Date – August 26, 2020

Project – IUC: Sustainable and innovative cities

and region

Sub-project – Baseline study for solid waste management in Kochi

Deliverable – Final report

Acknowledgments
The baseline study for the solid waste management system project has been commissioned as part of the
Kochi-Vilnius strategic collaboration under the European Union International Urban Cooperation (IUC)-India
program. The study represents the key deliverable of the Urban Cooperation Local Action Plan for the city of
Kochi. The report has been prepared by Sundarajan Subramony (JNKE, IUC India project) based on
secondary research, stakeholder consultations, case studies and review of recommendations.

I am grateful for the support, expertise and insights provided by Dr. Rajan Chedambath (Director, Center for
Heritage, Environment and Development (CHED), Kochi and Simmi S from CHED as well as the IUC India
team including Mohit Ganeriwala, Ashish Verma, Suhas Pande, and Panagiotis Karamanos. The discussions
held with these stakeholders and the information provided by them was instrumental to the completion of this
study.
Table of contents
1 Executive summary .................................................................................................................................. 5

2 List of acronyms & abbreviations ......................................................................................................... 10

3 List of tables and figures ....................................................................................................................... 12

4 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 13
4.1 Assignment background ............................................................................................................... 13
4.2 Kochi – city profile ......................................................................................................................... 13
4.3 Objectives of the study ................................................................................................................. 15
4.4 Methodology employed ................................................................................................................. 16
4.5 Limitations of the exercise............................................................................................................ 17

5 Existing solid waste management ........................................................................................................ 18

5.1 Solid waste generated in Kochi .................................................................................................... 18
5.2 Prevailing waste collection and waste handling practices ....................................................... 19
5.3 Technologies and treatment processes ...................................................................................... 22
5.4 Maintenance procedures ............................................................................................................... 23
5.5 Commercial/financial aspects ...................................................................................................... 23
5.6 Policy and legal framework........................................................................................................... 24
5.7 Waste management policies for Covid-19 ................................................................................... 26
5.8 Key stakeholders ........................................................................................................................... 27
5.9 Future plans.................................................................................................................................... 29

6 Climate change and SWM ...................................................................................................................... 30

6.1 Impact of climate change on SWM activities .............................................................................. 30
6.2 Impact of SWM activities on climate change .............................................................................. 31
6.3 Greenhouse emission estimates .................................................................................................. 33
6.4 Solutions for minimizing the impact of SWM on climate change ............................................. 33

7 Future trends........................................................................................................................................... 35
7.1 Demographic trends ...................................................................................................................... 35
7.2 Macroeconomic trends .................................................................................................................. 36
7.3 Solid waste generation estimates ................................................................................................ 36

8 International & national best practices ................................................................................................ 37

8.1 Experience from Vilnius, Lithuania .............................................................................................. 37
8.2 Experience from Leeds, UK .......................................................................................................... 41
8.3 Experience from Stockholm, Sweden .......................................................................................... 42

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 8.4 Experience from Indore, India ...................................................................................................... 45
8.5 Experience from New Delhi, India ................................................................................................ 48
8.6 Experience from Hyderabad, India ............................................................................................... 52
8.7 Key learnings ................................................................................................................................. 53

9 Key challenges and solutions ............................................................................................................... 56

9.1 Key challenges ............................................................................................................................... 56
9.2 Possible solutions ......................................................................................................................... 57

10 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 59

11 References .............................................................................................................................................. 61

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1 Executive summary
This chapter is the executive summary of the baseline study and briefly discusses the assignment background,
existing status of solid waste management in Kochi, learnings from international and national best practices,
conclusion and way forward.

Assignment background
Preparation of study and problem statement: The baseline study for the solid waste management project
has been commissioned as part of the Kochi-Vilnius strategic collaboration under the IUC-India program. The
study represents the key deliverable of the Urban Cooperation Local Action Plan for the city of Kochi. The
report has been prepared by Sundarajan Subramony (JNKE, IUC), based on secondary research, conducting
stakeholder consultations, preparing case studies and making final recommendations. The objective of the
assignment is to provide baseline information for solid waste management (SWM) in Kochi, by analyzing the
current status of SWM and waste treatment facilities in Kochi and by identifying best practices in the SWM
domain being followed by various national and international cities. This study can later feed into a detailed
feasibility study.

Strategic cooperation between Vilnius and Kochi: Kochi Municipal Corporation (KMC) has entered into a
strategic collaboration with the city of Vilnius in Lithuania on SWM. IUC-India is supporting the Kochi-Vilnius
city pairing through the provision of exchange visits and the development of a Local Action Plan (LAP) for
building efficient, sustainable and climate friendly waste management practices at KMC.

Methodology employed: The baseline study was conceived during the discussion of various stakeholders
involved in this strategic collaboration. The study aims to provide a detailed analysis on the existing SWM
scenario in the city of Kochi while also clearly laying out the way forward for streamlining and upgrading the
SWM value chain in the city. The study is based on: a) secondary research through reports shared by IUC-
India team, web search and case studies on SWM and waste treatment facilities in Lithuania, United Kingdom,
Sweden and India; and b) stakeholders consultations with officials of the C-HED and IUC-India.

Existing status of solid waste management in Kochi

About Kochi: Kochi is a coastal city that lies in Ernakulam district of state of Kerala. It is the commercial capital
and the second largest city of the state. Kochi was a major global spice trading center in the 14th century and
is known as the queen of the Arabian Sea for its scenic beauty. Kochi, with an estimated population of
616,8661, as of 2018 as compared to the population of 580,0202 in Vilnius as on January 1, 2020 is divided
into 74 wards and seven zones for governance and administrative purposes. KMC is the main administrative
body for Kochi, under which various departments function for operation and maintenance of urban services.

Solid waste collection: The waste generated in Kochi is segregated into hazardous, biodegradable and non-
biodegradable categories. Currently, only 75% of waste, (230 tonnes out of 305 tonnes 3) generated in Kochi
is being collected through door-to-door collection by KMC workers and Kudumbashree (Kerala-based NGO)
employees, for treatment and disposal at the Brahmapuram solid waste management facility. The waste is
collected by these door-to-door collectors using handcarts and tipper auto-rickshaws and is brought to
secondary collection points, from where they load the waste into corporation vehicles, to be carried to the
processing and disposal facility at Brahamapuram.

1
As per Center for Heritage, Environment and Development data
2
https://www.registrucentras.lt/p/853
3
As per Center for Heritage, Environment and Development data

5
Solid waste transportation: Transportation of waste from waste collection points to the Brahmapuram plant
for processing/disposal and treatment is carried out by KMC using 83 vehicles, owned by KMC. The waste
collected from secondary collection points is loaded into large tipper trucks and compactor trucks for
transportation to the waste treatment and disposal facility at Brahmapuram. The operational and transport cost
for solid waste produced in the city is borne by KMC.

Solid waste disposal and treatment: As per Center for Heritage, Environment and Development (C-HED)
data, of the 305 TPD solid waste generated in Kochi, 230 TPD is collected, of which 130 TPD is processed
while 100 TPD is disposed-off at the landfill site. The waste collected is transferred to Brahmapuram facility,
wherein the organic fraction of waste is treated in a windrow composting facility and the plastic/non-
biodegradable fraction of the waste is tipped at the dumping yard. The dedicated waste management facilities
include a) Windrow composting plant, b) Plastic shredding unit and c) Refuse derived fuel (RDF) facility.
However, the windrow composting plant is in a dilapidated state and does not have adequate capacity, RDF
facility is not operational and the waste dump at the dumping yard is increasing in size beyond capacity.

Future plans: The Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation (KSIDC) in June 2020 has floated a
tender for the selection of a private party to manage the entire SWM value chain in the Ernakulam cluster
including Kochi city, in an integrated manner. The private party will also be required to develop a waste to
energy (WtE) plant with a minimum capacity of processing 300 TPD of waste, at Brahmapuram.

Effect of climate change on SWM activities: High rainfall in Kochi, coupled with clogged drains & canals
due to inadequate waste collection and lack of cleaning, leads to flooding in the city which results in
accumulation of tons of waste, making it difficult for solid waste collectors to collect such huge quantities of
waste. Rainfall and flooding at the landfills leads to inundation, waste solution migration to neighboring areas
and physical erosion. Rise in temperature over the years may alter the waste decomposition rate and leachate
production rate thus leading to the spread of infectious diseases. Rise in sea levels has various harmful effects
on the landfill site, land treatment areas, waste piles and waste storage areas. Additionally, the treatment of
solid waste at treatment facilities as well as direct disposal at landfill sites emits greenhouse gases and
methane.

Learnings from international and national best practices

Vilnius – city profile: Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, has an area of 401 km 2. The population of Vilnius is
580,020 as of 2020. The Vilnius municipality is one of the 60 municipalities in the country, has 51 members,
provides administrative services, organizes the provision of public services and adopts political decisions. The
council committees perform activities related to environment and energy, economy and finance, culture,
education and sports, urban planning and development, services and city maintenance, social affairs, health
and local government development. Additionally the municipality has 1.6 administrative employees per 1,000
inhabitants.

Learnings from Vilnius: Vilnius has undertaken some efficient initiatives in the field of SWM to combat litter,
increase waste collection rates and build an efficient SWM value chain. Drones are used for city surveillance
and to monitor landfill sites, a separate maintenance company provides all utility services to the city and service
providers for SWM are selected through a tendering process. Additionally, SWM activities are financed through
municipal tax levied on homeowners, whereas collection of recyclables is financed by manufacturers and
importers. Some other effective practices implemented by the Vilnius municipality are stipulated below:

 Setup of dedicated entity for waste management i.e. Vilnius Waste System Administrator (VASA). The
company was setup in 2015 and is wholly owned by the municipal corporation of Vilnius. The aim of the
company is to carry out efficient administration of waste management, control and supervise the provision
of municipal waste management services, and to create a provision to transfer information to municipal
waste holders and authorities of the Vilnius municipality.

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 Underground waste container system has been developed in Vilnius as per which all the residents of the
city have installed dozens of underground and semi-underground container, having 75% of their depth
underground, with separate containers for household wastes, paper, plastics and glass. These bins are
economical, reliable and aesthetically more pleasing.
 Deposit recycling facility wherein the recyclable and reusable material is returned back to the point of sale
and reverse vending machines by the consumers, in return for a refund, which is deposited by the
consumer at the time of purchase.
 Vilnius county waste management center manages the mechanical biological treatment (MBT) plant,
operates the Vilnius county regional landfill, and operates 17 bulky waste disposal sites and six green
waste composting sites. The MBT plant uses segregated waste, combines re-sorting of mixed utility waste
with anaerobic digestion or composting and produces solid recovered fuel.
 Waste to energy (WtE) cogeneration plant is being constructed in Vilinius, which will convert waste into
useful heat and electricity. The plant will treat 160,000 tonnes/year of non-recyclable, non-usable waste
(after sorting) at the MBT facility, following which the waste will be incinerated for production of electricity
and recovery of heat simultaneously, known as cogeneration. The plant is expected to be completed by
2020.
Learnings from other cities: Additionally, the cities of Leeds (UK), Stockholm (Sweden), Indore (India), New
Delhi (India) and Hyderabad (India) have also adopted some efficient initiatives and best practices in the SWM
domain which are stipulated below.

 Leeds, UK: The Leeds recycling and energy recovery facility (RERF) uses state-of-the art technology to
recover 90% of the city’s black bin waste (general household waste excluding hazardous waste) to produce
~11 MW of electricity, thus saving EUR 7 million/year as compared to landfill and supplying electricity to
~20,000 households in the UK. It reduces Leed’s carbon footprint and increases re-use.
 Stockholm, Sweden: The Stockholm Waste Management Plan 2017-22 addresses the complete value
chain of waste management to minimize waste generation and maximize resource efficiency. It has
policies to curb waste generation, plans for an underground waste collection/sorting system and waste-to-
energy plants to recycle the collected waste. The City of Stockholm was able to process 614,110 tonnes
of waste in 2018, generating an energy of 1,641,360 MW. It recycles almost 99% of the household waste
generated (through anaerobic digestion or waste to energy plants).
 Indore, India: Indore has been adjudged as the cleanest city in India for the past four years, due to the
implementation of some efficient practices such as complete elimination of garbage dumps, 100% waste
segregation, zero landfill and conversion of waste to usable products such as compost and fuel. Indore
Municipal Corporation (IMC) partnered with NGOs, to run awareness campaigns, contracted private
companies to run some waste management operations, used technology and improved municipal capacity
to ensure implementation of its waste management plan.
 New Delhi, India: The WtE plant at Ghazipur, New Delhi, processes 2,000 tonnes of waste daily &
generates 127 tonnes of refuse derived fuel (RDF plant) and 12 MW of power at the power plant. However
the WtE plant is taking more waste than stipulated every month for processing and the waste dumped at
the Ghazipur landfill site has risen into a massive garbage dump, which is not being treated at the WtE
plant, signifying challenges in its operations. Additionally the landfill is susceptible to fires and a massive
fire broke out at the landfill in 2017.
 Hyderabad, India: SWM in Hyderabad is based on an integrated SWM, PPP model wherein the private
player Ramko Enviro Engineers Ltd (REEL) is involved in the entire SWM value chain, including the
processes of collection, transportation, disposal and processing/treatment. REEL employs some best
practices while collecting and transporting waste and has a windrow composting plant, RDF facility, a WtE
plant, leachate treatment facility, plastic treatment facility and a landfill for disposal and treatment of waste.

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Conclusion and way forward
Need for an efficient SWM: Currently only 75% of waste generated is being collected for treatment and
disposal at Brahmapuram, the remaining being dumped in canals and drains. KMC does not generate any
revenue from SWM activities but expenses pertaining to SWM activities are borne by the organization.
Additionally, the Brahmapuram facility is not functioning scientifically (including the windrow composting plant,
RDF facility, and the dumping yard). Thus, there is an imminent need for upgrading and streamlining the SWM
value chain in Kochi as stipulated below

 Increase in waste collection rates: The waste collection rate in Kochi needs to be increased from the
current 75% to 95-100% in phases, by preventing waste generators from illegally burning/burying their
waste or dumping it in drains and canals and increasing coverage of waste collection.
 Revenue from SWM activities: As KMC does not earn any revenue from SWM activities, it needs to
formalize and levy user charges on waste generators, thus earning revenue through solid waste collection.
 Cleaning of drains and canals: Drains and canals need to be cleaned regularly and accumulated solid
waste needs to be removed to prevent their clogging and to prevent the problem of urban flooding in Kochi.
 Scientific management of landfill site: The landfill site at Brahmapuram needs to be upgraded so that it is
able to function scientifically with complete control over methane gas developed in the landfill (to prevent
air pollution) and limited access of vectors and flies to the waste. Adequate controls and system should be
in place so that leachates and contaminates are not able to flow freely thus polluting water bodies, ground
water table, and land. Odor control measures should also be followed.
 Reconstruction of the windrow composting plant: The windrow composting plant at Brahmapuram should
be reconstructed so as to have adequate capacity and to improve its dilapidated condition thus significantly
reducing the waste dump at the landfill site.
 Plans for a WtE plant: Large quantities of waste currently being dumped at the landfill site would be
converted into electricity, by a WtE plant, thus significantly reducing landfill, pollution, greenhouse gases
(GHG) and Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. A WtE plant with a minimum capacity of processing 300 TPD
of waste is proposed to be built at Brahmapuram, as per a tender floated by the Kerala State Industrial
Development Corporation (KSIDC) in June 2020.
 Setup of dedicated entity catering to SWM activities in Kochi: Kochi can also look at setting up of a
dedicated company which will be wholly owned by the Kochi municipal corporation and shall be
responsible for the entire municipal waste management lifecycle. The setup of an independent
organization will reduce the burden of waste management from KMC and also enable the organization to
employ waste management experts who are well equipped at tackling the specific waste management
challenges faced by Kochi. KMC has earmarked a budget of INR 2 crore (EUR 0.24 million) for the
incorporation and other related activities of such a company.
Next steps/way forward: Having established the need for an efficient SWM system in the city of Kochi, and
the need to adapt and implement best practices from India and abroad, KMC should undertake or assign a
detailed feasibility study in this regard which should cover in detail the following:

 Technical feasibility: The technical feasibility should cover all the technical aspects, including upgrading &
streamlining the SWM value chain in Kochi. It should also comprise of identification and assessment of
best practices & processes used for solid waste collection, transportation, disposal and
processing/treatment, along with an estimation of feasibility and costs related with each new process or
best practice thus added to the value chain. For the SWM value chain, the input & output specifications,
performance standards, social and environmental assessment, and risk assessment would be conducted.
 Financial feasibility: The feasibility study should cover in detail the user charges that could be levied on
different waste generators, thus earning revenue for KMC. The feasibility study should also undertake a

8
 detailed financial assessment of streamlining the SWM value chain covering detailed estimation of capital
expenditure, operational expenditure and revenue, sensitivity analysis and value for money analysis.
 Project structure: The study should cover the feasibility of appointing a private player, for integrated SWM
and for upgrading and streamlining the SWM value chain in Kochi. This would include roles and
responsibilities of various stakeholders, particularly that of the private developer and the implementing
agencies, mode of contracting such as Private Public Partnership (PPP) or Engineering Procurement and
Construction (EPC), mode of payment and contract duration.
 Bid-process management: The feasibility study should provide details regarding the next steps in project
preparation and execution, i.e., bid-process management and would explain in detail the number of stages
that will be employed for the procurement process, bidding parameters, appointment of transaction
advisors, formation of data rooms and customization of bidding documents.
 Workshop by Vilnius: Selected experts from Vilnius would deliver a workshop cum training to the SWM
department of KMC. The workshop is planned to happen in the later part of the year and will focus on
transfer of best practices from Vilnius to Kochi.

