Unit and Transmission System -
of the voltage. For any other value of schematic
flux (other than zero), there will be
four headings corresponding to a
single voltmeter reading. This
ambiguity is overcome by using a
fluxvalve having three spokes (each
spoke similar to the single spoked
device previously discussed) with
120° separation as shown in Fig
12-11. Regardless of the heading, at
least two of the spokes will have a
voltage induced and their vector sum Fig 12-12: Operation of the Three-spoke Fluxvalve
points to magnetic North (Fig 12-12).
The simple one-spoke detector
suffers from another limitation in that
the value of H changes with magnetic
latitude. This produces a change in
the static flux linking the spoke, even
though the heading may remain
unchanged. This limitation is Fig 12-13: Eliminating Latitude Ambiguity
overcome in the three-spoke fluxvalve because the flux associated with each spoke will change in
proportion to the change in H. The resultant field across the receiver stator is still aligned with H (Fig
12-13).
22. In the three-spoke fluxvalve a single primary coil excites all six cores. If a single arm of the
fluxvalve is considered, it will be apparent that the top and the bottom of the exciter coil have opposite
polarity. The flux induced in the upper core of the spoke is equal and opposite to that induced in the
lower core and this is exactly the effect produced by the primary windings in the simple fluxvalve. The
three arms of the fluxvalve are wound with secondary or pick-off coils which are star connected. The
exciter coil is fed with 400 Hz single-phase current so that each of the three pick-off coils has an emf
at 800 Hz induced in it whose amplitude is proportional to the magnetic heading of the aircraft. Each
core of the fluxvalve is fitted with a flux collector horn to concentrate the Earth’s lines of force through
the core. This increases the static flux and therefore the induced voltage.
The Transmission / Display System
23. It has been shown that the resultant field produced by the three pick-off coils is directly related
to the direction of the horizontal component of the
Earth’s magnetic field. It is now necessary to
convey this heading information from the detector
unit to those positions in the aircraft where the
information is required. This is achieved by means
of the transmission system.
24. The fluxvalve can be likened to a control

transmitter where the transmitter rotor field is
represented by the horizontal component of the
Earth’s magnetic field. The voltage induced in the
fluxvalve pick-off coils cause a current to flow along
the connecting lines to the receiver stator (Fig 12-
14). A field is set up across the receiver stator in a
direction determined by the resolution of the current
flowing in each of the receiver stator coils. When
the pattern of current flow changes in the receiver
stator, as a result of the effects of a heading change
in the fluxvalve, the direction of the induced field will
change accordingly. A null seeking rotor will follow
this field change since it remains at right angles to Fig 12-14: Action of the Fluxvalve and
the field and may be used to transmit any change in Transmission System
aircraft heading.
25. The outputs from the second and third fluxvalve spokes may be wired to the second and third
receiver stator coils respectively or vice versa. The wiring will depend on whether it is necessary to
drive a compass needle or a compass card. If the aircraft alters heading to starboard, the field across
the fluxvalve (which always points to magnetic North) will rotate in an anti-clockwise direction. In this
case a compass needle must rotate clockwise (therefore 2 to 3 and 3 to 2), but a card rotating against
a stationary lubber line must rotate anti-clockwise in which case the second and third fluxvalve spokes
are attached to their respective receiver stator coils.
HEADING ERRORS INDUCED BY THE FLUXVALVE
General
26. The errors discussed under this section are limited to those evident in a magnetic compass
system without gyroscopic azimuth stabilization, ie the fluxvalve is connected directly to the indicator.
This approach will simplify the presentation of the errors associated only with the fluxvalve without
having to consider gyro behaviour. It can be said at this point that those errors are present to some
extent even in gyro-magnetic compass systems. Since most compass systems in use have
refinements which to some extent compensate
the errors outlined here, the following
discussion considers a single system without
compensation or refinement of any sort apart
from deviation correction. Such a system is
Fig 12-15: Simple Remote Indicating Compass
illustrated in Fig 12-15.
Detector Tilt Error
27. The fluxvalve will provide a correct output of magnetic heading only if the detecting element is
maintained in the local horizontal plane, ie only detecting the horizontal component of the Earth’s
magnetic field (H). Any vertical component of the Earth’s field (Z) linked through the fluxvalve coils
will cause an error in the output heading. At this stage it is sufficient to note that even small tilts can
cause significant errors in heading. In ostensibly straight and level flight, accelerations act upon the
fluxvalve which tilt it slightly and small errors result. During manoeuvres the accelerations, and hence
the tilts and errors, can be quite large.
28. Fig 12-16 illustrates a fluxvalve fitted in an aircraft on a heading of magnetic North. The
currents induced in spokes 1, 2 and 3 are such that they produce component magnetic fields in the
error detector which compound to produce a resultant magnetic field in a direction indicating magnetic
North. Only the horizontal component (H) threads the fluxvalve spokes to produce this result.
29. In Fig 12-17 the fluxvalve is