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2 List of acronyms & abbreviations
Abbreviation Full form

AD Anaerobic digestion

AMRUT Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation

APC Air pollution control

ATT Advanced thermal treatment

BPCL Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited

C&D Construction & demolition

CDP City development plan

C-HED Center for Heritage, Environment and Development

CO2e Carbon dioxide emission

CREDAI Confederation of Real Estate Developers Association of India

CSP City sanitation plan

DBOFT Design, build, finance, operate and transfer

DMO District medical officer

DST Department of Science & Technology

EDMC East Delhi Municipal Corporation

EU European Union

GCDA Greater Cochin Development Authority

GHG Greenhouse gases

GIDA Goshree Islands Development Authority

HH Household

IEC Information, education & communication

IEISL IL&FS Environmental Infrastructure & Services Limited

IMC Indore Municipal Corporation

IUC International Urban Cooperation

JNNURM Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission

KMC Kochi Municipal Corporation

KPWD Kerala Public Works Department

KSEB Kerala State Electricity Board

KSERC Kerala State Electricity Regulatory Commission

KSPCB Kerala State Pollution Control Board

KWA Kerala Water Authority

LAP Local action plan

MBT Mechanical biological treatment

MoEF&CC Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate change (MoEF & CC)

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Abbreviation Full form

MOHUA Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs

MSW Municipal solid waste

MW Megawatt

PPA Power purchase agreement

PPP Public private partnership

RDF Refuse derived fuel

RERF Recycling and energy recovery facility

SEIAA State Environment Impact Assessment Authority

SPM Single point mooring

SPM Suspended particulate matter

SRF Solid recovered fuel

SWM Solid waste management

TIFAC Technology information , forecasting & assessment council

TPD Tonnes per day

ULB Urban local body

VAATC Vilnius County Waste Management Center

VASA Vilnius Atlieku Sistemos Administratorius

WtE Waste to energy

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3 List of tables and figures
Table 1: Waste composition in Kochi as per EIA/EMP and C-HED data ........................................................ 18
Table 2: Equipment/Vehicles ........................................................................................................................... 21
Table 3: Number of people engaged in primary waste collection ................................................................... 22
Table 4: Estimated budgeted revenue and expenditure of pertaining to SWM for KMC ................................ 24
Table 5: Responsibility matrix for SWM activities in Kochi .............................................................................. 28
Table 6: Key statistics pertaining to proposed WtE plant .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 7: Population projections for Kochi city ................................................................................................. 35
Table 8: Solid waste generation estimates of Kochi city ................................................................................. 36
Table 9: Prices of the deposit system .............................................................................................................. 39
Table 10: MBT plant parameters ..................................................................................................................... 40
Table 11: Comparison of case studies ............................................................................................................ 53
Table 12: Table of references .......................................................................................................................... 61

Figure 1: Kochi city region map ....................................................................................................................... 14

Figure 2: SWM cycle in Kochi .......................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 3: Waste treatment facility at Brahmapuram ........................................................................................ 21
Figure 4: Vehicles used for SWM handling ..................................................................................................... 22
Figure 5: Proposed WtE operating methodology .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 6: GHG emissions from solid waste management at community level in Kochi .................................. 33
Figure 7: Population growth of Kochi city ........................................................................................................ 35
Figure 8: Political structure of the Vilnius municipality .................................................................................... 37
Figure 9: Packaging and deposit flow for deposit recycling system at Vilnius ................................................ 38
Figure 10: MBT plant at Vilnius ....................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 11: Recycling and energy recovery facility, Leeds ............................................................................... 42
Figure 12: Waste to energy power plant, Sweden .......................................................................................... 43
Figure 13: Mechanical underground waste collection, Stockholm .......................................................... 44
Figure 14: One of the 10 transfer stations in Indore ........................................................................................ 47
Figure 15: Mobile composting van at Indore ................................................................................................... 48
Figure 16: WtE plant at Ghazipur, producing RDF and power ........................................................................ 49
Figure 17: RDF and power plants of the Ghazipur waste to energy plant ...................................................... 49
Figure 18: RDF plant process flow at Ghazipur, New Delhi ............................................................................ 50
Figure 19: Power plant process flow at Ghazipur, New Delhi ......................................................................... 51

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4 Introduction
This chapter contains the background of the assignment, city profile of Kochi and the objectives of this baseline
study. It also briefly explains the methodology followed in preparation of this study and the limitations of this
exercise.

4.1 Assignment background

Baseline study: The baseline study for the solid waste management project has been commissioned as part
of the Kochi-Vilnius strategic collaboration under the IUC-India program. The study represents the key
deliverable of the Urban Cooperation Local Action Plan for the city of Kochi. The report has been prepared by
Sundarajan Subramony (JNKE, IUC), based on secondary research, conducting stakeholder consultations,
preparing case studies and making final recommendations. The objective of the assignment is to provide
baseline information for solid waste management (SWM) in Kochi, by analyzing the current status of SWM and
waste treatment facilities in Kochi and by identifying best practices in the SWM domain being followed by
various national and international cities. This study can later feed into a detailed feasibility study.

Program objectives: The IUC programme’s overall objective is to contribute to improved international urban
policy diplomacy and increased decentralised cooperation on sustainable urban development and climate
change. The programme has two components: a) City/Sub-national cooperation on sustainable urban
development to strengthen European Union (EU) - India cooperation among selected city/sub-national
governments as well as between the national level and the EU, on sustainable urban development while
contributing to India's Smart Cities Mission, AMRUT and other national and international sustainable
urbanisation processes; and b) Cooperation on sustainable energy and climate adaptation and mitigation, and
access to clean and affordable energy, through building upon the Global Covenant of Mayors (GCoM) initiative
in line with existing India-EU commitments.

Kochi and Vilnius partnership: KMC is in the process of cooperating with the city of Vilnius in Lithuania on
SWM. IUC-India is supporting the Kochi-Vilnius city pairing through the provision of exchange visits and the
development of a LAP for the efficient, sustainable and climate friendly waste management practices at KMC.
Both Kochi and Vilnius officials visited their partner cities and identified three major areas for strategic
cooperation, i.e. – a) SWM, b) Transport and c) Tourism. One such initiative under the IUC-India collaboration
is to undertake the baseline study that will enable a clear understanding of the current status of SWM and
waste treatment facilities in Kochi, with a focus on SWM’s effect on climate change and vice-versa. The
baseline assessment will also draw insights related to best practices being undertaken by the SWM systems
and waste treatment facilities in cities, both in India and abroad (including Vilnius) and then tailoring and
implementing them in Kochi in order to achieve an efficient SWM value chain and efficient production of energy
from waste.

4.2 Kochi – city profile

Kochi city: Kochi is a coastal city that lies in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. It is the commercial capital of
the state. Kochi was a major spice trading center of the world in the 14 th century and is known as the queen of
the Arabian Sea for its scenic beauty. The city has vast expense of water sheets (22% of city area) in the form
of canals & backwaters and has about 48 km of seacoast making the Kochi Harbour a major natural harbour.
Kochi is home to Southern Naval Command of the Indian Navy and the state headquarters of the Indian Coast
Guard. Commercial maritime facilities include the Port of Kochi, an international container transshipment
terminal, the Kochi Shipyard, offshore single point mooring (SPM) of the Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited
(BPCL) Kochi Refinery and the Kochi Marina. Kochi has been hosting India's first art biennale, the Kochi-
Muziris Biennale, since 2012, which attracts international artists and tourists. Kochi, with an estimated
population of 616,866 in 2018, is divided into 74 wards and seven zones for governance and administrative

13
purposes. 98% of households in Kochi have access to tap water, 97% of households have access to toilet
facility within premises whereas 72.4% of households have waste water outlet connected to drainage. Solid
waste collection is door-to-door whereas sewerage system is either piped (11.7%) or based on septic tanks
(67.2%).

Figure 1: Kochi city region map

Source: Kochi Municipal Corporation

Kochi Municipal Corporation (KMC): Kochi Municipal Corporation came into existence on November 1,
1967. The Corporation has a harbour, railway junction, international airport, naval base and various industries
in its command area and its peripheries. It was formed by amalgamating three earlier municipalities of the
state, viz. Ernakulam, Mattancherry and Fort Kochi, the Willingdon Island and four panchayats viz. Palluruthy,
Vennala, Vytiila and Edappally and the small islands of Gundu deepu and Ramanthuruth. At present, the total
area of KMC is 94.88 km2. For administrative purposes, the city is divided into 74 wards with the corporation
headquarters in Ernakulam. Kochi has a high density of available science and technology personnel and a
significant number of employable graduates passing out each year from highly graded institutes. The city has
a major advantage in terms of low business operating costs (~50% lesser than comparable major cities), lower

14
employee attrition rate, and ~60% lower rental costs. The city’s power and water tariff are among the lowest
in the country. Major challenges faced by KMC are unavailability of developable land, differential service levels
across the city, constrained and overstressed road network, poor walkability and street safety, inefficient
integration of multi-modal transport system, over dependency on grants, outward migration of educated
population, etc. Kochi is one of the two cities in Kerala (the other being Thiruvananthapuram) selected under
the central government’s smart city mission and also, one of the nine cities selected from Kerala under the
AMRUT scheme.

Greater Cochin Development Authority (GCDA) and Goshree Islands Development Authority (GIDA):
The GCDA and GIDA are the development authorities initiating and monitoring the development of Greater
Kochi area, mainly in development of infrastructure facilities for the city. The GCDA is the planning and
development Authority of the Metropolitan area of Kochi, which is the urban hinterland of Kochi Port. The
jurisdictional area of GCDA comprises of Kochi City, six surrounding municipalities and 25 intervening
panchayats. The major functions of GCDA are orderly and planned development of the Greater Kochi Region.
GIDA's main purpose is the development of the infrastructure facilities of scattered islands in and around Kochi.
Kerala Water Authority (KWA) deals with planning, design, implementation, operation and maintenance of
water supply projects in Kochi.

4.3 Objectives of the study

Establish a baseline of the current practices to handle solid waste: The study has been prepared by doing
extensive secondary research and multiple stakeholder consultations. The study analyses the solid waste
generated in Kochi, its types and sources, current practices for segregation, collection, handling, disposing
and treating the waste. Additionally, the study captures the policies and legal framework that influence SWM
in Kochi, commercial and financial aspects of SWM in Kochi and future plans of KMC with respect to SWM
such as the WtE plant at Brahmapuram. The study encapsulates the roles of various government
organizations/agencies and other stakeholders in the entire value chain of SWM and the role of private player
in the SWM value chain including solid waste treatment and waste-to-energy facilities. The study also
estimates the amount of waste that will be generated in Kochi in the next two decades and records the impact
of SWM on climate change and vice versa.

Present international and national experience (with a focus on the EU) on similar processes: This report
covers multiple case studies from Vilnius (Lithuania), Leeds (the UK), Stockholm (Sweden) and India (Indore,
New Delhi and Hyderabad) so as to identify efficient SWM value chains, SWM best practices and waste
treatment procedures followed both nationally and internationally. The case studies from the cities of Vilnius
and Hyderabad analyze best practices followed throughout the SWM value chain such as segregation,
collection, transportation, disposal and waste treatment, including the WtE cogeneration plant yet to be
commissioned in Vilnius. The case studies from Leeds and New Delhi focus on the technologies used for
waste to energy conversion at the respective WtE plants in both the cities. Lessons from Stockholm include
the use of Green IT and the adaptation of waste management plan across the value chain. Key challenges
from each city as well as learnings, in the SWM domain, which can be tailored, adapted and implemented in
Kochi have been detailed in the study. Additionally drawing in from insights from the four case studies, certain
mitigation strategies that KMC could follow, to prevent harmful effects of SWM on the environment have also
been detailed in the study.

Set the basis for a more detailed feasibility study: This report is a baseline study for SWM in Kochi and the
findings of this report will feed into a detailed feasibility study. The study should cover the technical aspects of
upgrading & streamlining the SWM value chain in Kochi, along with identification and assessment of best
practices & processes used for solid waste collection, transportation, disposal and processing/treatment, along
with an estimation of costs related with each new process or best practice thus added to the value chain. For
the SWM value chain, the study should cover in detail the input & output specifications, performance standards,
social and environmental assessment and risk assessment. Additionally, the user charges that could be levied

15
on waste generators, detailed estimation of capital and operational expenditure, revenue and sensitivity
analysis must be conducted. The study should also focus on the feasibility of appointing a private player for
integrated SWM, and should thus focus on roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders, mode of
contracting, mode of payment, details of bid process management and contract duration.

4.4 Methodology employed

The study aims to provide a detailed analysis on the existing SWM scenario in Kochi while also clearly laying
out the way forward for upgradation and development of existing as well as new facilities. The study is based
on: a) secondary research through reports shared by IUC-India and the Centre for Heritage, Environment and
Development (C-HED) team, web search and case studies on SWM, and waste treatment facilities in Lithuania,
the UK and India b) stakeholder consultations with officials of the IUC-India team and officials of C-HED.

Secondary research: Extensive secondary research was carried out during the preparation of this baseline
study which included summarizing, collating and synthesizing the existing research pertaining to the city of
Kochi through reports shared by IUC-India and C-HED, procured through web search and also using relevant
case studies from Lithuania, the UK and India:

 Documents shared by IUC-India: The IUC-India team shared a number of existing studies pertaining to
urban infrastructure in Kochi which were imperative in the preparation of this baseline study. Some of
these reports included a study on the waste to energy project yet to be commissioned at Brahmapuram, a
presentation and a document on data related to SWM as provided by C-HED, and Climate Action Plan
(CAP) reports for Kochi prepared by GIZ. In addition to these IUC-India also provided the site visit report
of KMC team to Vilnius, report on deposit-recycling system, report on mechanical biological treatment
(MBT) plant at Vilnius and a presentation on Vilnius municipality. The documents related to Kochi provide
a comprehensive overview of the current situation in Kochi related to the SWM value chain whereas the
documents related to Vilnius highlight some of the best practices in the SWM domain being followed in
Vilnius which have the potential to be adapted and implemented in Kochi.
 Documents procured through web search: Extensive web search was also carried out in order to undertake
secondary research. Various reports and articles related to urban infrastructure in Kochi and current
condition related to SWM were referred to while preparing this study. Some of these reports included the
City Development Plan, City Sanitation Plan, Smart city plan, Kochi, organisational framework of KMC,
Suchitwa mission, EIA/EMP assessment report prepared by L&T4, Kerala state policy on SWM, Solid
waste management rules 2016 and other waste management rules applicable to Kochi. Articles related to
SWM as well as effect of climate change on SWM activities in Kochi were also referred. These reports and
articles helped in identifying the problems related to SWM sector in Kochi and also helped in understanding
the suggestions provided by various stakeholders and strategies developed to implement those
suggestions.
 Case studies: As part of an extensive secondary research, 6 case studies including 1 from Vilnius
(Lithuania), 1 from Leeds (the UK), 1 from Stockholm (Sweden) and 1 each from Indore (India), New Delhi
(India) and Hyderabad (India) respectively related to efficient SWM systems, best practices and waste
treatment facilities, were analysed. While case studies from the cities of Vilnius and Hyderabad analyze
best practices followed throughout the SWM value chain including activities such as segregation,
collection, transportation, disposal and waste treatment including the WtE cogeneration plant yet to be
commissioned in Vilnius whereas the case studies from Leeds and New Delhi focus on the technologies
and best practices used for WtE conversion at the respective WtE plants in both the cities. The case study

4
GJ Eco Power Private Limited (GJEP), the private player initially selected for setting up of the waste to energy plant in Kochi. GJEP had
further enlisted L&T Infra Engineering to conduct the EIA /EMP assessment4 for the waste to energy plant. This assessment report was
compiled in July 2019. However the concession agreement with GJEP has now been terminated.

16
 from Stockholm include the use of Green IT and the adaptation of waste management plan across the
value chain to minimize waste generation and maximize resource efficiency.
Stakeholder consultations: Stakeholder consultations were organized through video conferencing and
conference calls. Discussions were held with various stakeholders such as officials of the C-HED such as Dr.
Rajan Chedambath and Ms. Simmi S, and officials of IUC- India such as Dr. Panagiotis Karamanos (Team
Leader, IUC) and Ashish Verma. Discussions were held to understand the objectives of the study, role of C-
HED and KMC, background of solid waste management in Kochi, details of the WtE plant proposed to be setup
at Brahmapuram as well as to understand the key points to be captured in the baseline study. Inputs and
insights provided by these experts/officials were of great importance in the preparation of this study and these
have been further included in relevant chapters of this study.

4.5 Limitations of the exercise

The study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the current waste management scenario in the city of
Kochi, the future outlook for SWM services and to highlight the best practices related to SWM, followed across
India and abroad. However the study is limited in the sense that it is only a baseline study to assess the as-is
situation of the SWM lifecycle in Kochi, in addition to the assessment of existing facilities and practices for
waste treatment. Additionally, this study relies heavily on secondary sources of information and data collection
through stakeholder consultations. In the wake of Covid-19 and the subsequent restrictions laid out by the
Government of India, on-ground verification of data and site visits were not feasible.

17
5 Existing solid waste management
This chapter captures the existing arrangement of SWM in the city of Kochi, covering the entire SWM value
chain, including waste generation, segregation, collection, transportation, disposal and waste treatment
processes and technologies. The coverage of SWM activities within the city, prevailing waste types and
sources of waste have been further explained. It also covers the roles and responsibilities of key stakeholders
of the SWM system, policy and legal framework applicable to Kochi SWM, and future plans of KMC, related to
SWM. Environmental concerns related to SWM activities are also illustrated

5.1 Solid waste generated in Kochi

Amount of solid waste generated in Kochi: The total municipal solid waste (MSW) generated in the Kochi
ULB area is ~305 tonnes per day5 (TPD) which translates to a waste generation per capita of 0.507
kg/day/head. As per the discussion with C-HED officials, the city does not have established mechanisms to
accurately measure the total amount of waste generated in the city and the aforementioned figure for total
waste generated has been derived by analyzing collection mechanisms such as number of trucks collecting
waste, number of trips made each day etc. Of the 305 TPD of MSW generated in 21 circles in Kochi (comprising
one to five wards each), 230 TPD of waste is collected for processing & disposal at the landfill site, resulting
in a current waste collection rate of about 75%. Of the 230 TPD of MSW collected, 130TPD is processed while
100 TPD is disposed-off at the landfill site.

Sources of waste in Kochi: The major source of MSW in the city includes domestic waste sources,
commercial units, wedding and community halls, hotels, restaurants, markets, institutions, schools, offices,
street sweeping, hospitals (non-infectious waste), slaughterhouses, construction and demolition, etc. As per
the Draft Kochi Climate Action Plan (CAP) report prepared by GIZ, domestic waste sources such as
households and commercial establishments, such as small shops, are the major contributors, generating 57%
of the waste in Kochi, followed by hotels and restaurants with a 10% share, markets (vegetables, fruits and
meat) with ~7% share and hospitals and health care facilities with a share of 1.5%.

Types of waste in Kochi: As per the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)/ Environmental Management
Plan (EMP) assessment report prepared by L&T Infra Engineering6 and dated 2019, organic waste (62.6%)
forms a major part of the total waste generated, followed by plastics, paper, textiles, fines and composites
which in total contribute ~31% of the waste generated. However, as per C-HED data, based on a study
conducted in 2016, the compostable organic waste at collection point formed 79.8% of the total waste
generated. The detailed waste composition profile as per EIA/EMP assessment report and C-HED data has
been provided in the chart below:

Table 1: Waste composition in Kochi as per EIA/EMP and C-HED data

Composition as per EIA/EMP – Composition at collection point as

Type of waste per C-HED data – 2016 (%)
2019 (%)

Organics 62.6% 79.78%

Organic waste 62.6% 79.78%

Recyclables 25.3% 12.61%

5
GIZ Climate Action Plan for Kochi City, 2019
6
GJ Eco Power Private Limited (GJEP), the private player initially selected for setting up of the waste to energy plant in Kochi. GJEP had
further enlisted L&T Infra Engineering to conduct the EIA /EMP assessment 6 for the waste to energy plant. This assessment report was
compiled in July 2019. However the concession agreement with GJEP has now been terminated.

18
 Composition as per EIA/EMP – Composition at collection point as
Type of waste
2019 (%) per C-HED data – 2016 (%)

Plastics 9.9% 4.83%

Paper & cardboard 8.8% 4.87%

Textile 4.6% -

Glass 1.4% 1.06%

Metal 0.3% 0.35%

Wood 0.3% -

Rubber and leather - 1.5%

Others 12.1% 7.61%

Fines 4.2% -

Composites 3.3% -

Biomedical waste 2.0% -

Inert 1.6% 1.74%

Liquids 0.4% -

Hazardous HH waste 0.3% 0.28%

Mixed WEEE 0.1% -

Ash and fine earth - 1.68%

Others 0.2% 3.91%

Source: EIA/EMP assessment report, C-HED data, CRISIL analysis

As per the EIA/EMP assessment report, the chemical analysis of the waste revealed a low carbon to nitrogen
ration of 19:1, whereas the moisture content of the waste stood at an average value of 60%, while the average
calorific value was 8.1 megajoules per kilogram (Mj/Kg).

5.2 Prevailing waste collection and waste handling practices

SWM coverage: KMC is responsible for Kochi’s municipal solid waste management through two of its
departments, namely the Department of Health and the Engineering Department. Solid waste collection,
transportation, handling and disposal is looked after by the Department of Health, whereas functions such as
planning, vehicle procurement, equipment, site development, setting up of plants for treatment of bio-
degradable waste and awarding of annual contracts for large-scale cleaning activities are looked after by the
Engineering Department. For the purpose of solid waste collection and transportation, the KMC is divided into
21 circles comprising one to five wards each.

Solid waste segregation (at source): Segregation of waste in Kochi happens at source. For the past 10-15
years, the waste generated in Kochi is being segregated into hazardous, biodegradable and non-
biodegradable categories. KMC has provided separate waste collection bins to each household, one for
collecting biodegradable waste and the other for collecting non-biodegradable waste. KMC through residents’
associations, had requested households to segregate the waste at source itself and deposit the biodegradable
and non-biodegradable waste in the respective bins.

Solid waste collection (door-to-door): Kochi city uses a door-to-door method of solid waste collection,
wherein permanent and contractual workers employed with KMC, and Kudumbashree employees (Kerala-
based NGO engaged in several social activities in Kerala) are responsible for collection of solid waste directly
from waste generators such as households. While biodegradable waste is collected daily from households,

19
non-biodegradable waste is collected on a weekly basis. Each door-to door collector covers, on an average
~150 households per day, however, depending upon the efficiency of the collector, this number may rise.
These waste collectors collect biodegradable waste from households, in the morning each day, using hand-
carts and tipper auto rickshaws (owned by KMC) and by afternoon, they bring all the waste to secondary
collection points (KMC has 85 waste collection points spread across the city) from where they load the waste
into corporation vehicles to carry the waste for processing/disposal at the Brahmapuram plant. Of the 305 TPD
of MSW generated in 21 circles in Kochi (comprising one to five wards each), 230 TPD of waste is collected
for processing and disposal at the landfill site, resulting in a current waste collection rate of about 75%.

Figure 2: SWM cycle in Kochi

Source: C-HED Data

Solid waste transportation: Transportation of waste from waste collection points to the Brahmapuram plant
for processing/disposal and treatment is carried out by KMC using 83 vehicles which are owned by KMC, in
addition to 500 handcarts. The detailed breakdown of the vehicles employed in waste collection is provided in
Table 2 below. The waste collected from secondary collection points is loaded into large tipper trucks and
compactor trucks to transport the waste to the waste treatment and disposal facility at Brahmapuram where
the organic component of waste received is treated in a windrow composting facility and the plastic/non-
biodegradable component of the waste is tipped at the dumping yard. The operational and transport cost for
solid waste management is borne by KMC.

Solid waste treatment at Brahmapuram facility: Of the 305 TPD of solid waste generated in the city, 230
TPD of MSW is collected, and of which 130TPD is processed while 100 TPD is disposed-off at the landfill site.
The collected waste from the city is transferred to Brahmapuram waste treatment and disposal facility wherein,
the organic component of waste received is treated in a windrow composting facility and the plastic/non-
biodegradable component of the waste is tipped at the dumping yard. Brahmapuram is an area located around
20 kilometers from Kochi city. Spread over an area of 110 acres at Brahmapuram this area has been identified
as the hub for waste management activities and consists of a a) windrow composting facility, b) RDF facility to
convert waste into usable fuel for combustion (not operated since commissioning), c) plastic shredding and
bailing unit, d) incineration plant for medical waste, e) septage treatment plant and f) landfill site and g) a plastic
dumping yard.

20
Figure 3: Waste treatment facility at Brahmapuram

Source: C-HED, Google

Revenue from SWM activities: KMC does not charge any user fee for collection of waste but the workers
who are responsible for collection of waste charge INR 50-100 per month (EUR 0.6 to EUR 1.27) from each
household for waste collection. For example, Kudumbashree workers charge a fee of INR 100 per month (EUR
1.2) per household for waste collection, the fee is paid directly by the household and commercial units to the
Kudumbashree workers and does not provide any source of revenue to KMC. It needs to be noted here that
although KMC does not generate any revenue from SWM activities expenses, such as salaries, program
expenditures etc, pertaining to SWM related activities are borne by the organization. As per the Kerala State
Waste Management Policy, 2018, waste generators must pay a user fee for SWM as specified in the by-laws
of the local bodies. Therefore, KMC could formalize the user charges for waste to be collected from waste
generators and include the same in the by-laws.

Equipment and vehicles: KMC and Kudumbashree workers utilize 583 vehicles, ranging from handcarts to
refuse compactors for handling solid waste in the city. The city currently has 13 refuse compactors, 24 covered
tippers, 44 mini high-lift tippers, 2 mini trucks and 500 handcarts which are utilized for SWM activities in the
city. While handcarts and tipper auto rickshaws are utilized for waste collection activities, compactor trucks
and tipper tucks are utilized for transporting waste from secondary collection points to the disposal and waste
treatment facility at Brahmapuram.

Table 2: Equipment/Vehicles

Equipment / vehicle Number

Refuse compactors 13

Covered tippers 24

Mini high lift tippers 44

Mini trucks 2

Handcarts 500

Total 583

Source: C-HED data

7
Exchange rate of 1 EUR = INR 82.64 as of May 18, 2020

21
Figure 4: Vehicles used for SWM handling

Refuse Compactor Mini high lift tipper

Source: C-HED

Staff employed: The KMC along with its own employees (both permanent and contractual) and
Kudumbashree workers, engages 1,284 people for primary waste collection activities in the city. These door
to door waste collectors collect waste from various households, using handcarts and tipper auto rickshaws and
bring all the waste to secondary collection points from where they load the waste into corporation vehicles to
carry the waste for processing/disposal and treatment at the Brahmapuram plant. A detailed breakdown of the
number of people engaged under various categories is shown below:

Table 3: Number of people engaged in primary waste collection

Staff Number of people

Permanent employees 799

Contractual employees 204

Corporation Workers 1,003

Kudumbashree workers 281

Total workers 1284

Source: C-HED data

5.3 Technologies and treatment processes

Windrow composting technique: The waste treatment plant at Brahmapuram was commissioned in 2008
and has a capacity of treating 250 TPD of waste. The plant uses the aerated windrow composting technology
and was built at a cost of INR 19 crore (EUR 2.3 million). Windrow composting is the production of compost
by piling organic/biodegradable waste into long rows called windrows. These piles or windrows are periodically
turned to improve porosity, mix in or remove moisture, allow oxygen flow to the windrow’s core and enable
heat generation, and to redistribute cooler and hotter portions of the pile. This method is suitable for producing
large volumes of compost.

 Standard specifications and size: Windrows are trapezoidal and are 6-10 feet high and 6-10 feet wide at
the base. The windrows are laid at a distance of 1-3 meters from each other because the space between
windrows should be sufficient for the movement of the windrow turning machine. Also windrow dimensions
allow conservation of heat generated during composting process, while also maintaining diffusion of air to
the deeper portions of the windrow.
 Present status of the windrow composting plant: The present status of the Windrow composting plant is
as follows: a) The plant is operated by M/s Enviro Green under the operations and maintenance contract,

22
 b) The windrow composting technique converts waste into manure and yields ~20 tonnes of manure per
day which is then sold by the contractor, thus earning them revenue. Additionally there is a fee of INR
550/tonne (EUR 6.6 per tonne) paid by KMC to the contractor for processing waste at the composting plant
excluding the cost of INR 1.5/kg (EUR 0.2 per kg) for transportation, and c) The plant operated optimally
till the first year of its operation but by the nature of being constructed on a wet land, the plants platform
sunk and a few columns collapsed. The reconstruction of the plant has not yet commissioned due to the
high proposed cost. M/s Enviro Green is entrusted with the operation and maintenance of the waste
treatment plant. The plant generates ~20 tonnes of manure each day.
Plastic dumping yard: The plastic dumping yard at Brahmapuram receives ~100 tonnes of plastic waste each
day. Around 1% of this plastic waste is suitable for recycling, and is recovered from the waste, the remaining
99% of waste is dumped as a heap at the landfill.

 Standard specification and size: The total spread of plastic waste at Brahmapuram is 300m x 200 m that
is 60,000 m2. The average height of the accumulated waste dump is 3m, volume of waste is 180,000 m 3
and the weight is 68,400 tonne and is spread over 16 acres of land.
 Present status of the dumping yard: The plastic dump at Brahmapuram is increasing in size day by day
beyond capacity and is a menace for the municipal corporation. It has seen several fires over the past few
years, thus polluting the air and the environment.

5.4 Maintenance procedures

Currently, the Brahmapuram facility receives waste on a daily basis from the city limits through municipal
corporation-owned vehicles. The biodegradable waste undergoes windrow composting while the non-
biodegradable waste is dumped at the landfill.

Windrow composting plant: The windrow composting facility at the Brahmapuram plant is currently in a
dilapidated condition but is operational. The compost plant columns have sunk, by the nature of being
constructed on a wet land and needs repair. The windrow composting plant should be rectified and maintained
to treat the biodegradable waste at Brahmapuram. Also the capacity of the windrow composting plant needs
to be enhanced so that it is able to process all the waste received thus preventing the site from becoming a
dump site.

Plastic dumping yard: Almost 99% of the total plastic waste collected from the city is dumped unscientifically
at the plastic dumping yard at Brahmapuram, making the dump susceptible to fires. The plastic dumping yard
needs to be maintained and the waste must be removed from time to time to prevent the heap from rising and
contributing to diseases and fires.

5.5 Commercial/financial aspects

Revenue: KMC had a total revenue of ~ INR 47,572 lakh (EUR 57.1 million) in fiscal 2019 of which ~INR
12,775 lakh (EUR 15.3 million) comprised of various tax revenues. Assigned revenues and compensation
(such as vehicle tax compensation), rental income from municipal properties (markets, town halls, stadiums
etc), fee and user charges (fee for birth certificate, market fee etc.), sale & hire charges (sale of agricultural
products etc), revenue grants, contributions and subsidies (such as maintenance funds, library grants etc),
income from investments (dividends, fixed deposits etc.) and interest earned form other major revenue heads.
The total revenue in fiscal 2018 was INR 31,389 lakh (EUR 37.7 million). KMC earns a significant amount of
its revenue through various grants, contributions and subsidies (~56% in 2019). KMC does not collect any
revenue for the door-to-door waste collection activities undertaken by its workers (for SWM activities) as well
as by the Kudumbashree workers. These workers however collect a nominal fee of INR 100 (EUR 1.2) per
household for the waste collection, which does not add to the revenue earned by KMC.

23
Table 4: Estimated budgeted revenue and expenditure of pertaining to SWM for KMC

Particulars (INR lakh) FY18 FY19 FY20

User charges related revenue

User charges from commercial shops and buildings - 500 500

User charges for solid waste disposal - 200 180

Revenue expenses

Repair & maintenance – treatment plants 2,000 30 430

Repair & maintenance – recreation centers 84 25 167

Repair & maintenance – public toilets 21 50 141

Interest & finance charges

Interest on loans from HUDCO 367 62 68

Program expenditure

Health-related programs, sanitation and waste management etc 2020 600 347

Total estimates of budgeted revenue 0 700 680

Total estimates of budgeted expenditure 4,492 767 1,153

Profit/Loss (4,492) (67) (473)8

Source: KMC budget documents

Expenses: KMC had total expenses to the tune of ~ INR 44,642 lakh (EUR 53.6 million) in fiscal 2019 which
comprised of establishment expenses (salaries, wages, contribution to pension funds etc), administrative
expenses (Rent, income tax, insurance etc), operations & maintenance expenses (electricity charges, repair
& maintenance charges, environment conservation charges etc), Interest & finance charges (interest on loans,
bank charges etc.), program expenses (expenditure on poverty eradication program, education related
activities etc.) revenue grants & subsidies (assistance to medical institutions etc.), prior period items and
depreciation. The expenses in fiscal 2019 were higher as compared to expenses in fiscal 2018 which were to
the tune of INR 30,760 lakh (EUR 36.9 million). KMC spent a total of ~INR 399 lakh (EUR 0.5 million) in
sanitation & waste management work as programme expenditure which was less than what they had spent in
fiscal 2018 (INR 688 lakh) / (EUR 0.8 million). The operational and transportation cost for solid waste
management in the city is borne by KMC. KMC pays the private player INR 550 (EUR 6.6)/tonne for processing
of waste. Further KMC incurred an expenditure of INR 3,983 lakh (EUR 4.8 million) for repair & maintenance
of drainage network in fiscal 2019 which was more than INR 2,765 lakh (EUR 3.3 million) on the same activity
in fiscal 2018.

On account of KMC generating more income than incurring expenses, it had been generating profits in the
past two financial years, which were INR 2,030 lakh (EUR 2.4 million) and INR 618 lakh (EUR 0.7 million) in
fiscal 2019 and fiscal 2018, respectively.

5.6 Policy and legal framework

Various policies applicable to SWM and waste treatment facilities in Kochi are described below:

Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016: The Union Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate change (MoEF
& CC) revised the Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2000 as Solid Waste
Management Rules, 2016. With the introduction of the solid waste management rules, 2016 a wider range of
stakeholders have been held accountable for the efficient management of the SWM system. The new set of

8
Considering that budgeted prior period income and budgeted prior period expenditure is not related to SWM

24
protocols define the responsibilities of each member in the value chain and also introduce awareness
initiatives, incentives and penalties around the SWM process. They also introduce the criteria for setting up a
waste treatment facility, criteria for a waste to energy process, specifications of sanitary landfills, and
monitoring for their implementation. The policy explains the roles and responsibilities of stakeholders, and
explain the power of ULBs to enforce user charges for SWM services. The policy also allows for incentives
such as capital subsidy, co-marketing of fertilizer etc for waste to energy plants. Additionally the policy
mandates, that non-recyclable waste having calorific value of 1500 kcal/kg or more shall not be disposed of
on landfills and shall only be utilised for generating energy either or through RDF or by giving away as feed
stock for preparing RDF.

Kerala State Waste Management Policy, 2018: The Kerala state management policy was formulated with a
vision to transform Kerala into a clean, waste-free state and make it an environmentally healthy state by
adopting the three principles of a) reduce, b) reuse and c) recyle. The policy envisages “a healthy, prosperous,
and resource efficient society in which waste is reduced, reused, recycled and prevented wherever possible
and disposed of in an environmentally safe manner”. The policy builds on the basic principles laid out in the
SWM rules, 2016. The policy focuses on compliance by waste generators regarding prohibition of disposal of
waste on streets, drains and water bodies and explains the processes of segregation, collection and treatment
of waste. The policy aims to ensure full door-to-door coverage for waste collection and discourages the use of
single use and throw away materials. Additionally the policy explains the process for handling different types
of waste such as sanitary waste, garden/horticulture waste, construction/demolition waste etc. It focuses on
user charges to be paid by waste generators for SWM services as specified in the bye-laws and postulates
that industrial units located within 100 km of WTE plants and RDF plants need to replace at least 5% of their
fuel requirement with RDF produced.

Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016: The MoEF & CC notified the Construction
and Demolition Waste Management Rules in 2016. The rules are an initiative to effectively tackle the issues
of pollution and waste management. The construction and demolition waste generated nationally is about 530
million tonnes annually. The construction and demolition waste management rules, 2016 defines construction
and demolition waste. The rules apply to every waste resulting from construction, re-modelling, repair and
demolition of any civil structure of individual, organization or authority who generates construction and
demolition waste such as building materials, debris and rubble.

E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016: The MoEF & CC notified the e-waste management rules, 2016 in
supersession of the e-waste (management and handling) rules, 2011. The policy applies to every consumer,
producer, manufacturer, collection centers, dealers, refurbishes, dismantlers and recyclers involved in
manufacture, sale, transfer, purchase, storage, collection, and processing of e-waste or electronic & electrical
equipment which is listed in Schedule I. It also include parts, components and spares which make the product
operational. The protocols superseded the e-waste management rules of 2011. In EWM rules of 2016, e-waste
has been defined as whole or in parts of an electrical and electronic equipment discarded as waste by
consumer as well as the rejected material from refurbishment, manufacturing and repair.

Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016: The MoEF & CC notified the plastic waste management rules, 2016
which will now supersede the plastic waste management rules, 2011. The policy defines plastic, compostable
plastics, carrybags, virgin plastics, multilayered packaging and all types of plastic waste. It also lists the
categories of plastics, lists the roles and responsibilities of prescribed authorities for plastic waste
management, the roles and responsibilities of plastic waste generators and producers. The set of protocols
explain the modalities of plastic waste management, environmental issues and challenges related with plastic
waste and to promote the use of plastic waste in various tasks such as road construction, energy recovery etc.

Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016: The MoEF & CC notified the bio-medical waste management
rules, 2016 to replace the earlier rules, 1998. These protocols define the types of waste which are categorized
as bio-medical waste such as human & anatomical waste, treatment equipment such as needles, syringes and

25
other material used in healthcare and in the process of treatment and research. They also explain the waste
categories for bio-medical waste and define the ambit of bio-medical waste generators such as blood banks,
treatment or immunization processes in hospitals, nursing homes etc. Scientific disposal of such waste for
effective disposal by hospitals and other waste generators. The roles and responsibilities of waste generators
and producers as well as standards for incinerators and other bio-medical waste handlers are also explained.

Hazardous and Other Waste Management Rules, 2016: India’s environment ministry MoEF & CC has
issued its revised hazardous and other wastes (management and transboundary movement) rules 2016. The
policy explains the type of waste, which by reason of its characteristics would be classified as hazardous waste
and helps to distinguish between hazardous and other wastes. Hazardous waste classification, identification
and storage & labelling requirements of hazardous waste are explained. Management of such waste, problems
associated and importance of proper hazardous waste management is also illustrated. Roles, responsibilities
and duties of waste generator and various stakeholders as well as environmentally sound management,
management hierarchy, co-processing, disposal and recycling of hazardous waste is explained.

5.7 Waste management policies for Covid-19

Policy coverage: The Central Pollution Control Board, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change,
Government of India has come out with guidelines for handling, treatment, and waste generated during
treatment / diagnosis and quarantine of Covid-19 patients. The guidelines are applicable for all stakeholders
including isolation wards, quarantine centers, sample collection centers, laboratories, ULBs and common
biomedical waste treatment and disposal facilities. These policies are applicable in addition to the Bio-medical
waste management rules, 2016 (BMW rules).

Guidelines for Covid-19 isolation wards, sample collection center and labs: Separate colour coded
bins/bags/containers should be employed in accordance with the BMW rules. The waste collected from
isolation wards needs to be disposed in double layered bags (using 2 bags) to ensure strengths and no leaks.
The waste collected should be clearly marked as “Covid-19 waste” thus enabling priority treatment and
disposal. The containers, bins and trolleys used for storage of Covid-19 waste should be daily disinfected with
1% sodium hypochlorite solution. The isolation wards should depute dedicated sanitation workers separately
for bio-medical waste and general solid waste.

Responsibilities of persons operating quarantine facilities: The waste generated at quarantine facilities is
expected to have less quantity of bio-medical waste. The facility managers at these places are expected to
ensure separate collection of biomedical waste in yellow bags, ensure collection of biomedical waste through
common biomedical waste treatment facilities (CBWTF), door step collection or at designated deposition
centers. In case of any difficulty in accessing such facilities the person should contact their respective ULB.

Duties of CBWTF: The CBWTF are responsible for regularly reporting the receipt of waste from isolation
wards, quarantine facilities, and testing centers. The operator has to ensure regular sanitization of workers
involved in collection and handling of biomedical waste. Personal protection equipment (PPEs) shall be
provided to sanitation and workers and dedicated, regularly sanitized, vehicles will be employed for waste
collection. The operator shall ensure that Covid-19 waste shall be disposed-off immediately upon receipt at
the facility.

Duties of ULBs: Urban local bodies shall be responsible for ensuring safe collection and disposal of
biomedical waste. The authorities will arrange necessary security, engage authorized waste collectors and
CBWTFs for door to door waste collection. They shall be responsible for creating awareness, providing yellow
waste bags, create provisions for PPEs and ensure smooth facilitation of the entire waste management
collection and disposal cycle.

UN habitat Covid-19 SWM guidelines: Although there are guidelines for treatment of biomedical waste, these
guidelines lack guidance on adapting the existing waste management practices for a pandemic. Keeping this

26
in mind, United Nations Human Settlement Programme has developed a ten point strategy for solid waste
management in the context of Covid-19. These guidelines have been presented below:

 Map sources of waste generation to identify changes in generation amounts and flows: Places such as
hospitals, home care units, testing labs, and quarantine camps should be identified as they will generate
hazardous waste. Additionally, places such as schools commercial units etc. which will see decreased
waste generation shall also be identified. The mapping of such sources will enable efficient resource
allocation

 Separate infectious waste in households: All potentially infectious waste should be put in clearly identifiable
colored bags, ensuring double coverage if possible. If identification of or separation of infectious waste is
not possible then all waste from the household should be sealed and handles as residual waste. Waste
bags should be distributed to households’ especially low income and informal settlements.

 Maintain and expand waste collection services: Human as well as financial resources should be allocated
efficiently as per the mapping exercise undertaken by the authorities. Increased and regular waste
collection services should be provided to the identified biomedical waste sources, informal settlement and
high population density areas. The authorities should promote reduced contact between people especially
during door to door collection of waste.

 Ensure safe waste treatment and disposal: On site temporary storage and thermal treatment of infectious
waste from identified sources in the city must be ensured. If thermal facilities are not available, adequate
and safe sanitary landfill measures must be ensured.

 Protect waste workers, formal and informal: All workers either formal or informal must be properly trained
to follow basic hygiene measures. Safe work practices including PPE shall be made available for these
workers. The authorities should also consider support for livelihood loss of informal waste workers.

 Regularly communicate with citizens and stakeholders: The new collection schedule and other changes
must be effectively communicated to through radio, newspapers, social media and other channels. Citizens
should ensure proper disposal of waste in line with guidelines.

 Engage with stakeholders: The authorities must engage with waste stream stakeholders both formal and
informal to identify roles and responsibilities. Coordination and collaboration with informal workers, NGOs
and waste management operations should be undertaken to strengthen and expand service and coverage.

 Accelerate procurement procedures: The procurement of safety equipment, additional storage bins,
collection trucks, should be expedited. A review of central and state funds should be undertaken to review
possibility of fund diversion from existing programmes to push Covid-19 related activities

 Application of national and international guidelines for healthcare and medical waste: The guidelines laid
out by the respective government shall be followed. In case of absence of government guidelines, the
WHO guidelines should be followed.

 Design scenarios and contingency plans: The lesson learned from other countries should be considered
and implemented in each phase of planning. The authorities should also conduct risk assessments
associated with failure of continued service for instance staff and equipment shortage, closure of recycling,
waste treatment and disposal units.

5.8 Key stakeholders

This section introduces the key stakeholders in relation to solid waste management in Kochi. Table 5 below
highlights the key responsibilities pertaining to SWM for various stakeholders in Kochi.

27
State government of Kerala: The state government of Kerala is the prime authority which through its line
departments prepares state policies, regulations, bylaws, formulates strategies, policies and regulations,
prepares master plan for cities, identifies suitable land for setting up solid waste processing and disposal
facilities and streamlines the urban development of the entire state. It also provides funding support for major
projects related to various aspects of urban development such as town planning and development, water
supply, public health and safety, solid waste management, storm water drainage, sewerage and sanitation etc.
All the other stakeholders will need to follow the stipulated guidelines of the Government of Kerala pertaining
to SWM activities in Kochi.
Suchitwa Mission: Suchitwa Mission, the Technical Support Group (TSG) in Waste Management sector
under the Local Self Government (LSG) Department, Government of Kerala is responsible for providing
technical and managerial support to the LSG’s of the State, for conceptualizing, action planning, conducting
creative workshops & trainings, initiating sector related studies, action research & bringing about papers,
conducting monitoring and other such activities in the SWM sector. The mission is also the nodal agency for
implementing Swachh Bharat Mission (both Urban & Rural) and Communication and Capacity Development
Unit (CCDU) in the State. Suchitwa mission plays a critical role in determining the way the state should proceed
to manage its waste, and in this capacity the mission’s technical team keeps providing advice on issues such
as managing the non-biodegradable legacy waste accumulated at the Brahmapuram plant or advice related
to the leachate treatment at the same plant.

Kochi Municipal Corporation (KMC): KMC was formed in 1967 merging municipalities of Fort Kochi,
Mattanchery and Ernakulam and is the main administrative body of Kochi city. For the purpose of effective
administration, the corporation is divided into different departments, each catering to a different aspect of city’s
development. KMC is responsible for Kochi’s municipal solid waste management, through two of its
departments namely, the Department of Health and the Engineering department. Solid waste collection,
transportation, handling and disposal is looked after by the health department whereas functions such as
planning, vehicle procurement, equipment, site development, setting up plants for treating bio-degradable
waste and giving annual contracts for large scale cleaning activities are looked after by the engineering
department. For the purpose of solid waste collection and transportation, the KMC is divided into 21 circles
comprising of one to five wards each.

Table 5: Responsibility matrix for SWM activities in Kochi

Operations &
Urban Services Planning Implementation Tariff & revenue
maintenance
KMC and other local
bodies, private sector
Solid Waste KMC and other local KMC and other local
initiatives such as KMC
Management bodies bodies
CREDAI Clean City
Kochi
Source: Kochi City Sanitation Plan

Kudumbashree: Kudumbashree is a Kerala based NGO, which is engaged in several social activities in Kerala
and its workers along with KMC employees are responsible for collecting waste from waste generators through
door-to-door waste collection method using hand carts and tipper auto rickshaws, which are owned by KMC.
Kudumbashree workers are involved in only primary waste collection, for which they charge a fee of INR 100
per household. Secondary waste collection and transportation of waste is done by KMC workers.

Enviro Green (Solid waste processing): The windrow composting plant at the Brahmapuram facility is
operated by Enviro Green under the operation and maintenance contract. At this plant the processed waste is
converted into manure which is then sold by the contractor, thus earning him revenue. Additionally there is a
fee of INR 550/tonne paid to the contractor excluding the cost of INR 1.5/kg for transportation. Thus Enviro
Green being associated with the waste processing facility at Brahmapuram is a key stakeholder in planning
for SWM activities in Kochi.

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5.9 Future plans
Waste to Energy (WtE) plant: A waste to energy plant, based on advanced thermal gasification technology
was to be taken up on public private partnership (PPP) basis wherein the private player, GJ Eco Power Pvt.
Ltd. (GJEP) was supposed to design, build, finance, operate and transfer (DBFOT) the facility for 20 years.
The plant proposed to have a waste processing capacity of 500 TPD of unsegregated waste. However the
plans for the proposed WtE plant have been stalled and the concession agreement with GJEP has been
terminated as the private party, GJEP failed to meet the conditions precedent, related to financial close, even
after four years of signing the concession agreement. GJEP failed to produce the financial plan, financing
documents for the project and failed to demonstrate financial close. GJEP further asked for modified
arrangements such as conversion of concession agreement into lease agreement and provision of 100 percent
government guarantee. Because of the above mentioned reasons, the concession agreement with GJEP has
been terminated.

Fresh tender for integrated SWM: The Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation (KSIDC) has floated
a fresh tender for integrated solid waste management for the Ernakulam cluster in June, 2020. Under the
project, the selected private party will be required to look after the entire value chain of SWM in the cluster
including Kochi city, including segregation, collection, transportation, processing and disposal. The project will
also involve the development of a waste to energy plant of minimum 300 TPD, processing capacity on DBFOT
basis at Brahmapuram.

29
6 Climate change and SWM
This chapter captures the impacts of climate change such as effect of flooding, increase in temperature,
increased precipitation and rise in sea levels on SWM activities in Kochi. An estimate of greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions released through composting as well as through disposal of waste in landfill is also carried out.

6.1 Impact of climate change on SWM activities

Effect of flooding in Kochi: The city of Kochi has started to witness global warming induced climatic changes
such as the consecutive floods in the years 2018 and 2019, of which the one in 2018 was the worst in a century
killing scores of people and destroying crores worth of infrastructure. As Kochi is adjacent to the coast it is
subject to floods during monsoons and heavy rains thus affecting normal life. Additionally water logging is a
major problem in Kochi wherein the dumping of large amounts of waste in canals and drains leads to their
blockage thus contributing to urban flooding. Some of the effects of flooding on SWM activities are described
below:

 Solid waste accumulation: Both solid waste accumulation and flooding are interdependent on each other.
While solid waste accumulation in drainage canals increases the risk of urban flooding in Kochi, urban
flooding, in turn accumulates solid waste blocking drainage canals, resulting in inundation and public health
concerns. Thus waste accumulation is a major problem when floods occur, thereby making it difficult for
solid waste collectors to collect such huge quantities of waste and transport the same for processing or
disposal at the landfill site, which itself maybe flooded.

 Effect of flooding on landfill sites: Impacts of flooding on landfills are inundation, waste solution migration
to neighboring areas and physical erosion. Erosion is particularly significant at landfills constructed in a
way that the waste is above ground level. Flooding of landfill may cause increased leachate production by
adding water to the volume of wastes in the landfill and causing varying degrees of saturation.

 Effect of flooding on waste treatment areas: Excessive flooding may affect the land treatment areas
wherein waste could dissolve or be suspended in the nearby soil, increased leachate production and
migration are also possible.

 Effect of flooding on the waste pile: Waste piles employing biological decomposition in the treatment of
waste are affected by increased rainfall and flooding wherein waste suspension could occur and waste
pile may remain saturated after floodwaters have receded leading to an increase in moisture content and
a decrease in calorific value. Additionally saturation of the pile could lead to structural weakening and
result in collapse of the pile.

 Effect of flooding on storage facilities: Waste storage tanks and containers would overflow, containers
would float or spill if not properly secured, thus leading to the spread of vector borne diseases due to
spillage of waste.

Effect of increase in temperature: Another effect of global warming is the increase in temperature in Indian
cities. As per ICLEI ACCCRN9, the projected mean temperature in Kochi may show a net increase of 0.53
degree Celsius in 2015-44 with respect to the mean temperature of 1969-2000. Increase in temperature over
the years, may alter the waste decomposition rate and leachate production rate thus leading to the spread of
infectious diseases and posing problems for solid waste collection and disposal.

9
The ICLEI ACCCRN Process (IAP) enables local governments to assess their climate risks in the context of urbanisation, poverty and
vulnerability and formulate corresponding resilience strategies

30
Effect of rainfall: The rainfall, which hit Kochi on October 21st 2019, caused many low-lying parts under KMC
to be waterlogged for three days as storm water drains had not been cleaned on time. On October 23, the
district administration launched 'operation breakthrough' with the support of local volunteers and cleaned main
water drainages in Kochi. Thus, lack of cleaning of drains and increased precipitation can lead to an extreme
risk of improper waste management related problems, especially clogging of storm water drains and other
outlets, thus leading to urban flooding and the spread of water/vector borne diseases.

Effect of rise in sea levels: A study has found that sea level in Kochi coastal line is rising by 1.8 mm every
year. This affects the quality of water resources such as ground water. Further, a study of the tide gauge from
1971 to 2007 and satellite visuals between 2002-2012 revealed that an area about 30 km on Kochi coast,
which is about 80% of the total coastal area of the Kochi district, has been affected with soil erosion. Salinity
was found in water samples collected from the coastal areas. The impacts of sea level rise on SWM activities
are explained below.

 Effect of sea level rise on landfill sites: The impacts of sea level rise on landfills are inundation, waste
solution migration, physical erosion, and saltwater intrusion. Waves can cause extensive erosion of any
loose cover material on a landfill site. Erosion is particularly significant at landfills constructed in a way that
the waste is above ground level. Salt intrusion from sea level rise may affect landfills with clay caps and/or
liners, leading to significant clay-salt interaction. Increased salt concentrations may cause a decrease in
the shear strength of clay, thus weakening its structural stability. Sodium chloride may cause clay to
dehydrate, resulting in a decrease in permeability but an increase in porosity. Inundation of a landfill can
result if flood waters are high enough. A ponding effect will cause increased leachate production by adding
water to the volume of wastes in the landfill and causing varying degrees of saturation.

 Effect of sea level rise on land treatment areas: A rise in sea level could have two effects on land treatment
areas - (a) waste could dissolve or be suspended in the nearby soil, increased leachate production and
migration are also possible and (b) physical erosion caused by coastal wave action might result in a total
washout or removal of the soil layer and the incorporated wastes

 Effect of sea level rise on waste piles: A sea level rise could have three primary effects on waste piles,
which employ biological decomposition in the treatment of waste - (a) waste solution or suspension could
occur, (b) waste pile may remain saturated after floodwaters have receded, allowing waste to continue
leaching out, and the calorific value would decrease, moisture content and saline content of waste piles
would increase, and (c) saturation of the pile could cause structural weakening and result in a collapse of
the pile.

 Effect of sea level rise on waste storage facilities: Tanks could overflow, containers could float or spill if
not properly secured, structural damage to above-ground or partially above-ground tanks could be caused
by floating debris or by increased hydrostatic pressure, and saltwater could corrode tanks and containers

6.2 Impact of SWM activities on climate change

The waste management policies currently followed by KMC could lead to several environmental concerns
which are highlighted below.

Pollution by solid and liquid waste: Unscientific management of collection centers, landfill site and
transportation trucks could result in solid waste pollution along routes and neighborhood, wherein scavengers
and animals/birds could scatter the waste leading to pollution. Additionally light waste can become airborne
quickly and can spread to areas outside the landfill leading to pollution.

Air pollution: City wise waste collection services do not reach slum dwellers and urban poor residential areas
in Kochi thus forcing them to either burn their waste or bury it in an unscientific manner thus leading to air and

31
soil pollution. Some households and other waste generators also burn their waste such as dry leaves, paper
and plastic in order to avoid paying the waste collection fee to the collection workers. Such unscientific and
illegal burning/burying of waste pollutes the air and soil thus leading to unhygienic conditions in the city.
Additionally windrow composting of organic waste at Brahmapuram facility releases greenhouse gases
whereas direct disposal of solid waste in disposal sites/landfills also emit methane and other GHGs, thus
polluting the environment.

Fire hazards: As highlighted above, the unscientific dumping of waste leads to increment in biological activity
and can trigger chemical reaction which may lead to fire. The dumpsite at Brahmapuram has witnessed such
fires on several occasions. These uncontrolled fires could lead to significant loss of vegetation and could lead
to air pollution.

High odor levels: The odor emanating from the waste dump at the Brahmapuram facility can impact the
population up to 2 km away, is a nuisance for nearby residents and its proximity to the new Smart City is
already having a very negative impact on that development. The waste to energy project however will prevent
such uncontrolled waste dumps in the city and will support collection and removal of existing waste dumps to
generate power.