tilted through 90° to port. The induced
currents in the spokes change as the
components of the total field through
them change. Therefore, in this case
the component in spoke 1 remains
unchanged while that in 2 increases and Fig 12-16: Indication of Magnetic North
3 decreases. The resultant field in the

error detector is displaced and an error
in heading results. In this case the
direction of magnetic North is rotated
anti-clockwise and the heading
indication is an over reading. At
intermediate tilts the error would be less.
Fig 12-17: Effect of a Gross Tilt to Port
30. The error also depends on

magnetic dip for, if the case at Fig 12-17
is repeated with a different dip, the
components threading the spokes will
alter. In Fig 12-18 the dip is increased,
thereby increasing the error and
reversing one component in this
Fig 12-18: Effect of Change of Dip
particular case.
31. The direction of tilt relative to

the total field is also important. Fig 12-
19 shows how a tilt in the direction of
the total field may produce no error. In
this case the flux flow through each
spoke changes but the proportion of one
Fig 12-19: Effect of Direction of Tilt
to the other remains unchanged. The
intensity of the resultant field increases
but the direction remains the same. A
second case exists in which the tilt is in
the opposite sense as in Fig 12-20.
Here, if the tilt exceeds 90° - dip, the flux
flow in each spoke is reversed and the
error is 180°.
Fig 12-20: Tilt Exceeds 90 deg minus Dip
32. Therefore, the error produced by tilting depends on the following factors:
(a) Angle of tilt.

(b) Direction of tilt.
(c) Magnetic dip (d).
Typical values of the error in the

fluxvalve output are shown against
the direction θ of the axis of tilt for
various values of tilt in Fig 12-21.
In general, the bigger the tilt and
the dip, the larger the error. Gross
errors occur when tilt is greater
than 90 - δ due to field reversal
(para 31).
Fig 12-21: Typical Errors in Magnetic Heading Due to Tilt
33. A number of factors exist during flight which can cause fluxvalve tilts; these include:
(a) Central acceleration caused by aircraft turns.

(b) Coriolis accelerations.
(c) Vehicle movement (rhumb line) acceleration.
(d) Fluxvalve vibration.
(e) Aircraft linear acceleration.
These are discussed in paras 44-49.
THEORY OF THE GYRO-MAGNETIC COMPASS
General
34. To overcome the inaccuracies in magnetic heading obtained from a tilted fluxvalve, a gyro
must be added to the system. The incorporation of a gyro introduces a number of new errors in the
heading output of the system, but these errors are more than offset by the improvement in accuracy
which results from having an accurate mechanical datum about which any change of heading may be
measured. Any tendency for the gyro to drift away from its alignment datum may be checked by
slaving it to the fluxvalve when the aircraft is straight and level.
Mechanization
35. The simple schematic at Fig 12-22 shows a basic, uncorrected and uncompensated gyro-
magnetic compass system. The fluxvalve magnetic heading is compared with gyro heading at an
error detection device. If the two

headings are not equal, an error signal
is developed, amplified and used to
precess the gyro. This precession
continues until the two headings are
equal and the correct heading is
displayed. An important principle is
illustrated here. Since gyro heading is
displayed, if an error exists in gyro
heading, the displayed heading must
also be in error. Fig 12-22: Basic Gyro-magnetic Compass
36. The method of mechanizing the gyro precession loop is of extreme importance. Three
methods of accomplishing the task are as follows:
(a) Step function (bang-bang) correction.