Land and soil pollution: There have been occurrences of waste, including plastic lying in paddy fields in the
Kochi district. Such waste if not removed will lead to soil pollution, which will make the paddy growing in such
fields unfit for human consumption. Additionally, as per the environmental impact assessment (EIA) /
environmental management plan (EMP) assessment report, over 136 unauthorized locations, (apart from the
Brahmapuram facility), in Kochi city and adjoining areas are used for illegal dumping of waste, huge tracks of
land are thus rendered unusable due to dumping of waste piles.

Water pollution: Canals are considered as the lifeline of Kochi. However, these canals are highly polluted and
in a bad shape because of dumping of large amounts of the uncollected waste in Kochi. The waste dumping
leads to blockage in canals which leads to reduced capacity of canal systems to support transportation, and it
also becomes an issue in case of rising sea levels in the future. The combination of water stagnation, waste
accumulation, and warm temperatures provide an excellent breeding ground for disease causing organisms
and the disease vectors (mosquitoes, flies and rodents) which can transmit the diseases to humans.
Additionally, the unscientific open dumping of waste at Brahmapuram is a major pollution contributor, there are
no controls of processing systems in place and contaminates and leachate are able to flow freely off the site
into surrounding rivers, ponds, streams and it also leads to organic and microbial pollution of ground water
table. The impact from the effects of leachate and waste water is high and leads to long term irreversible effects
beyond the boundaries of the landfill site.

Noise pollution: Movement of trucks near secondary collection centers, creates noise pollution for the citizens
living in the nearby residential areas. Movement of vehicles and the usage of heavy machinery at landfill site
both during operations increases the levels of noise and vibration in the local environment near the landfill site.
The effect will cause health problems such as respiratory diseases for the inhabitants near the landfill site.

32
6.3 Greenhouse emission estimates
Municipal solid waste consists of biodegradable organic matter, partially degradable matter and non-
degradable materials. Windrow composting of organic waste present in MSW releases greenhouse gases
whereas direct disposal of solid waste in disposal sites/landfills also emit methane (CH4) and other GHGs,
thus polluting the environment. The generation and composition of waste (carbon content in particular) as well
as the methods and technologies used for waste handling, processing and disposal determine the final amount
of greenhouse gas emissions associated with solid waste treatment/disposal.

Figure 5: GHG emissions from solid waste management at community level in Kochi

Source: GIZ Kochi Climate Action Plan

6.4 Solutions for minimizing the impact of SWM on climate change

Source reduction and recycling: Management of municipal solid waste presents many opportunities for GHG
emission reductions. Source reduction, in general, represents an opportunity to reduce GHG emissions in a
significant way. Source reduction and recycling can reduce GHG emissions at the manufacturing stage,
increase forest carbon sequestration, and avoid landfill CH4 emissions. Landfill CH4 emissions can be reduced
by using gas recovery systems and by diverting organic materials from landfills. Landfill CH4 can be flared or
utilized for its energy potential. When used for its energy potential, landfill CH4 displaces fossil fuels, as with
MSW combustion. Using compost as landfill cover on closed landfills provides an excellent environment for
the bacteria that oxidize CH4. Under optimal conditions, compost covers can practically eliminate CH4
emissions. Furthermore, the covers offer the possibility of controlling these emissions in a cost-effective
manner. This is particularly promising for small landfills, where landfill gas collection is not required and the
economics of landfill gas-to-energy projects are not attractive. Use of Bioreactors can accelerate the
decomposition process of landfill waste through controlled additions of liquid and leachate recirculation, which
enhances the growth of the microbes responsible for solid waste decomposition. The result is to shorten the
time frame for landfill gas generation, thereby rendering projections of landfill gas generation rates and yields
that are much more reliable for landfill gas recovery.

Adopt solid waste sustainability goals: Kochi Municipal Corporation should update general plans to reflect
solid waste sustainability issues such as green house gas (GHG) reduction goals, landfill gas recovery and
programs based on specific targets. The landfill site should be designed taking into consideration of tapping
landfill gas. The monitoring and update of records should be done on a regular basis to check performance of
reduction strategies. According to the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) of
the Kyoto protocol, there is a great potential for addressing methane emissions by reducing the amount of
waste that ends up in a landfill. Globally nearly 70% of our solid waste is landfilled, a meagre 19% is recovered

33
through composting or recycling, the remaining 11% is converted to energy through incineration or other waste-
to-energy technologies.

Adoption of technology: There are multiple technological options to reduce GHG emissions from post-
consumer waste. Composting can eliminate greenhouse gas emissions from landfill, and reduce overall GHGs
from solid waste. It is the organic material in landfill that produces methane. Contrary to the decomposition
that happens in a landfill which emits methane, composting is aerobic, which emits carbon dioxide which has
comparatively lesser greenhouse gas potential per atom of carbon emitted. Offsetting this, the use of compost
in agriculture increases carbon sequestration, decreases the need for irrigation by as much as 70%, and also
reduces the need for chemical fertilizers. Waste-to-energy via combustion is another option with potential for
climate change mitigation. There are over 800 of these plants worldwide, producing electricity and district
heating for the community by incinerating waste. Some of the countries have passed legislation to prohibit
future landfilling of combustible waste.

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7 Future trends
This chapter presents demographic and macroeconomic trends in Kochi and solid waste generation estimates
looking at a 20 year horizon.

7.1 Demographic trends

Kochi city’s population as per the 2011 census is 602,046 with a decadal growth of 1% during 2001- 2011.
The city’s growth in population is low as compared to the country’s decadal growth of 17.64%.

Figure 6: Population growth of Kochi city

7 12%
10% 5.96 6.02
5.65 10%
5.13
Population in lakh

5 8%
6%
6%

3 4%

1% 2%

1 0%
1981 1991 2001 2011
Population CoC Decadal growth

Source: Kochi CSP

The Kochi city sanitation plan was consulted for the population projections for the city. The CSP projects that
the population growth in the city is expected to remain moderately low considering the high rentals in the city
as well as the growth of the adjoining regions. The population projection for the Kochi city have been provided
below:

Table 6: Population projections for Kochi city

Average
Year Arithmetic Geometrical Incremental Updated Average population as
per CSP

1971 439,066 439,066 439,066 439,066 439,066

1981 513,249 513,249 513,249 513,249 513,249

1991 564,589 564,589 564,589 564,589 564,589

2001 596,473 596,473 596,473 596,473 596,473

2011 601,574 601,574 601,574 601,574 636,000*

2021 642,201 623,484 619,174 628,286 680,000

2031 682,828 646,191 613,746 647,588 728,000

2041 723,455 669,726 585,291 659,491 782,000

Source: Kochi CSP, *Projected in CSP

35
Being a major economic and tourist hub in the district, Kochi witnesses a large floating population, as per
estimates provided in city sanitation plan, the city has a daily floating population of 250,000.

7.2 Macroeconomic trends

Kochi has been one of India's main port since 14th century when it was a spice trading center of the world and
it is one of the major economic and trading hub in the country. The major economic sectors in Kochi include -
Information technology (IT), health services, shipbuilding, international trade and tourism. Today, the city
mainly has a service-focused economy with companies including retailing gold and textiles, exports of seafood
and spices, IT, tourism, health services, banking, shipbuilding, and fishing. A multi-product Special Economic
Zone (SEZ) has recently been established in Kochi, where businesses have been set up by a number of
information technology firms.

Eloor is the largest industrial belt in Kerala, 17 kms north of the city centre, with over 250 factories producing
a range of products including chemical and petrochemical products, pesticides, rare earth elements, rubber
chemicals, fertilizers, zinc and chromium compounds, and leather products. Kochi Refineries of Ambalamugal
(BPCL) is one of the largest oil refining companies in South India.

7.3 Solid waste generation estimates

To estimate the solid waste that will be generated in Kochi in the upcoming years, we referred to the
calculations provided in the City Sanitation Plan (CSP) updation status report prepared by ICRA Management
Consulting Services Limited (iMaCS). The waste generation projections in the city are expected to remain in
line with the resident population projections as depicted in the demographic trends (decadal growth in
population). The estimated solid waste to be generated in the upcoming years has been calculated using the
projected resident population and assuming per capita solid waste generated to be constant that is 600 gm
per capita over the years (as per the calculation in the CSP). Additionally we have also calculated waste
generated using the waste generated per capita figure of 507 gm/capita as provided by C-HED and assuming
the waste generated per capita to be constant over the years.

Table 7: Solid waste generation estimates of Kochi city

2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041

Population 614,930 628,286 637,864 647,588 653,513 659,491

Waste generated (tons) as per CSP 369 377 383 389 392 396

Waste generated (tons) as per C-HED data 312 319 323 328 329 334

Note: The values for all years including 2016 are estimated values
Source: CSP Updation status report - IMaCS Analysis, C-HED data, CRIS analysis.

For more accurate analysis and results, a deeper analysis is required which would require historical data on
the number of households, number of commercial establishments, institutions, hospitals, industries and other
waste generators in the city of Kochi. The detailed analysis may be undertaken during the feasibility study for
SWM in Kochi.

36
8 International & national best practices
The following chapter analyses three cases studies, one each from Vilnius (Lithuania), Leeds (UK), Stockholm
(Sweden) and three case studies from India, in order to assess the best practices and processes in solid waste
management. The chapter also seeks to explain how the key learnings from national and international best
practices and case studies can help shape an efficient solid waste management in Kochi city.

8.1 Experience from Vilnius, Lithuania

Vilnius – city profile: Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, is situated in south east of the country. It is the 2 nd
largest city in the Baltic states having an area of 401 km2. The city has multilingual residents wherein 50%
speak two foreign languages, dominant foreign languages being English, Russian, German and Polish. Vilnius
is the second youngest capital in North Europe after Copenhagen10, and Vilnius has the largest population of
young people in the Baltic Sea region capitals. The population of Vilnius is 580,020 as of January 1, 2020. The
city of Vilnius holds shareholding in 25 stock and closed stock companies, 71 public companies and 313
budgetary institutions. The Vilnius municipality is one of the 60 municipalities in the country, has 51 members,
provides administrative services, organizes the provision of public services and adopts political decisions. The
council committees perform activities related to environment and energy, economy and finance, culture,
education and sports, urban planning and development, services and city maintenance, social affairs, health
and local government development. Additionally the municipality has 1.6 administrative employees per 1,000
inhabitants under the municipality. The political structure of Vilnius municipality is illustrated in the figure given
below.

Figure 7: Political structure of the Vilnius municipality

Source: Presentation on Vilnius city and Vilnius municipality

Solid waste collection in Vilnius: The Vilnius municipality is responsible for organizing collection and
disposal of waste, and collection of recyclables such as paper, glass, plastic etc. Service providers for
collection of waste and recyclables are selected by the municipality through tendering procedure. For private
(individual) households, municipality appointed waste collectors, provide door-to-door collection services for
the collection of paper, glass, cardboard, mixed cans, plastics etc. Owners of such individual houses have
signed contracts for the use of containers for segregated waste collection. An underground waste container
system has also been developed in Vilnius, which is described below. Apart from individual houses, residents

10
Nordea Analysis from EU National Statistics, 2015

37
of apartments must deliver the recyclable waste to ‘collection points’ located within a distance of 50-500 meters
from homes) and bio-waste to ‘Civic Amenity sites’ (one civic amenity site per 50,000 inhabitants), operated
by municipality appointed contractors. Additionally, a deposit and return system is in place for all kinds of
packaging products primarily drink containers. While waste collection, transportation to civic amenity sites and
waste disposal are financed through municipal tax levied on homeowners, door-to-door collection of
recyclables is financed by manufacturers and importers. The underground waste container system and deposit
recycling facility used in solid waste collection are described below.

 Underground waste container system: An underground waste container system has been developed in
Vilnius as per which all the residents in the capital city have installed dozens of underground and semi-
underground containers, which will be separate for household wastes, paper, plastics and glass. These
containers are economical, reliable, and suited for both urban and rural communities, especially for areas
undergoing redevelopment. Areas having large amounts of waste such as shopping centers, residential
areas etc., have high utility for such containers. These containers have 75% of their depth underground
and hence are aesthetically more pleasing than scattered collection bins.
 Deposit recycling initiative: Under this initiative, the recyclable and reusable material is returned for
recycling, back to shops or to reverse vending machines. While returning the material and packaging (such
as PET, metal, glass, plastic, beverage packaging etc.) with printed deposit marks, a small refund
(incentive) is provided. To combat litter and increase waste collection and recycling rates, consumers pay
a deposit amount, while purchasing say drink containers, and the amount is refunded, when the empty
container is returned for recycling. To get the refund, the returned packaging must be empty, with its
original shape maintained, its labels undamaged and barcode clearly visible. This is a supplementary
waste collection system organized by manufacturers and importers association and financed by
manufacturers and importers. Collection points are in comfortable locations. The facility has brought about
considerable reduction of packaged waste with 91.9% of all beverage containers being returned for
recycling by the end of 2017. The prices of the deposit system are provided in Table 9 below:

Figure 8: Packaging and deposit flow for deposit recycling system at Vilnius

Source: USAD presentation 2018 – Lithuania deposit system

38
Table 8: Prices of the deposit system

Deposit system Price (EUR/tonne)

PET 2,000

Aluminium 1,000

Iron 1,500

Glass 83

Source: Vilnius data

Solid waste disposal and treatment in Vilnius: In addition to waste collection and transportation, Vilnius
municipality is also responsible for organizing disposal of waste generated in the city. Vilnius County Waste
Management Center (VAATC), founded in 2003, by the municipality is responsible for creating a waste
management system for Vilnius city and for effectively implementing waste management tasks. It is a large
solid waste management plant with state-of-the art facilities. The plant manages the mechanical biological
treatment (MBT) plant, operates the Vilnius county regional landfill, operates 17 bulky waste disposal sites and
six green waste composting sites. The waste management center sets an example by paying attention to
reducing environmental impact, evaluating practical examples, and applying best available techniques.

 Vilnius county regional landfill: In 2017, an year after the mechanical biological treatment plant started
operations, ~175,000 tonnes of waste was disposed at the landfill site, whereas ~225,000 tonnes of waste
was treated at the MBT plant. The waste is received at the waste reception area of the landfill site,
registered, and then disposed of at the landfill site. The landfill gas, wastewater and leachate are collected
and treated wherein the landfill gas is collected and treated by a contractor. Continuous monitoring of
operations and maintenance and environmental monitoring is conducted at the landfill site.
 Mechanical biological treatment (MBT), Vilnius: Vilnius city has a mechanical biological treatment plant,
which is a type of waste processing facility that uses source separated waste, combines re-sorting of mixed
utility waste from the Vilnius region with a form of biological treatment of waste such as anaerobic digestion
or composting. Biological processing produces solid recovered fuel (SRF). The MBT was built on a design,
build, operate (20 years) model and started operations in 2016 and was partially financed by EU funds.
The MBT is managed by Vilnius County Waste Management Center (VAATC) and is operated by UAB
Energesman. The plant serves eight municipalities including Vilnius city and Vilnius district. Some
advantages of the MBT plant in Vilnius are: a) Reduces landfilled waste especially biodegradable waste
and hence reduces greenhouse gas emissions, b) Sorts secondary material for recycling, c) Prepares RDF
for waste to energy plant, d) Prepares high calorific value SRF for cement industry, e) It is cost efficient
through economies of scale, f) 11,000 tonnes per year from the Vilnius region treated, and g) Accurately
weighs municipal waste and commercial and industrial waste is no more accounted as municipal. The
main parameters of the MBT plant are provided in table 10 below:

39
Figure 9: MBT plant at Vilnius

Source: http://www.versina.lt/portfolio/vilnius-mechanical-biological-waste-treatment-plant/

Table 9: MBT plant parameters

Design capacity 250,000 tonnes/year

Number of workers 120-150

Working days/week Five

Shifts Two

Land plot 40,000 m2

Area of buildings 21,000 m2

Source: Vilnius data

 Vilnius waste system administrator – Sivasa (VASA): Apart from VAATC, as described above, the Vilnius
waste system administrator is a company established in 2015 by the Vilnius municipality pursuant to the
provisions of the law on waste management of Lithuania. The aim of the company is to carry out efficient
administration of waste management, control and supervise the provision of municipal waste management
services, and to create a provision to transfer information to municipal waste holders and authorities of the
Vilnius municipality. The company is responsible for monitoring the efficacy and efficiency of the waste
management system in Vilnius. The company does so by maintaining and constantly updating the
database of municipal waste holders, developing and determining the accounting system and quantum of
user charge for waste management related activities, undertaking detailed studies regarding the quantum
of waste collected, the amount of waste collection containers required and waste transport route monitoring
and formulation. The entity is also responsible for waste related information collection, management and
dissemination.
 Waste to energy (WtE) cogeneration plant: A WtE cogeneration power plant is being constructed in
Vilinius, which will convert waste into useful heat and electricity. It is expected that the plant will treat
160,000 tonnes/year of non-recyclable, non-usable waste (after sorting) at the MBT facility, following which
the waste will be incinerated for production of electricity and recovery of heat simultaneously, known as
cogeneration. The plant funded by the European Union (EU) and led by Vilinius kogeneracinė jėgainė, is
expected to have a capacity of 70 MW, of which electricity would account for 16-20 MW and the rest would
be heat (51-55 MW). It is expected that the plant will supply electricity to 90,000 households (~20%) in
Vilinius and will result in EUR 10 million savings each year on spends in waste diposal services by Vilinius
inhabitants. The project would result in 95% reduction in landfill space and would result in reduction of
10% of greenhouse gas emissions from the waste sector or reduction in ~130,000 tonnes of CO2 annually.

40
 The WtE project, expected to be completed by 2020 is important for Vilinius as it will help to build a
sustainable and integrated municipal SWM system.11
Other best practices followed by Vilnius: The city of Vilnius follows some best practices in other areas apart
from SWM, such as different companies for handling the city’s different functionalities, a separate maintenance
company providing all utility services as well as the usage of drones for city surveillance. Such best practices
are described below.

 Different companies for handling city’s functionalities: The Vilnius city municipality has formed companies,
each handling a separate functionality for the city. These companies have their own independent CEOs,
supported by a team of experts and dedicated individuals focused on the roles assigned to them. For
Indian cities this is a new concept and a novel idea.
 Utility services in the city: Vilnius city municipality has a maintenance company called Grinda UAB which
provides all utility services to the city such as repair and maintenance of streets and courtyards, removing
graffiti from monuments, bridges and viaducts, organizing work on the beaches of Vilnius, providing special
care and quarantine for homeless animals, providing specialized sanitary services, providing internal
network emergency services etc. Grinda’s formation has revolutionized the utility sector in Vilnius. It has
brought many innovative and smart applications for better service delivery such as electronic task
management system that helps to manage tasks, Open Vilnius that shows the routes of special vehicles
online, WAZE that helps users to register obstacles and potholes on mobile application etc.
 Usage of drones: Grinda, the maintenance company uses drones for city surveillance, assessing
emergency situations, identifying illegal buildings and/or landfill sites, for maintenance of urban
infrastructure networks and supervision for road cleaning.
Conclusion: The city of Vilnius has exhibited a well-rounded approach to solid waste management across the
entire lifecycle from collection to disposal. The city has introduced several novel concepts such as underground
waste collection bins, deposit recycling facilities, and setup of cogeneration plants to meet the cities power and
heat requirements. Kochi could adapt a similar integrated waste management adopting the best practices
employed by Vilnius. Kochi can also look at setting up of a dedicated company which will be wholly owned by
the Kochi municipal corporation and shall be responsible for the entire municipal waste management lifecycle.
The setup of an independent organization will reduce the burden of waste management from KMC and also
enable the organization to employ waste management experts who are well equipped at tackling the specific
waste management challenges faced by Kochi.

8.2 Experience from Leeds, UK

Leeds - City Profile: Leeds is the third largest and one of the fastest growing cities in the United
Kingdom. Leeds had a population of 789,194 in 2018. The city has a thriving economy with industries in
financial services, legal, manufacturing, health and retail. The city boasts of leading educational institutions
and highly skilled workforce. Leeds is well connected with road, rail and air networks.

Leeds recycling and energy recovery facility (RERF): Veolia, a French transnational company signed a 25
year Private Finance Initiative (PFI) with Leeds City Council in 2012 for the purpose of municipal waste
treatment and energy recovery. The Leeds recycling and energy recovery facility (RERF), developed by Veolia,
(officially opened in 2016) uses state-of-the art technology to recover 90% of waste from the city’s black bin
waste (which contains Leed’s inhabitants general household waste excluding hazardous waste) to produce
~11 MW of electricity. Leeds currently produces, 165,000 tonnes of black bin waste per year of which 10% of
the waste is taken for recycling and the remaining 90% is provided to the RERF for producing electricity. RERF
is not just an incinerator but employs a special combustion process wherein the remaining 90% of black bin

11
https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/projects/lithuania/cogeneration-in-vilnius-converting-waste-into-electricity-and-useful-heat

41
garbage is burnt thereby producing heat to convert water into steam, which in turn drives a turbine to create
electricity, which is then transferred to the national grid.

Figure 10: Recycling and energy recovery facility, Leeds

Source: https://www.veolia.co.uk/leeds/

Benefits of the RERF: The waste to energy plant prevents all black bin waste from landfill each year, thus
saving EUR 7 million a year as compared to the previous cost of landfill. This will save ~EUR 200 million over
the next 25 years compared to landfill. This innovative method of electricity generation supplies electricity to
approximately 20,000 households in the UK. Moving away from landfill sites has also reduced the amount of
greenhouse gases being released into the atmosphere, the amount of which is equivalent to taking off ~29,000
cars off the road each year. The facility will result in EUR 250 million saving in landfill tax over 25 years by
Leeds inhabitants. The plant created 200 jobs during construction and post commissioning 58 new jobs have
been created. This facility helps reduce Leed’s carbon footprint, increase recovery of recyclables and energy
from waste, decreases landfill and increases re-use. The plants helps Leeds to achieve the aim of being a zero
waste city and is committed to bring about sustainability and the ability to make the best use of available
resources.12

Conclusion: Leeds has exhibited an exceptional approach to energy generation from waste. The city has
been able to process almost 90% of its black bin waste to generate heat as well as energy. The efficiency in
energy generation enable the city to utilize land for other productive activities as well as generate significant
savings.

8.3 Experience from Stockholm, Sweden

Stockholm - City Profile: Stockholm is the capital and most populous urban area Sweden. Stockholm had a
population of 975,904 as of December, 2019. The city is the cultural, political and economic centre of the
country, accounting for over one thirds of Sweden’s GDP. It has an extensive network of roads, rails and
airways connecting the City of Stockholm with the surrounding urban and metropolitan municipalities (together
forming the Stockholm County).

12
https://www.veolia.co.uk/leeds/our-facility/leeds-recycling-energy-recovery-facility-rerf-works
https://www.veolia.co.uk/leeds/
https://www.leeds.gov.uk/residents/bins-and-recycling/your-bins/future-of-leeds-waste

42
Solid waste generation in Stockholm: The total waste generated in Stockholm has been decreasing over
the recent years. The volume of waste processed in 2018 was 614,110 tonnes compared to 688,330 tonnes
processed in 2017. Household waste accounted for 441,530 tonnes (~72%) of the total waste generated in
2018. The recent trend of decreasing waste generation is primarily because of the emphasis of congestion
taxes, waste management plans and policies related to waste generation. Further, data suggests that the
volume of household waste per resident is projected to decrease to 452 kg in 2020 and 424 kg in 2026 (as
compared to 477 kg waste per resident in 2015). 13
The Swedish Recycling Revolution: One of the special focus of the country has been to achieve a zero
waste society – transitioning from dumping waste in landfills to recycling and reusing. Sweden has had a can
and bottle deposit system for a long time. This system gives people money back on recycling and has been in
place since 1984 for aluminum cans, and since 1994 for plastic bottles. Each year Sweden recycle 1.8 billion
bottles and cans. In 2017, the government also reformed its tax regime so that people prefer used
items/reusing. In 2018 the Swedish government even established a special advisory group to help it make
circular economy a key part of its policy, the so-called cradle-to-cradle approach. Due to its position in the
Swedish economy and populace, Stockholm has had a lot of influence from these policies. It has been one of
the main centres of driving the recycling revolution for the Swedish government. 14

Figure 11: Waste to energy power plant, Sweden

Source: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/21/climate/sweden-garbage-used-for-fuel.html

13 https://www.stockholmvattenochavfall.se/globalassets/pdf1/riktlinjer/avfall/avfallsplan/sva072-avfallsplan_en.pdf
https://www.avfallsverige.se/fileadmin/user_upload/Publikationer/SAH_2019_EN.pdf
https://www.avfallsverige.se/fileadmin/user_upload/Publikationer/Avfallshantering_2018_EN.pdf
14https://sweden.se/nature/the-swedish-recycling-revolution/

43
Stockholm Waste Management Plan 2017-2020: The purpose of the Stockholm waste management plan is
to have a strategy to manage, recycle and reuse through planning new areas, reviewing building permits and
supervising environmentally hazardous activities, besides specifying how residents, businesses and other
organisations manage their waste. The plan has four major objectives: (a) waste from household/businesses
to decrease and waste produce to be utilised in resource-efficient manner, (b) harmful waste to be prevented
and managed early, (c) waste management to be adapted to people and (d) waste management to be a natural
part of cities physical planning.
Benefits of the Stockholm Waste Management Plan: Due to the waste management plan in effect, the City
of Stockholm was able to process 614,110 tonnes of waste in 2018, generating an energy of 1,641,360 MW.
The plan has helped keep the residual waste generation relatively constant at 230,000 tonnes per year despite
the population growth. It targets to collect 70% of the available food waste by 2020, corresponding to just over
66,000 tonnes. It has developed 30 different classifications to separate and collect bulky wastes and plans to
add 5 more categories of waste fractions by end of 2020. Everyday waste is processed in waste to energy
plants to generate energy for home and the city. Stockholm has also launched a biochar pilot plant in 2017 to
manufacture biochar through pyrolysis of resident’s garden waste. There are also plans to build a new sorting,
pre-treatment and anaerobic digestion facility. The city is also creating a network for stationary underground
vacuum waste collection system across buildings with three refuse chutes. At a later stage, this will be
incorporated with a built-in recording and weighing system so that waste can be utilised optimally. All this has
been possible through the utilization of Green IT – IT infrastructure to support waste management and
environment.15

Figure 12: Mechanical underground waste collection, Stockholm

Source: http://sajms.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Sustainable-Solid-Waste-Management-Best-Global-Practices1.pdf

Conclusion: Stockholm has an exceptional approach to cover the entire value chain to manage solid and
other types of waste. This spans from the point to waste generation to the point of waste use. It has put in
place tax regimes and incentive structures to curb waste generation and promote reuse of materials. The city
has prepared plans for an underground waste collection and sorting system. The collected waste is then
segregated into 30 categories before it is used for energy generation through one of the two means- anaerobic
digestion or waste to energy through incineration– to achieve flexibility and resource efficiency. Through an
integrated waste management plan the city recycles almost 99% of the household waste generated.

15 https://www.stockholmvattenochavfall.se/globalassets/pdf1/riktlinjer/avfall/avfallsplan/sva072-avfallsplan_en.pdf
https://www.avfallsverige.se/fileadmin/user_upload/Publikationer/SAH_2019_EN.pdf
https://www.avfallsverige.se/fileadmin/user_upload/Publikationer/Avfallshantering_2018_EN.pdf
http://sajms.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Sustainable-Solid-Waste-Management-Best-Global-Practices1.pdf

44
8.4 Experience from Indore, India
Indore - City Profile: Indore the commercial capital of Madhya Pradesh is located 200 kms west of Bhopal,
the state capital of Madhya Pradesh. Indore city has a population of 1,964,086 as per the 2011 census. Textile
industry is an important industry in the city as there are a number of textile mills around the city. The city has
also seen the rise of companies in the IT domain in the recent past. The city is well connected by rail, road and
air and has several religious as well as tourist spots.

Introduction: Indore has been adjudged as the cleanest city in India consecutively for four years by the
Ministry of urban development. To accomplish this feat Indore Municipal Corporation (IMC) has ensured that
efficient long-term plans, and not quick fixes were adopted to address the city’s SWM problems. The IMC,
which governs 85 wards and a population of ~27 lakh people, implemented a series of carrot-and-stick
measures that has led to the position the city finds itself in now. Since 2016, IMC has eliminated garbage
dumps in the city, ensured 100% waste segregation, strived for zero landfill and converted waste to usable
products such as compost and fuel. It partnered with NGOs, to run awareness campaigns, contracted private
companies to run some SWM operations, used technology and improved municipal capacity to ensure
implementation of its waste management plan. Some features of the SWM value chain and the best practices
followed by IMC in the SWM domain are stipulated below. 16

Sweeping and cleaning work: Every night, 800 km of main and wider roads are swept by machines, footpaths
and road dividers are washed with water mist, using 400 liters of water every night, most of it being recycled
water from the three sewage plants set up by IMC. Internal roads that make up for the rest of the 2,200 km are
swept by 8,500 sweepers, deployed by IMC and waste is collected in gunny bags, and transported by vans to
the waste processing facility. Sweeping in residential areas is done once a day whereas sweeping in
commercial areas is one thrice a day. The sweepers are managed by sanitary inspectors and health officers,
whereas monitoring and coordination is done by the control room team, online. In the first six months of road
cleaning between 20,000 and 30,000 metric tonnes of dust was cleared.

Solid waste segregation: In 2016, when IMC started by collecting waste every day from households, it asked
residents to provide segregated waste. At that time almost 80% of households did not used to segregate their
waste, for which the sanitation and SWM supervisors were notified and such households were fined.
Households just wanted the municipality to solve their problems, but did not want to do their bit by providing
segregated waste. The IMC at this time started a helpline, for problems of residents (related to SWM) to be
resolved within 48 hours thus building a trust between the IMC and the residents. By now, 95-100% households
provide segregated waste such as kitchen waste (wet), dry waste and hazardous waste.

Solid waste collection: Indore city consists of 85 wards that have been grouped into 20 zones. Waste
collection is done door-to-door by IMC from all commercial areas, households and localities including slum
areas and illegal colonies at the cost of INR 60-150 (EUR 0.7 -1.8) per month for residential users and INR
100-180 (EUR 1.2 – 2.2) per month for commercial units (as of 2018). 470 specifically designed vehicles (in
addition to other vehicles already present) have been procured to collect waste from all the 85 wards (100%
wards coverage) and transport the same to 10 transfer stations. Each vehicle driver is assigned a collection
area and a route map. Each household divides the waste in three parts, viz. kitchen waste (wet waste), dry
waste and hazardous waste, and all the three types of wastes are deposited into separate compartments in
the vehicle as well. The vehicle helper ensures that house owners drop the waste in right compartments. While
hazardous waste is mechanically picked up in a capsule and is transported to the incinerator for burning, dry
and wet waste are also picked up in separate capsules and are transported to waste handling plants and

16
https://scroll.in/article/939210/how-indore-became-indias-cleanest-city-and-how-others-can-follow
https://www.indiaspend.com/how-indore-became-indias-cleanest-city-and-how-others-can-follow/
https://www.financialexpress.com/infrastructure/how-indore-became-the-cleanest-city-of-india-2/1876831/

45
composting plants respectively, outside the city limits. In 2017-18 IMC collected INR 27 crore (EUR3.3 million)
as user fees for solid waste collection. Some other best practices followed by IMC in managing solid waste are
stipulated below.

 Removal of dustbins: 1,400 dustbins around the city have been removed, as residents used to put their
garbage in plastic bags and used to throw it in and around public dustbins, often not taking the effort of
getting out of their cars and just chucking the garbage in the direction of the bin from the car window, It
created more mess at prime locations resulting in filthy smell around the city. Removal of these bins is
proof that efficient door-to-door collection is happening. These bins have been replaced by smaller litter
bins for pedestrian use.

 Decentralized solid waste management: An organic waste collection center lies inside a triangle at the end
of Chappan Dukaan, a street famous for its small eateries and food market. All food outlets at this street
separate food waste and carry it to a small garden inside a triangle at the end of the street. At night an
NGO team called Swaha, managing the composting, weighs the trash and prepares it for initial composting
inside a mobile van, after which the compressed waste is sent for further processing at another center.

 Tracking garbage vans: IMC has set up a command center that tracks the routes of garbage vans around
the city using GPS based vehicle tracking and monitoring system (VTMS), tracks the stops these vans
make and also provides assistance in times of breakdown. The web based VTMS system uses data feed
for real time route adherence of garbage vans.17

 Rewards and punishments: The IMC has ensured that its own employees and officials adopt the
programme for SWM suspending officials who were not working adequately in supervising solid waste
segregation and collection, while rewarding those who worked well.

 Behavior of residents: For the waste collection exercise to be successful, IMC tried to understand the
behavioral traits of its residents. For example, residents of one locality do not wake up before 10 am or 11
am and so the collection vans go to such localities only in the afternoon for waste collection.

 Information campaigns: IMC has conducted information campaigns, roping in religious leaders for giving
sermons on the importance of cleanliness as mentioned in religious texts, though schools and cleanliness
competitions and oath taking ceremonies for children pledging a zero waste city.

 Zero dumping of solid waste in vacant plots: The sanitary workers of IMC ensure no dumping of solid
waste in vacant plots, other convenient corners and other open garbage spots in residential areas, rich
colonies, upmarket areas and alongside roads. About 850 such open spots have been removed.

 Residents are sensitized about SWM: Sarafa, a popular hangout place and a street food heaven in Indore,
which used to be littered with trash and infested with flies earlier is now very clean and street food hawkers
point you to the bin even before they collect payment. Failure to keep their surroundings clean would result
in losing their spots and livelihood as well.

17
https://india.smartcitiescouncil.com/article/indore-deploys-vtms-tracks-waste-real-time

46
Figure 13: One of the 10 transfer stations in Indore

Source: https://scroll.in/article/939210/how-indore-became-indias-cleanest-city-and-how-others-can-follow

Solid waste treatment and processing: The collected waste is taken to 10 transfer stations across the city,
where IMC staff ensures the waste is weighed, properly segregated. From these transfer stations, the waste
is then transported to the waste processing facility. At the central waste processing facility (which was
previously a landfill site), 645 tonnes of recyclable waste is sifted through, daily, and separated by 300 workers.
Two NGOs Sarthak and Basix, (collaborated with by IMC) have further integrated the informal sector to sort
the waste. The recyclable waste thus segregated is sold to either the recycling industry or to companies that
use recycled material.

 Conversion of landfill site to garden: Indore’s landfill site was its biggest dumping ground. Indore has
converted its landfill site into a garden (planted with trees) and a central waste processing facility. Indore
strives to become a zero landfill and garbage free city for which the landfill site has been converted into a
central waste processing facility. At this facility dry waste is segregated and sent to different industries for
various uses and wet waste is treated to generate revenue generating products using eco-friendly
technologies. These processing facilities have cleared the legacy waste at this landfill site, thus converting
it into a garden.
 Solid waste handling plants (Dry waste): There are two dry waste handling plants in the city capable of
handling 300 TPD of solid waste. The first plant is fully automatic, is installed and maintained by an
outsourced agency, and segregates waste into 12 categories, coverts them into bales which are sent to
different industries for various uses .For example the non-recyclable waste is sent to a cement plant at
Neemuch and to M. P. Rural Road Development Corporation to be used in road construction. The second
waste handling plant is operated by IMC on similar lines, except that segregation is done manually.
 Composting plant: As much as 550 tonnes of organic waste is produced daily. The composting plant
converts wet and organic waste into manure which is purchased by landscapers and neighboring farmers
at INR 2/kg. Sometimes it is given off free of charge to farmers as farmers agree to transport the compost
at their own cost.
 Construction waste processing facility: Construction waste is sent to a separate privately-operated facility,
where it is ground to different sizes, and then used as raw material for making bricks, paved tiles and
material to edge footpaths, procured by the government for its NREGA and other public works programmes
 Mobile composting vans: As discussed above the food waste generated in the Chappan Dukaan area of
Indore is collected by food outlet owners in a small garden in a triangle located at the end of the street and

47
 the waste is then composted daily in mobile vans, by Swaha (NGO) workers thus processing the waste
near the source of waste collection.

Figure 14: Mobile composting van at Indore

Source: https://www.indiaspend.com/how-indore-became-indias-cleanest-city-and-how-others-can-follow/

 Biomethanation plant: IMC has also installed a biomethanation plant opposite the vegetable, fruit and
flower market. This plant of 20 tonnes capacity converts organic waste to methane is operated by Mahindra
Waste to Energy Solutions limited for a 15 year contract period. About 20 tonnes of waste is collected daily
and is converted into 750-800 kg of bio compressed natural gas (bio-CNG) which is used to run city buses
and sold as cooking fuel for hotels and IIM Indore at subsidized rates.
Conclusion: Indore has been adjusted as the cleanest city in India for four consecutive years. The city has
attained this feat through a collaborative and innovative approach. The municipal corporation has been
instrumental in bringing together the various stakeholders in the city, conducting awareness programs and
adopting an integrated approach to solving the city’s waste management puzzle. The city has showcased that
user charges can be collected from citizens if efficient waste management systems are put in place by the
ULBs.