(b) Linear function correction.
(c) Limited linear function correction.
37. The step function correction technique requires the gyro-fluxvalve error signal (ε) to be
removed at a fixed rate (Wc) whenever it is generated (Fig 12-23a). Not only is such a system difficult
to engineer, but gyro behaviour suffers severely from nodding or nutation and secondary precession.
38. The linear

correction technique (Fig
12-23b) appears to be
ideal since the correction
rate (Wc) is proportional
to the error signal (ε), i.e.
for small errors, small
Fig 12-23: Gyro Correction Techniques
torques are applied and
vice versa. A problem exists when very large errors occur. For example, modern gyro magnetic
compasses commonly use the random gyro azimuth technique in which the gyro spin axis can point in
any direction relative to magnetic North or aircraft heading. When the system is initially switched on,
180° can exist between gyro and magnetic heading. If the system were mechanized to provide an
adequate rate of precession for small errors, 180° would demand an excessive precession rate.
Therefore, the purely linear system also has its limitations.
39. The common solution to the precession mechanization problem is a compromise between the
step function and the linear function techniques - namely the method shown in Fig 12-23c, the limited
linear technique. In a gyro-magnetic compass system in which the gyro is controlled by the limited
linear concept, gyro precession rates are proportional to the error signal for small discrepancies. For
example, in Fig 12-23c, the gyro precession rate (Wc) is proportional to ε, where ε is < 2°, however
Wc cannot exceed 2° per min regardless of the size of ε.
40. Time Constant. The rate of precession in a limited linear system is controlled by the
amplified error signal and, for the linear portion of the curve, is arranged to be proportional to the
error. Therefore, assuming small errors, the rate of precession multiplied by a constant is equal to the
gyro-fluxvalve discrepancy of WcK = ε (degrees). If Wc is in degrees per minute and e is in degrees,
the dimension of K must be time. Therefore, if τ is substituted for K and it has the dimension of time
(commonly minutes), τ is referred to as the time constant of the system.
ε = Wc τ (12.1)
Therefore if ε = 2° and τ = 0.5 minutes, the rate of precession (Wc) is given by:
Wc = ε = __20__ = 40 per min

τ 0.5 min
Obviously the larger the time constant, the slower is the rate of precession. Notice that τ does not
express explicitly the time to correct a given error since the rate of correction reduces as the error
reduces so it takes much longer than τ minutes to correct the error. Since the error reduces
exponentially, τ directly gives the time it takes to remove 63% of the error. It would require
approximately 5t to remove all the error in a step error function. Therefore, for an initial error of 2° and
a τ of 2 minutes, the error will reduce exponentially until at the end of 5τ (10 mins) the error is
effectively reduced to zero.
41. Significance of τ. The authority of the fluxvalve over the gyro is effectively controlled by τ.
If the compass system contains a poor quality gyro, it would be expected that any discrepancy
between gyro and fluxvalve was caused by the gyro; therefore, a short τ should be anticipated.
Conversely, if a high quality gyro with a low real drift rate is incorporated, the gyro should be less
closely tied to the fluxvalve and a large time constant anticipated.
42. Typical Gyro Slaving Mechanization. The implementation of a typical limited linear control
is illustrated in the block diagram at Fig 12- 24 and the schematic at Fig 12-25, the currents induced in
the spokes of the fluxvalve are passed to a receiver synchro (CT) and produce a field across the rotor
from which the aircraft magnetic heading can be determined. The electrical output of the rotor is
taken to the gyro azimuth precession coils which are threaded by a permanent magnet. If the rotor is
not at right angles to the field set up by the stator coils, a current will flow through the precession coils
setting up a magnetic field which will set up a force on the permanent magnet. This rotational torque
Fig 12-24: Compass Block Diagram Fig 12-25: Typical Gyro Slaving Mechanization
(Simplified Schematic)
will be translated through 90° by the gyro and will cause it to precess in azimuth. As the gyro
precesses, the rotor is repositioned by mechanical feedback until eventually it reaches its null
position. Since the compass needle is driven by the gyro, when the receiver rotor is lying in the null
position, the fluxvalve, gyro and compass needle will all be correctly aligned. If an error occurs
between gyro and fluxvalve, the rotor will be
misaligned causing a current to flow in it which is
fed to the precession coil to correct the gyro. As
the rotor approaches the null, the current flowing in
it will reduce. The current flowing through the
precession coil will also reduce, therefore the rate
of gyro precession decreases as the error
diminishes.
43. The Change in τ with H. Fig 12-26