8.5 Experience from New Delhi, India

New Delhi – City Profile: New Delhi is the national capital of India. New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) is
one of the three statutory urban regions within Delhi and is spread over an area of 42.74 km 2. The population
of the New Delhi municipal area is 133,713 as per the census of 2011. New Delhi is a major commercial hub
and houses the Parliament, Supreme Court and Diplomatic missions of all major countries. The airport in New
Delhi is one of the busiest airports in the country, the city has India’s largest bus transport system which are
operated using compressed natural gas. Delhi was the country’s first city to introduce the metro rail – a modern
public transport system.

48
12 MW Waste to Energy (WtE) facility: The 12 MW WtE plant at Ghazipur is a public private partnership
(PPP) project of the Delhi government for scientific management of solid waste. The plant was commissioned
by the East Delhi Municipal Corporation (EDMC) and setup by IL&FS Environmental Infrastructure & Services
Limited (IEISL), a wholly owned subsidiary of IL&FS, which has made all the investment for the execution of
the project. The plant at Ghazipur processes 2,000 tons of waste on a daily basis and generates 127 tons of
Refuse derived fuel (RDF - RDF plant) and 12 MW of power at the power plant, as depicted in the figure
below.18

Figure 15: WtE plant at Ghazipur, producing RDF and power

Source: https://www.globalmethane.org/attachments/Ghazipur%20WTE%20Project.pdf

 RDF plant: The MSW received at the RDF plant is highly heterogeneous in composition and size, has high
moisture content and is mixed with soil, dust and road sweepings. The RDF plant at Ghazipur uses a
Department of Science & Technology – Technology, information, forecasting & assessment council (DST-
TIFAC) recommended pre-processing technology for pre-processing of mixed MSW in order to produce
superior quality RDF and to achieve reduced pollution due to plant operations. The pre-processing
technology incorporates manual sorting, mechanical sieving, shredding, drying and air classification and
provides a sustained and efficient combustion, higher boiler reliability, lesser volume of ashes, reduced
quantity of dioxins, good shelf life of RDF, less cost of leachate treatment, and RDF produced is free from
dust and smell. The RDF produced is a low density material with moderate moisture content, high quantity
of volatile matter and low carbon content. As part of abatement measures for odor control, following three
steps are carried out which are a) waste is sprayed with an organic culture solution, b) waste storage area
is maintained at negative pressure and c) Odor containing air is injected into the boiler.

Figure 16: RDF and power plants of the Ghazipur waste to energy plant

Dryer section of RDF plant Pre-processing section of RDF plant Power plant section

Source: https://www.globalmethane.org/attachments/Ghazipur%20WTE%20Project.pdf

18
https://www.globalmethane.org/attachments/Ghazipur%20WTE%20Project.pdf
https://www.waste.ccacoalition.org/sites/default/files/files/trip_report_-_ccac_city_exchange_johannesburg_delhi_final_0.pdf
http://www.derc.gov.in/ordersPetitions/orders/Misc/2018/Petition%20no.%2027.2018%20-%2002.11.2018.pdf

49
Figure 17: RDF plant process flow at Ghazipur, New Delhi

Source: https://www.globalmethane.org/attachments/Ghazipur%20WTE%20Project.pdf

 Power plant: The power plant has adopted some global technologies such as a) Basic engineering and
boiler technology from Kepper Seghers, Belgium which is World leader in WtE plants with more than 100
operational plants worldwide, b) Tailor made, reciprocating, moving and tumbling Grate designed for higher
combustion efficiency of RDF and low pollution emission, c) The plant uses triple pass boiler for complete
combustion and progressive removal of SPM to reduce toxic emissions, d) There is a design provision in
the boiler to have more than a 2 second retention of flue gases at 850 degree Celsius plus temperature to
disintegrate dioxins and furans and e) The plant uses a flue gas treatment system, (to treat SPM, NOx,
SOx, heavy metals, toxic gases, dioxins and furans) compliant with Euro Norms by Keppel Seghers,
Belgium.

50
Figure 18: Power plant process flow at Ghazipur, New Delhi

Source: https://www.globalmethane.org/attachments/Ghazipur%20WTE%20Project.pdf
 Benefits of the WtE Plant: The government has signed a power purchase agreement with BSES Yamuna
Power Limited (BYPL) to purchase 49% of exportable power. The electricity generated in this unit is
supplied to East Delhi area. The remaining 51% of the power is free to be captively consumed/ sold/ traded
using open access, by the East Delhi Waste Processing Company (EDMC). Since its operation, the plant
has generated 13.6 million kWh of power and processed 244,000 tons of waste, up till 2017. Over a period
of 25 years, the plant is estimated to mitigate the production of ~8.2 million tons of GHG emissions, which
is the equivalent of removing all cars from the roads of Delhi for 100 days. The plant is India’s first WtE
plant, compliant with Euro norms, for emission along with highest standards of pollution control measures
and will help in saving 260 acres of urban land by preventing landfill.
Challenges in operations of the WtE plant: The WtE plant at Ghazipur is taking more waste than stipulated
every month for processing. However, of the waste that goes to the plant, 20% is said to be rejected.
Additionally the waste dumped at the neighboring Ghazipur landfill site has risen into a 100 feet mountain of
trash resulting in a putrid smell and nuisance for neighboring residents. Excess waste is not being treated at
the WtE plant which has resulted into a massive garbage dump at the Ghazipur landfill site, signifying
challenges in operations of the WtE plant. Additionally a major fire broke out at the Ghazipur landfill in 2017.19
Conclusion: New Delhi has adopted the PPP approach to setup a waste to energy facility in the city. The city
has been facing an uphill task in waste management and the WtE plant is the step in the right direction. The
plant utilizes state of the art global technologies from European companies. The plant however is facing
challenges pertaining to capacity which requires augmentation at the earliest.

19
https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/probe-irregularities-at-ghazipur-wte-plant/article24525035.ece

51
8.6 Experience from Hyderabad, India
Hyderabad – City Profile: Hyderabad is the capital city of the state of Telangana, the city has a population of
6,731,790 as per the 2011 census. The city is the fourth most populous city in the country. Hyderabad is
dominated by the service industry being a hub for IT and financial services companies. The city is also known
as the City of Pearls due to its role in trading of pearls. Hyderabad is home to 13 universities and several other
educational institutions making it a hub for skilled workforce.

Integrated SWM at Hyderabad: The Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) green flagged an
integrated municipal SWM project under the JNNURM through a PPP model. Ramko Enviro Engineers Ltd
(REEL) were shortlisted to execute the project, and an agreement was signed between REEL and GHMC in
February 2009. A special purpose vehicle named Hyderabad Integrated MSW Ltd (HIMSW) was setup for the
implementation and operations of the project.20

Responsibilities of private player: The project entails the following activities to be undertaken by the private
player: a) Infrastructure development or upgradation, operation, maintenance, and management of the plant
as per the operational requirement, b) Primary and secondary collection of MSW and transportation of this
waste to transfer stations and subsequently to the integrated waste management facility, c) Processing the
solid waste as per the stipulated waste disposal rules and disposal of residual matter post processing at the
landfill site. Recycling and reuse of the waste also needs to be done, d) Reclamation and alternative use of
existing dump sites at Jawaharnagar, Fathullaguda, Shamshiguda, and Gandhamguda, e) Information,
Education and Communication activities for public as well as other stakeholders to develop good MSW
practices, f) Interface with existing organized and unorganized waste collection and management systems to
ensure smooth functioning of the system. HIMSW Ltd is currently involved in two broad activities – a) Collection
and transfer and b) Processing and disposal.

Collection & transportation of waste: The collection and transfer activities involve door-to-door collection of
waste via tricycles and mechanized mini hoppers. The waste is then transferred to the closest transfer bin. It
is ensured that the waste from commercial units is transferred through separate vehicles and to separate bins.
All the collection and transfer activities adhere to a pre decided schedule to ensure maximum efficiency and
coverage. Secondary waste is collected through a network of mechanised, rear loading haulers based on the
size of the roads, maneuverability at the location and the amount of waste generated. These vehicles are
earmarked for specific areas / regions and follow the specified route charts. The waste collection for critical
areas is scheduled at the night to avoid traffic congestions and public inconvenience. Further, the operator
ensures deployment of additional vehicles and manpower during festival days. The waste collectors are trained
to collect the waste at sites and to ensure disinfection of the site post collection. The waste collected from the
primary and secondary activities is then transferred to the treatment facility using hydraulic compacted bins. In
case of non-availability of the bins, tippers with appropriate covering are deployed for waste transportation.

Waste treatment facility: The treatment and processing facility has several components such as a) Waste
reception area, b) Tipping floor / pre-sorting facility, c) Windrow platform, d) Monsoon shed, e) Curing shed, f)
Storing and packing facility, g) Recycling shed, h) Leachate management system, i) Leachate treatment plant,
and j) Landfill. The company has projects such as RDF facility, WtE plant, and a training school for providing
MSW training. The waste material received at the treatment facility is initially weighed at the waste reception
area, the vehicle number, driver name and the payload is recorded in the MIS portal of the plant. The waste is
then transferred to the tipping floor where it sorted as per the size of the waste. The smaller waste particles
are transferred to the windrow platform while the larger ones are sent to the RDF bunker. At the windrow
platform, the waste is composted for a period of one month with the help of effective microorganism culture.
The waste here undergoes continuous turning with the help of cranes and is segregated as per different
maturation levels. The waste is further refined by passing it through smaller screens for further separation. At

20
www.himsw.in

52
the end of this, the smaller particles are transferred to the curing shed while the larger particles are either sent
to the landfill or the RDF bunker. The processed material is then spread out to cure at the curing shed. The
waste undergoes further screening at the curing shed and the composted material which is now of a finer
texture is packaged as bio fertilizer at the storing and packing facility.

Treatment of plastic waste: The waste segregation at the plant also yields plastic waste which is treated
through the plastic granulation process at the recycling shed of the plant. The integrated waste management
at the plan has led to a considerable improvement in the leachate management system. The leachate treatment
facility at the plant treats the leachate into a usable form of water. The effective waste management at the
plant has also led to considerable reduction in the waste being transferred to the landfill site at Jawaharnagar.

Conclusion: The city of Hyderabad is implementing an integrated SWM approach through the PPP model.
The SPV for the project is responsible for collection of waste, transportation of waste and treatment of the
waste. The city follows innovative practices such as waste collection in congested areas at night, deployment
of additional manpower during festivals, active waste monitoring system etc. The SWM project in the future
also aims at training manpower to be employed in the SWM domain.

8.7 Key learnings

The key learnings from the analysis of case studies are as follows.

Key comparative points for the case studies evaluated: The six case studies showcased in the section
above highlight two major categories – Integrated waste management and Waste to Energy conversion. The
cities analysed have implemented innovative approaches to tackle the solid waste management issue. The
following table presents a comparative analysis of the four case studies presented in the previous section:

Table 10: Comparison of case studies

City Approach Innovative practices

Dedicated company to handle SWM lifecycle

Underground waste bins
Vilnius Integrated waste management
Deposit recycling facility
Co-generation plant

Leeds Waste to Energy Highly efficient combustion process

Underground vacuum collection systems

Stockholm Integrated waste management Green IT
99% of household waste is recycled

New Delhi Waste to Energy RDF plant utilizing state of art European technology

Active waste tracking system

Hyderabad Integrated waste management Treatment of plastic waste
End to end waste treatment facility

Waste segregation
Indore Integrated waste management
User charge collection

53
 City Approach Innovative practices
100% waste collection
Decentralized waste management etc.

Formation of dedicated companies: Separate companies, each handling a separate functionality in the city,
can be formed. These companies could have their own independent CEOs, supported by a team of experts
and dedicated individuals focused on the roles assigned to them. For example, Kochi can look at setting up of
a dedicated company which will be wholly owned by the Kochi municipal corporation and shall be responsible
for the entire municipal waste management lifecycle. The setup of an independent organization will reduce the
burden of waste management from KMC and also enable the organization to employ waste management
experts who are well equipped at tackling the specific waste management challenges faced by Kochi.

Sensitization of stakeholders: Information, Education and Communication (IEC) activities such as training
schools for providing MSW training, for the public as well as other stakeholders are important to develop good
MSW practices and to sensitize them to mitigate harmful effects of SWM activities on environment and climate.
Additionally information campaigns could be conducted, roping in religious leaders for giving sermons on the
importance of cleanliness, through schools and cleanliness competitions and oath taking ceremonies for
children pledging a clean city.
Solid waste segregation: Solid waste should be segregated at source itself and households should be asked
to provide segregated waste in different categories such as dry waste, wet waste and hazardous waste. The
households not following segregation of waste need to be reported to SWM supervisors and inspectors and
such households need to be fined accordingly. Strict measures need to be adopted to ensure 100% waste
segregation.

Solid waste collection and transportation: Some key learnings, best practices and efficient processes in
solid waste collection and transportation, as derived from national and international experiences are
highlighted below.

 Tendering procedure: A formal mechanism could be setup wherein a private player could be given an
annual contract (through tendering procedure) for waste collection, transportation and disposal (integrated
SWM) and a user fee is levied on waste generators for such collection.

 Behavioral trait of residents: For the waste collection exercise to be successful, municipalities need to
understand the behavioral traits of its residents. For example, in localities whose residents wake up late in
the morning, the waste collection vehicles can go to such localities late in the afternoon, for waste
collection.

 Rewards and benefits: Municipalities to ensure that their own employees and officials adopt efficient SWM
practices suspending officials who do not work adequately in supervising solid waste segregation and
collection, while rewarding those who work well. Similarly strict fines should be levied on residents not
practicing waste segregation and not cooperating in waste collection.

 Efficiency in waste collection and transfer: All collection and transfer activities could adhere to a pre-
decided schedule to ensure maximum efficiency and coverage. Waste collection for critical areas could be
scheduled at night to avoid traffic congestion and public inconvenience. Waste could be collected through
vehicles, such as rear loading haulers, keeping in mind size of the roads, maneuverability needed at the
location, and amount of waste generated.

 Deposit recycling system: A deposit recycling system as implemented in Vilnius, is very effective in
combating litter rates and increasing waste collection and recycling rates, wherein recyclable/reusable

54
 material and packaging is returned back to the point of sale or reverse vending machines, in exchange for
a refund (incentive) that is deposited by the consumer while purchasing the material.

 Efficient monitoring: A system should be set up to track the route of waste collection vehicles around the
city using GPS based vehicle tracking and monitoring system, to track the stops these vans make and to
provide assistance in times of breakdown. Advanced forms of technology could be utilized, such as drones,
for assessing waste collection activities, for monitoring the landfill sites and also for maintenance of urban
drainage networks and supervision for road cleaning. Additionally top officials such as municipal
commissioners, should monitor the waste management activities regularly.

Solid waste disposal, treatment and processing: Some key learnings, best practices and efficient
processes in solid waste disposal, treatment and processing, from national and international experiences are
highlighted below.

 Decentralized processing: Maximum waste should be treated through decentralized processing, with the
bio-degradable fraction of waste treated at source level, i.e., households, institutional and community level,
through composting and bio methanation, in order to minimize transportation cost, landfill, and
environmental costs.

 Zero landfill: Cities should strive to achieve zero landfill with complete conversion of waste into usable
products. While dry waste should be segregated and sent to different industries for various uses, wet waste
could be treated to produce revenue generating products such as compost and fuel. The landfill site could
then be planted with trees and converted into a garden.

 Odor control measures: As part of odor control measures, a) waste could be sprayed with an organic
culture solution, b) waste storage area could be maintained at negative pressure, and c) odor containing
air could be injected into the boiler in case of a WtE plant.

 Mechanical biological treatment plant: A mechanical biological treatment plant is effective for re-sorting of
mixed waste and for biological treatment of waste, and prepares RDF for a WtE plant and high calorific
value SRF for the cement industry. It is cost effective, reduces landfill and GHG emissions, and could be
implemented for waste treatment.

 Waste to energy plant: A WtE plant produces heat and electricity which could be supplied to a number of
households in the city, results in substantial reduction of landfill, reduced GHG emissions from traditional
waste treatment facilities, and substantial reduction in emission of carbon dioxide from landfill sites.

 Biomethanation plant: A biomethanation plant could be installed near vegetable, fruit and flower markets
to convert waste into bio compressed natural gas (bio-CNG) which can be then used to run city buses and
sold as cooking fuel for hotels at subsidized rates.

55
9 Key challenges and solutions
This chapter provides potential challenges detrimental to the solid waste value chain in Kochi, including the
processes of solid waste collection, transportation, disposal and processing/treatment. The chapter also
provides possible solutions to such challenges.

9.1 Key challenges

Waste composition: The MSW generated in Kochi possesses several technical and practical challenges
when converting it to fuel (RDF) to produce an effective energy generation source. The waste has high
moisture content of 60%, which goes up to 75% during monsoons. The waste has seasonal variations in waste
profile and has very high volume of biodegradable food waste whereas plastics and other high calorific value
waste are in relatively low quantities. This makes the handling and processing of this kind of waste very difficult,
wherein the production of RDF is challenging.

Low waste collection rate: Of the 305 TPD of MSW generated in 21 circles in Kochi (comprising of one to
five wards each), 230 TPD of waste is collected for processing and disposal at the landfill site resulting in a
current waste collection rate of just 75%. Of the 230 TPD of MSW collected, 130 TPD is processed while 100
TPD is disposed of at the landfill site.

Pollution of drains and canals: The canals, considered as the lifeline of Kochi, are currently highly polluted
and in a bad shape due to dumping of large amounts of the uncollected waste in Kochi. The waste dumping
leads to accumulation of solid waste and blockage in drains and canals, which in turn, leads to the problem of
urban flooding.

No revenue from SWM activities: KMC does not charge any user fee for waste collection but KMC and
Kudumbashree workers responsible for waste collection charge INR 50-100 (EUR 0.6 - 1.2) from each
household for the same. This fee is paid directly by the households to the waste collectors and does not provide
any source of revenue for KMC. Although KMC does not generate any revenue from SWM activities but
expenses, such as salaries, program expenditures etc, pertaining to SWM related activities are borne by the
organization.