illustrates the relationship between H field strength
and gyro precession rate in a typical compass
system. As the H field strength decreases due to
northward movement, the amplitudes of the
voltages induced in the fluxvalve spokes are
reduced proportionally. Although the direction of
the resolved voltages remains the same, the size
of the currents transmitted to the receiver synchro
are smaller. Therefore, the field strength across
the receiver stator will be reduced and the rotor
current flow for any given misalignment will
decrease. Since the amount of torque applied to
the gyro azimuth precession device depends on
rotor current, the precession will also decrease.
The reduction in gyro correction rate with a
Fig 12-26: Effect of a Change in H on the
decrease of H field strength (or an increase in Time Constant
magnetic latitude) results in effectively the same phenomenon as would be achieved by increasing t.
An increase in t will make the system sluggish and will also tend to magnify any hang-off error present
(see para 50). However, if the aircraft is operating at high latitudes, the fluxvalve is less reliable due
to the reduction of H field strength and an automatic increase of t is acceptable. Since t changes with
H field strength, the H field strength must be quoted with t to make t meaningful. The H field strength
at Greenwich is the common datum quoted by British gyro-magnetic compass system
manufacturers.
GYRO-MAGNETIC COMPASS SYSTEM ERRORS
Fluxvalve Tilt Error
44. All of the horizontal accelerations which cause fluxvalve tilt can cause heading errors in a
simple uncompensated gyro-magnetic compass system. Accelerations are caused by coriolis, vehicle
movement (rhumb line), aircraft turns, linear changes of velocity and fluxvalve vibrations. Fluxvalve
induced heading errors will not appear immediately in the displayed heading of a gyro-magnetic
compass. The rate of heading error incorporation depends on the limiting precession rate and the
length of τ.
45. Turning Error. The amplitude of the displayed heading error in a gyro-magnetic compass
due to co-ordinated aircraft turns is less than that shown in Fig 12-21. Although a high rate of turn in
a fast aircraft would show the greatest fluxvalve heading error, little of the error is displayed since the
time spent in the turn is minimal. Slow prolonged turns at high speeds generate the greatest errors.
The errors decay after level flight is resumed. Fluxvalve induced errors due to tilt can be limited by
switching the system to an unslaved directional gyro mode whenever turns are sensed by suitable
detection devices.
46. Coriolis Error. An aircraft flying relative to a spherical rotating Earth flies a curved path in
space and in consequence there will be a central force acting to displace the pendulously suspended
fluxvalve. When established on a given heading for approximately 5τ the entire error would be
included in the gyro-magnetic compass heading display. The error is calculable, depending on
groundspeed, latitude, dip and track, and can be compensated automatically.
47. Vehicle Movement Error. Whenever flying a true or magnetic rhumb line the aircraft must
turn to maintain a constant track with reference to converging meridians. As with coriolis error, the
acceleration displaces the detector from the local horizontal plane and the entire resultant heading
error would appear in the displayed heading after about 5τ. A correction can be applied in a similar
manner to the coriolis error.
48. Fluxvalve Vibration. Fluxvalve vibration results in a heading oscillation, the mean of which
is not the actual mean heading. Since the gyro slaving loop tends to average fluxvalve headings over
a period of time, the gyro would eventually be precessed to the erroneous fluxvalve mean heading.
The effect can be limited to small values by careful design of the pendulous detector damping
mechanism and through consideration of the location of the detector in the aircraft.
Northerly Instability
49. Northerly instability or weaving is a heading oscillation experienced in high speed aircraft
attempting to fly straight and level at or near a heading of magnetic North. Starboard bank of the
aircraft induces starboard tilt, and this causes an under reading of the heading. Another way of
looking at this is to imagine that the magnetic meridian rotates clockwise. Thus, if an aircraft on North
banks to starboard to correct a small error, the magnetic meridian rotates in the same direction. The
aircraft continues to turn and eventually reaches the false meridian. On levelling out, the fluxvalve
senses the true meridian and starts to precess the gyro towards it. The indicated heading changes
and the aircraft is banked to port to regain a northerly indicated heading. This tilts the fluxvalve which
rotates the meridian to port. The new false meridian is chased until, upon resuming level flight, the
sensor detects the true meridian again and precesses the gyro to starboard. The cyclic pattern is
repeated and the amplitude can be as great as 6°. The amplitude of the weave tends to increase with