Unscientific management of landfill site: The disposal site at Brahmapuram is not a scientific landfill. The
waste dump at the site is a major pollution contributor as there are no controls or processing systems in place
so that contaminates and leachates are able to flow freely off the site into surrounding water bodies such that
the ground water table is polluted and impacts quality of land and people, in and around the existing waste
dump. Odors emanating from the site is another nuisance for development of the Smart City project and other
infrastructure development. The Brahmapuram landfill has not been functioning scientifically due to improper
management. Additionally, as per the EIA/EMP assessment report, over 136 unauthorized locations in Kochi
and adjoining areas are used for illegal dumping of waste which is another nuisance in the city.

Menace at the plastic dumping yard: The plastic dumping yard at Brahmapuram receives ~100 tonnes of
plastic waste each day. Around 1% of this plastic waste is suitable for recycling, and is recovered from the
waste, the remaining 99% of waste is dumped as a heap at the landfill. The plastic dump is a menace for the
municipal corporation, and has seen several fires over the past few years. The accumulated waste has reached
the volume of 180,000 m3, weighs ~68,400 tonnes and is spread over 16 acres of land.

Low capacity and poor state of the windrow composting plant: The existing windrow composting plant is
not able to process all the waste received and the site has become a dump site. The waste dump is a major
pollution contributor and odors emanating from the site are a big nuisance for the development of the Smart
City project and other infrastructure development. Additionally, the plant operated optimally till the first year of
its operation but by the nature of being constructed on a wet land, the plants platform sunk and a few columns

56
collapsed. All the windrow sheds are in a dilapidated condition and the drains provided are blocked with hard
slurry flowing from the compost plant. The reconstruction of the plant has not yet been commissioned due to
the high proposed cost.

Quality of compost produced at windrow composting plant: As per tests conducted by the State Pollution
Control Board, the compost produced at the Brahmapuram facility in Kochi has the presence of heavy metals
in excessive concentration. The board found that the quantity of manure produced out of the biodegradable
waste dumped at the site was far less compared with the daily waste collected at the facility. The manure,
when tested for its fertilizer value, did not meet standards stipulated under the Solid Waste Management Rules,
2016.

GHG emissions: MSW comprises of biodegradable organic matter, partially degradable matter and non-
degradable materials. Windrow composting of organic waste present in MSW releases greenhouse gases
whereas direct disposal of solid waste in disposal sites/landfills also emit methane (CH4) and other GHGs, thus
polluting the environment.

Increased precipitation and flooding in Kochi: High rainfall in Kochi coupled with clogged drains and canals
due to inadequate SWM and lack of cleaning leads to flooding in the city which results in accumulation of tons
of waste, making it difficult for solid waste collectors to collect such huge quantities of waste. The impact of
rainfall and flooding on landfills are inundation, waste solution migration to neighboring areas, and physical
erosion. Excessive precipitation and flooding have harmful effects for land treatment areas, waste pile, and
waste storage containers as well.

9.2 Possible solutions

Pre-heating and pre-processing waste in WtE plants: MSW generated in Kochi should be handled and
processed carefully in the WtE plants. Waste must be carefully pre-heated and pre-processed, else
unprocessed MSW would have low combustion efficiency – due to high inert and organic content, larger flue
gas volume – due to high moisture content, larger volume of ash, large volume of dust in boilers, and frequent
breakdowns due to corrosive nature. It would also require extra amounts of supplementary fuel due to low
calorific value of MSW. A pre-heating and pre-processing technology would produce superior quality RDF,
which in turn is used for producing power, and to achieve reduced pollution due to plant operations.

Increase in waste collection rate: The waste collection rates to be increased from the current 75% to 95-
100% in phases i.e. 95% in the first few years and then increasing it gradually to 100% in further years. For
this KMC could increase the coverage for waste collection and could also implement a policy, levying
appropriate fines on waste generators illegally burning/burying their waste in unscientific manner or disposing
it off in drains and canals leading to the problem of clogging and urban flooding. Strict policies should be
implemented to prevent waste generators and collectors from dumping waste at 136 illegal dump sites in Kochi.

Cleaning of drains and canals: Drains and canals should be cleaned regularly so as to prevent their clogging
and to prevent the problem of urban flooding in Kochi. The solid waste dumped in such canals and drains
leads to blockage and accumulations of tons of waste making it difficult for waste collectors to collect waste.
Thus this type of solid waste should be removed from drains and canals on a regular basis.

Revenue from SWM activities: As per the Kerala State Waste Management Policy 2018 waste generators
must pay a user fee for SWM as specified in the by-laws of the local bodies. Therefore KMC could formalize
the user charges for waste to be collected from waste generators such as households, commercial units,
industries, institutes, hospitals etc., and include the same in the bye-laws.

Scientific management of landfill site: The landfill site at Brahmapuram should be upgraded so that it is able
to function in a scientific manner with complete control over methane gas developed in the landfill (preventing
air pollution) and limited access of vectors and flies to the waste. Adequate controls and processing systems
should be in place so that leachates and contaminates are not able to flow freely into surrounding water bodies,

57
polluting water bodies and rendering large tracts of land unusable. Additionally to combat the problem of odor,
odor control measures such as waste being sprayed with an organic culture solution and waste storage area
being maintained at negative pressure must be carried out.

Reconstruction of windrow composting plant: The windrow composting plant at Brahmapuram is in a

dilapidated state and needs immediate refurbishment. The plant should be redeveloped to have sufficient
capacity for treating the waste collected in the city. Additionally, the RDF facility at the facility should also be
made operational. The refurbishment and operationalization of these facilities will help in reduction of the waste
accumulation at Brahmapuram.

Setup of dedicated entity catering to SWM activities in Kochi: One key and unique learning from Vilnius
is the establishment of special purpose vehicles (SPV’s) for specific urban functions. Among the SPV’s, the
Vilnius county waste management center (VAATC) and the Vilnius waste system administrator (VASA), which
were established for solid waste management activities in Vilnius are noteworthy and great examples. On
similar lines Kochi can look at setting up a dedicated company (SPV) which will be wholly owned by the KMC
and shall be responsible for the entire solid waste management lifecycle. The setup of an independent
organization will reduce the burden of waste management from KMC and also enable the organization to
employ waste management experts who are well equipped at tackling the specific waste management
challenges faced by Kochi. As per the KMC’s budget documents of fiscal 2020, the KMC has earmarked an
amount of INR 200 lakh (EUR 0.24 million) to start an SPV in the waste management sector, on similar lines
of VASA. The amount will be utilized for the incorporation of the SPV and other activities.

58
10 Conclusion
This chapters summarizes the need for an efficient SWM in Kochi and lists out important points as a way
forward for relevant stakeholders.
Need for an efficient SWM system: Currently only 75% of waste generated is being collected for treatment
and disposal at Brahmapuram, the remaining being dumped in canals and drains. While KMC does not
generate any revenue from SWM activities but expenses pertaining to SWM activities are borne by the
organization. Additionally the Brahmapuram facility is not functioning scientifically (including the windrow
composting plant, RDF facility, and the dumping yard) due to improper management. Thus, there is an
imminent need for upgrading and streamlining the SWM value chain in Kochi as stipulated below

 Increase in waste collection rates: The waste collection rate in Kochi needs to be increased from the
current 75% to 95-100% in phases, by preventing waste generators from illegally burning/burying their
waste or dumping it in drains and canals and increasing coverage of waste collection.

 Revenue from SWM activities: As KMC does not earn any revenue from SWM activities, it needs to
formalize and levy user charges on waste generators, thus earning revenue through solid waste collection.

 Cleaning of drains and canals: Drains and canals should be cleaned regularly and accumulated solid waste
be removed to prevent their clogging and to prevent the problem of urban flooding in Kochi.

 Efficient transportation: The waste transportation vehicles in the city need to adhere to specified
transportation route charts, and need to adhere to a pre-decided transportation schedule. Additionally care
should be taken to ensure that transportation vehicles do not create congestion and traffic problems in the
city. Also a system should be set up to track the route of transportation vehicles around the city using GPS
based vehicle tracking and monitoring system, to track the stops these vehicles make and to provide
assistance in times of breakdown.

 Scientific management of landfill site: The landfill site at Bharmapuram needs to be upgraded so that it is
able to function scientifically with complete control over methane gas developed in the landfill ( to prevent
air pollution) and limited access of vectors and flies to the waste. Adequate controls and system should be
in place so that leachates and contaminates are not able to flow freely thus polluting water bodies, ground
water table, and land. Odor control measures should also be followed.

 Reconstruction of the windrow composting plant: The windrow composting plant at Brahmapuram should
be reconstructed so as to have adequate capacity and to improve its dilapidated condition thus significantly
reducing the waste dump at the landfill site. Additionally the RDF facility at Brahmapuram should also be
made operational.

 Operation of a WtE plant: Large quantities of waste currently being dumped at the landfill site would be
converted into electricity, by a WtE plant, thus significantly reducing landfill, pollution, GHG and CO2
emissions. A WtE plant with a minimum capacity of processing 300 TPD of waste is proposed to be built
at Brahmapuram, as per a tender floated by the KSIDC in June 2020.

 Setup of dedicated entity catering to SWM activities in Kochi: Kochi can also look at setting up of a
dedicated company which will be wholly owned by the Kochi municipal corporation and shall be
responsible for the entire municipal waste management lifecycle. The setup of an independent
organization will reduce the burden of waste management from KMC and also enable the organization to
employ waste management experts who are well equipped at tackling the specific waste management

59
 challenges faced by Kochi. KMC has earmarked a budget of INR 2 crore (EUR 0.24 million) for the
incorporation and other related activities of such a company.

Next steps/way forward: Having established the need for an efficient SWM value chain in Kochi and the need
to adapt and implement best practices from India and abroad, KMC should undertake a detailed feasibility
study in this regard. The baseline study prepared as a part of this assignment should feed into the feasibility
study. The study should cover in detail the following:

 Technical feasibility: This part of the feasibility report should cover all the technical aspects, including
upgrading and streamlining the SWM value chain in Kochi. Additionally, the technical feasibility should
comprise of identification and assessment of best practices and processes used for solid waste collection
(for example, deposit recycling facility), transportation, disposal, and processing/treatment, along with an
estimation of feasibility and costs related with each new process or best practice thus added to the value
chain. For the SWM value chain, the input and output specifications, performance standards, social and
environmental assessment, and risk assessment would also need to be conducted.

 Financial feasibility: The feasibility study should cover in detail the user charges that could be formalized
and levied on different waste generators such as households, institutions, industries, commercial units and
hospitals, thus earning revenue for KMC. It should also undertake a detailed financial assessment of
streamlining the SWM value chain, covering a detailed estimation of capital expenditure, operational
expenditure and revenue, sensitivity analysis, and value for money analysis.

 Project structure: The study should cover the feasibility of appointing a private player for integrated waste
management, for upgrading and streamlining the entire SWM value chain in Kochi. This would include
roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders, particularly that of the private developer and the
implementing agencies, mode of contracting such as PPP or EPC, mode of payment, and contract
duration.

 Bid-process management: The feasibility study should also provide details regarding the next steps in
project preparation and execution, i.e., bid process management. This part should explain in detail the
number of stages that will be employed for the procurement process, bidding parameters including
technical and financial parameters, appointment of transaction advisors, formation of data rooms, and
customization of bidding documents.

 Workshop by Vilnius: Selected experts from Vilnius would deliver a workshop cum training to the SWM
department of KMC. The workshop is planned to happen in the later part of the year and will focus on
transfer of best practices from Vilnius to Kochi.

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11 References
The chapter lists the documents provided by C-HED, and links to various news articles, publications, policy
documents, research papers, company reports, and case studies that were referred to during the preparation
of this study.

Table 11: Table of references

Date Title Author Link
Case Studies
Hyderabad Integrated Municipal
- - www.himsw.in
solid waste management
How Indore Became India’s https://www.indiaspend.com/how-
October 2,
Cleanest City (And How Others Can Shreya Khaitan indore-became-indias-cleanest-
2019
Follow) city-and-how-others-can-follow/
https://www.financialexpress.com/
February How Indore became the cleanest infrastructure/how-indore-
-
24, 2020 city of India became-the-cleanest-city-of-india-
2/1876831/
https://india.smartcitiescouncil.co
July 25, Indore deploys VTMS; tracks waste
- m/article/indore-deploys-vtms-
2017 real time
tracks-waste-real-time
https://www.globalmethane.org/att
12 MW Waste to Energy Project IL&FS
- achments/Ghazipur%20WTE%20
(Ghazipur, Delhi) Environment
Project.pdf
https://www.waste.ccacoalition.or
g/sites/default/files/files/trip_report
Climate and Clean Air Coalition Aditi Ramola and
- _-
(CCAC) MSW Initiative, Trip report Amrita Sinha
_ccac_city_exchange_johannesb
urg_delhi_final_0.pdf
http://www.derc.gov.in/ordersPetit
October ions/orders/Misc/2018/Petition%2
Petition filing -
25, 2018 0no.%2027.2018%20-
%2002.11.2018.pdf
https://www.thehindu.com/news/ci
July 27, Probe irregularities at Ghazipur ties/Delhi/probe-irregularities-at-
-
2018 WTE plant ghazipur-wte-
plant/article24525035.ece
https://www.veolia.co.uk/leeds/our
Leeds Recycling & Energy
- Veolia -facility/leeds-recycling-energy-
Recovery Facility (RERF) works
recovery-facility-rerf-works
- Working together in partnership Veolia https://www.veolia.co.uk/leeds/
https://www.leeds.gov.uk/resident
- Future of Leeds' waste - s/bins-and-recycling/your-
bins/future-of-leeds-waste
http://sajms.com/wp-
Sustainable Solid Waste
Shailesh Kumar content/uploads/2015/01/Sustaina
- Management (Best Practices–
Jha ble-Solid-Waste-Management-
Global Benchmarks)
Best-Global-Practices1.pdf
June 12, https://sweden.se/nature/the-
The Swedish recycling revolution Dominic Hinde
2020 swedish-recycling-revolution/
https://www.stockholmvattenocha
Waste Management Plan for vfall.se/globalassets/pdf1/riktlinjer
- -
Stockholm 2017-22 /avfall/avfallsplan/sva072-
avfallsplan_en.pdf

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 Date Title Author Link
https://www.avfallsverige.se/filead
- Swedish Waste Management 2018 - min/user_upload/Publikationer/SA
H_2019_EN.pdf
https://www.avfallsverige.se/filead
- Swedish Waste Management 2018 - min/user_upload/Publikationer/Av
fallshantering_2018_EN.pdf
https://ec.europa.eu/regional_poli
Cogeneration in Vilnius: converting
cy/en/projects/lithuania/cogenerati
- waste into electricity and useful -
on-in-vilnius-converting-waste-
heat
into-electricity-and-useful-heat
Field visit report, Kochi municipal
- IUC India -
corporation to Vilnius
Vilnius MBT plant company UAB
- -
presentation Energesman
Grinda – Municipal enterprise
- Grinda -
presentation
Lithuania Deposit Viešoji įstaiga
- System - Public institution “Užstato Užstato sistemos www.grazintiverta.lt
Sistemos Administratorius” administratorius
Vilnius county waste management
- UAB VAATC -
center presentation
Municipal
- City of Vilnius presentation corporation, -
Vilnius
Documents provided by IUC India and C-HED Kochi
Waste to Energy project GJ Eco Power
- -
presentation Pvt Ltd
Solid Waste management system
- C-HED -
overview - Kochi
- Data pertaining to Kochi SWM C-HED -
Existing reports and studies
https://cochinmunicipalcorporation
- Kochi city development plan - .kerala.gov.in/web/guest/develop
ment-plan
ICRA
March City Sanitation Plan Updation – Management
-
2014 Status Report Consulting
Services Limited
ICRA https://sswm.info/sites/default/files
Management /reference_attachments/ImaCS%
June 2010 Kochi city sanitation plan
Consulting 202010%20Status%20Report%2
Services Limited 0Kochi.pdf
http://environmentclearance.nic.in
EIA/EMP Report for Kochi waste to L&T Infra /writereaddata/FormB/EC/EIA_E
July 2019
energy project Engineering MP/05072019Y9DLPB2WConsoli
datedFinalEIAKochiWtE.pdf
- Climate Action Plan for Kochi City GIZ -
http://sanitation.kerala.gov.in/wp-
September Kerala State Policy on Solid Waste Government of content/uploads/2018/09/go-
2018 Management Kerala 65.2018-13.09.18-_-State-policy-
on-SWM.pdf
Ministry of http://bbmp.gov.in/documents/101
April 8, Environment, 80/1920333/SWM-Rules-
SWM Rules, 2016
2016 Forest and 2016.pdf/27c6b5e4-5265-4aee-
Climate Change bff6-451f28202cc8

62
 Date Title Author Link
Municipal solid waste management Ministry of Urban http://mohua.gov.in/upload/upload
2016
manual Development files/files/Part2.pdf
News articles and other relevant publications
https://www.indiatoday.in/india-
October Why global warming has left Kerala today-insight/story/why-global-
Jeemon Jacob
25, 2019 vulnerable warming-has-left-kerala-
vulnerable-1612792-2019-10-25
https://thewire.in/environment/floo
August 14, Is Climate Change Making Floods
K.A. Shaji ds-in-kerala-experts-point-to-
2019 an Annual Affair in Kerala?
climate-change
https://www.slideshare.net/cppr12
- Study on municipal waste in Kochi - 3/study-on-muncipal-solid-waste-
management-in-kochi
Timothy J. Flynn,
Implications of Sea Level Rise Stuart G. Walesh, http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdo
- for Hazardous Waste Sites in James G. Titus, c/download?doi=10.1.1.391.7715
Coastal Floodplains and Michael C. &rep=rep1&type=pdf
Barth
Greenhouse gas emissions from
Sintana E
windrow composting of organic https://iopscience.iop.org/article/1
- Vergara and
wastes: Patterns and emissions 0.1088/1748-9326/ab5262/pdf
Whendee L Silver
factors
https://www.thehindu.com/news/ci
March 12, Faulty windrow composting led to ties/Kochi/faulty-windrow-
G. Krishnakumar
2020 Brahmapuram crisis: PCB composting-led-to-brahmapuram-
crisis-pcb/article31044626.ece
https://www.thehindu.com/news/ci
October ties/Kochi/brahmapuram-in-a-
Brahmapuram in a state of disrepair G. Krishnakumar
26, 2019 state-of-
disrepair/article29803010.ece
Official websites of stakeholders and other government agencies
https://cochinmunicipalcorporation.kerala.gov.in/
https://www.c-hed.org/
http://www.sanitation.kerala.gov.in

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