an increase in dip and aircraft velocity, and decreases with an increase in t. Weaving can thus be
reduced to a certain extent by increasing the time constant of the compass system. However this
leads to a sluggish response and a large hang-off error (para 50).
Hang-off Error
50. Gyroscopic drift is a constant source of error signal in a gyro-magnetic compass system, and
although it will be compensated for by the precession loop at a rate dependent on t, at any given time
there must be an increment of error present. This is known variously as hang-off error, stand-off
error, or simply as velocity lag. Gyro drift may be due to:
(a) Real Drift. Real drift can only be reduced by the incorporation of a high quality
azimuth gyro having a low real drift rate.
(b) Earth Rate. Apparent azimuth gyro drift due to Earth rotation can be countered by
correcting the gyro at a rate of 15 sin lat° /hr. The correction can be supplied through a
manually set latitude correction mechanism, automatically from a computer using GPI
latitude, or through a constantly biased gyro. The latter technique employs a mass imbalance
in the gyro which constantly precesses the gyro at a predetermined rate, usually to
compensate for an appropriate latitude for the aircraft's area of operation, say 51° N.
(c) Transport Wander. To compensate for transport wander due to the convergence
of geographic meridians the gyro must be corrected at a rate equal to:
The correction can be applied manually or through a computer using inputs of groundspeed, heading
and latitude. However although the gyro can be compensated in this way for the apparent change in
the direction of geographic North, the output from the fluxvalve is in terms of magnetic North.
Therefore as the aircraft moves over the Earth there will be a difference between fluxvalve and gyro
since the variation is changing (unless the aircraft is flying along an isogonal). To remove this error
variation must be applied to the output of the detector unit before the gyro error loop so that both the
gyro and fluxvalve give directional information relative to true North. The value of variation can be
inserted manually or by means of an automatic variation setting control unit. Failure to update the
variation value will result in small hang-off errors.
Gimbal Error
51. When a 2 degree of freedom gyroscope with a horizontal spin axis is both banked and rolled,
the outer gimbal must rotate to maintain orientation of the rotor axis, thereby inducing a heading error
at the outer gimbal pick-off. The incidence of this error depends upon the angle of bank and the
angular difference between the spin axis and the longitudinal axis and as in most systems the spin
axis direction is arbitrary relative to North the error is not easily predicted.
Transmission Errors
52. Overall system accuracy is lowered by the errors in the synchro systems. Typically each
synchro might be expected to a have an error in the order of 0.1° with an overall system error of
perhaps 0.5°. This shows in a compass swing as a D or E error.
Compass Swinging Errors
53. It is not possible to obtain absolute accuracy in compass swinging, and even refined methods
are considered to be only accurate to 0.2°.
Variation and Deviation Errors
54. There are no reliable statistical data on the errors in charted values of variation, but they
might be considered to vary between 0.1° and 2°. Over the UK the uncertainty at height is considered
to be within 1° but the value varies both with height and locality. Setting of variation and deviation is
likely to be accurate to 0.25°
A Refined Compass System
55. Fig 12-27 depicts some of the methods of error reduction. Different methods of correction are
possible for some of the errors depending on the whims of the individual manufacturer and the users
considerations of experience and accuracy. Note that corrections may be made “up” or “down”
stream of the gyro or a combination of both; there are disadvantages to all approaches.
Fig 12-27: Ideal Gyro-magnetic Compass
56. The following description applies to Fig 12-27:
(a) Hang-off. The computer supplies the quantities for Earth rate and meridian
convergence to the error detector. Therefore, the rate of gyro drift sensed is reduced
considerably and hang-off results from only random drift.
(b) Coriolis and Vehicle Movement Accelerations. The corrections for coriolis and
vehicle movement are applied at the fluxvalve by reducing or increasing the output from the
athwartships spokes.
(c0 Gimbal Error. Gimbal error is eliminated by the use of a vertical gyro coupled with
four gimbal suspension to keep the azimuth gyro and the azimuth pick-off synchro horizontal.
(d) Operation on DG. The fluxvalve monitor and the computer rate of change variation
are cut out when on DG. The accuracy of the heading then depends on random drift error,
the error in the gyro correction terms and the statistical error i.e. transmission error.
(e) Northerly Instability. Variable gain in the precession amplifier maintains the value
of t constant, for variable H, thus reducing weaving.
(f) Coefficient D and E. A compensation is applied to counter coefficients D and E.

89
CHAPTER 13
AIR DATA COMPUTER
Introduction
1. Although conventional pressure instruments can provide satisfactory information for the crew,
they have a number of limitations, especially in the context of modern aircraft systems. In particular,
the information that an instrument measures can only be presented in one form and cannot easily be
transmitted for use by other equipment, or to other crew positions, resulting in a need to duplicate the
instrument. An Air Data System (ADS) overcomes these limitations.
2. An ADS can take a number of forms which will vary between aircraft types, however all
systems are similar in principle and this chapter will describe a typical, rather than any specific,
system.
3. The core of an ADS is an Air Data Computer (ADC) which forms an essential part of a
modern flight/navigation/weapon aiming system. The ADS measures the basic air inputs of pitot
pressure, static pressure, air temperature, angle of attack (α angle), side slip (β angle), and outputs
flight parameters for the various systems and displays. A comprehensive ADS thus consists of:
(a) Pitot, static and temperature probes to measure the basic air data.
(b) Local incidence vanes for α angle and β angle computation.
(c) Transducers to convert the basic air data into electrical or electro-mechanical signals.
(d) Air Data Computer to process the data and provide the required outputs to the aircraft
systems and displays.
(e) Power supplies to provide specific stabilized power for the ADS units.
Probes
4. Pitot/Static. Pitot and static pressures are taken from the aircraft's pressure head or the
pitot head and static vents.
5. Temperature. Temperature is determined from outside air temperature probes.
6. Angle of Attack (α Angle). Angle of attack is the angle, in the vertical plane of symmetry of
the aircraft, at which the free stream airflow meets an arbitrary longitudinal datum line on the aircraft.
It is generally measured by a small pivoted vane whose axis of rotation is nominally horizontal and
athwartships. The vane is usually mounted on the side of the fuselage near the nose or on a probe
forward of the wing or nose.
7. Angle of Side Slip (β Angle). The β angle is the angle in the horizontal plane at which the
free stream airflow meets an arbitrary longitudinal datum line on the aircraft. The β sensor is normally
identical to the a sensor and mounted on the underside of the airframe along the aircraft centre line.
In simpler ADS the β sensor is often omitted.
Transducers
8. Transducers, which convert pressures, temperatures and angles to voltages or digital pulses,
are the most vital elements of the air data systems, and are the limiting factors in the system
accuracy. Transducers vary in type depending on the parameter which is to be measured, ie
pressure transducers, temperature transducers and angular transducers. Various techniques are
employed to convert the measured data into usable, repeatable and accurate signals which can be
transmitted to the ADC, e.g. using the expansion of a diaphragm or capsule to actuate an electrical
pick-off, or to vary the electrical resistance of a wire by changing the wire's tension.
Air Data Computers
9. The air data computer processes the data input from the sensors, applies any necessary
corrections, and supplies
output data in the form
required by other equipment,
either directly or via a central
computer. Particularly in older
systems, where there is no
central computer, the same
output parameter may be in
several forms, e.g. pressure
altitude may be processed as
a voltage, a synchro output,
and a digital code. Fig 13-1
shows a typical ADS Fig 13-1: A Typical Air Data System
arrangement.
Advantages
10. Compared with conventional pressure instruments the ADS has the following advantages:
(a) The bulk and complexity of pipe work is avoided.

(b) Duplication of units is avoided.
(c) Errors can be automatically corrected before display.
91 Air Data Computer
(d) There are accuracy and sensitivity gains.

(e) There is a reduced time lag.
(f) There is the potential for flexibility in presentation.
Disadvantages
The disadvantage of the ADS is that it needs power to work whereas conventional pressure
instruments do not. It is therefore usually necessary to provide back-up systems, either in the form of
alternative power supplies or with simple pressure instruments.

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FIS BOOK 4

AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS

PILOT AND STATIC SYSTEMS

6. The pressure measured on

Static Pressure Error

Alternate Static Source

BAROMETRIC HEIGHT MEASUREMENT

Air Pressure Units

Pressure Lapse Rate

Temperature Lapse Rate

8. A standard atmosphere is an arbitrary statement of conditions which is accepted as a basis

10. A number of other

face is magnified and transmitted via a

13. A simple altimeter will

18. In addition to increased accuracy and sensitivity,

Cabin Altimeters Fig 2-3: Altimeter Digital Display

Pressure Altimeter Errors

21. The errors inherent in the instrument and installation are:

(a) Instrument Error. Instrument error is caused by manufacturing tolerances. It is

Fig 2-4: Effect of Barometric Error

AIR SPEED INDICATORS

2. An aircraft, stationary on the ground, is subject to normal atmospheric or static pressure

4. Fig 3-1 illustrates the principle, in

7. In some installations the

characteristics of the capsule and / or the

10. Sensitive and Servo Air Speed Indicators.

(a) Instrument error.

13. Instrument Error. Instrument error is caused by manufacturing tolerances in the

Where ρ = The air density at the height of the aircraft.

CAS = IAS + PEC + IEC

BLOCKED OR LEAKING PRESSURE SYSTEMS

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS

Fig 4-1: Schematic Construction and Typical Display of a VSI

5. The unit shown in Fig 4-2 is

6. The pressure difference across

7. The differential pressure across a

9. The VSI can suffer from the following errors:

INSTANTANEOUS (OR INERTIAL LEAD) VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (IVSI)

differential which produces an

12. The IVSI suffers from the following errors:

(a) Instrument Error. As conventional VSI. Zero adjustment screw fitted.

(b) Pressure Error. As conventional VSI.

(c) Lag Error. Virtually eliminated.

(d) Manoeuvre Induced Error. Also virtually eliminated.

Mach number (M) = V

5. A typical Machmeter is shown in Fig 5-1. It

Fig 5-2: Principle of Operation of a Machmeter

STALL WARNING AND ANGLE OF ATTACK INDICATION

Airstream Direction Detector (ADD)

6. A paddle type of ADD

1. An indicating accelerometer is an instrument used in aircraft to provide a visual indication of

3. Although the accelerometer gives a reasonably accurate indication of the accelerations

5. An accelerometer depends upon the

7. Fig 7-3 shows a typical cockpit display.

8. The cockpit accelerometer should not be

Fig 7-3: Accelerometer Display

1. Description. A conventional gyroscope

3. The following fundamental mechanical

(a) Momentum. Momentum is the product of mass and velocity (mv).