CHAPTER

Behind the Supply Curve:

Inputs and Costs 11
1. Changes in the price of key commodities have a significant impact on a company’s
bottom line. For virtually all companies, the price of energy is a substantial portion
of their costs. In addition, many industries—such as those that produce beef, chick-
en, high-fructose corn syrup and ethanol—are highly dependent on the price of corn.
In particular, corn has seen a significant increase in price.
a. Explain how the cost of energy can be both a fixed cost and a variable cost for a
company.
b. Suppose energy is a fixed cost and energy prices rise. What happens to the compa-
ny’s average total cost curve? What happens to its marginal cost curve? Illustrate
your answer with a diagram.
c. Explain why the cost of corn is a variable cost but not a fixed cost for an ethanol
producer.
d. When the cost of corn goes up, what happens to the average total cost curve of an
ethanol producer? What happens to its marginal cost curve? Illustrate your answer
with a diagram.

Solution
1. a. Energy required to keep a company operating regardless of how much output is
produced represents a fixed cost, such as the energy costs of operating office
buildings, factories, and stores that must be maintained independent of the
amount of output produced. In addition, energy is a variable cost because produc-
ing more output almost always requires using more energy.
b. When fixed costs increase, so will average total costs. The average total cost curve
will shift upward. In panel (a) of the accompanying diagram, this is illustrated by
the movement of the average total cost curve from its initial position, ATC1, to its
new position, ATC2. The marginal cost curve is not affected if the variable costs do
not change. So the marginal cost curve remains at its initial position, MC.

(a) A Rise in the Price of Energy (b) A Rise in the Price of Corn
Cost Cost MC2
of unit MC of unit MC1
ATC2 ATC2
ATC1 ATC1

Quantity Quantity

c. Since corn is an input into the production of ethanol, producing a larger quantity
of ethanol requires a larger quantity of corn, making corn a variable cost.

S-173

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-173 10/3/14 8:35 AM

 S-174 CHAPTER 11 B E H I N D T H E S U P P LY C U R V E : I N P U T S A N D C O S T S

d. When variable costs increase, so do average total costs and marginal costs. Both
curves will shift upward. In panel (b) of the accompanying diagram, the move-
ment of the average total cost curve is illustrated by the shift from its initial posi-
tion, ATC1, to its new position, ATC2. The movement of the marginal cost curve is
illustrated by the shift from its initial position, MC1, to its new position, MC2.

2. Marty’s Frozen Yogurt is a small shop that sells cups of frozen yogurt in a university
town. Marty owns three frozen-yogurt machines. His other inputs are refrigerators,
frozen-yogurt mix, cups, sprinkle toppings, and, of course, workers. He estimates that
his daily production function when he varies the number of workers employed (and
at the same time, of course, yogurt mix, cups, and so on) is as shown in the accom-
panying table.

Quantity of labor Quantity of frozen

(workers) yogurt (cups)

0 0
1 110
2 200
3 270
4 300
5 320
6 330

a. What are the fixed inputs and variable inputs in the production of cups of frozen
yogurt?
b. Draw the total product curve. Put the quantity of labor on the horizontal axis and
the quantity of frozen yogurt on the vertical axis.
c. What is the marginal product of the first worker? The second worker? The third
worker? Why does marginal product decline as the number of workers increases?

Solution
2. a. The fixed inputs are those whose quantities do not change as the quantity of out-
put changes: frozen-yogurt machines, refrigerators, and the shop. The variable
inputs are those whose quantities do change as the quantity of output changes:
frozen-yogurt mix, cups, sprinkle toppings, and workers.
b. The accompanying diagram illustrates the total product curve.

Quantity of
frozen yogurt
(cups)

350
TP
300
250
200
150
100
50

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Quantity of labor (workers)

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-174 10/3/14 8:35 AM

 CHAPTER 11 B E H I N D T H E S U P P LY C U R V E : I N P U T S A N D C O S T S S-175

c. The marginal product, MPL, of the first worker is 110 cups. The MPL of the sec-
ond worker is 90 cups. The MPL of the third worker is 70 cups. The MPL of labor
declines as more and more workers are added due to the principle of diminishing
returns to labor. Since the number of frozen-yogurt machines is fixed, as workers
are added there are fewer and fewer machines for each worker to work with, mak-
ing each additional worker less and less productive.

3. The production function for Marty’s Frozen Yogurt is given in Problem 2. Marty pays
each of his workers $80 per day. The cost of his other variable inputs is $0.50 per
cup of yogurt. His fixed cost is $100 per day.
a. What is Marty’s variable cost and total cost when he produces 110 cups of yogurt?
200 cups? Calculate variable and total cost for every level of output given in
Problem 2.
b. Draw Marty’s variable cost curve. On the same diagram, draw his total cost curve.
c. What is the marginal cost per cup for the first 110 cups of yogurt? For the next 90
cups? Calculate the marginal cost for all remaining levels of output.

Solution
3. a. Marty’s variable cost, VC, is his wage cost ($80 per worker per day) and his other
input costs ($0.50 per cup). His total cost, TC, is the sum of the variable cost and
his fixed cost of $100 per day. The answers are given in the accompanying table.

Quantity
of frozen Quantity
yogurt of labor
(cups) (workers) VC TC MC of cup

0 0 $0 $100
$1.23
110 1 1 × 80 + 110 × 0.5 = 135 235
1.39
200 2 2 × 80 + 200 × 0.5 = 260 360
1.64
270 3 3 × 80 + 270 × 0.5 = 375 475
3.17
300 4 4 × 80 + 300 × 0.5 = 470 570
4.50
320 5 5 × 80 + 320 × 0.5 = 560 660
8.50
330 6 6 × 80 + 330 × 0.5 = 645 745

b. The accompanying diagram shows the variable cost and total cost curves.

Cost
$800 TC
VC
600

400

200

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Quantity of frozen yogurt (cups)

c. Marginal cost, MC, per cup of frozen yogurt is shown in the table in part a; it is
the change in total cost divided by the change in quantity of output.

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-175 10/3/14 8:35 AM

 S-176 CHAPTER 11 B E H I N D T H E S U P P LY C U R V E : I N P U T S A N D C O S T S

4. The production function for Marty’s Frozen Yogurt is given in Problem 2. The costs
are given in Problem 3.
a. For each of the given levels of output, calculate the average fixed cost (AFC), aver-
age variable cost (AVC), and average total cost (ATC) per cup of frozen yogurt.
b. On one diagram, draw the AFC, AVC, and ATC curves.
c. What principle explains why the AFC declines as output increases? What principle
explains why the AVC increases as output increases? Explain your answers.
d. How many cups of frozen yogurt are produced when average total cost is minimized?

Solution
4. a. The average fixed cost, average variable cost, and average total cost per cup of
yogurt are given in the accompanying table. (Numbers are rounded.)

Quantity
of frozen
yogurt (cups) VC TC AFC of cup AVC of cup ATC of cup

0 $0 $100 — — —
110 135 235 $0.91 $1.23 $2.14
200 260 360 0.50 1.30 1.80
270 375 475 0.37 1.39 1.76
300 470 570 0.33 1.57 1.90
320 560 660 0.31 1.75 2.06
330 645 745 0.30 1.95 2.26

b. The accompanying diagram shows the AFC, AVC, and ATC curves.

Cost
of cup

$2.50
ATC
2.00 AVC

1.50

1.00

0.50
AFC
0 100 150 200 250 300 350
Quantity of frozen yogurt (cups)

c. AFC declines as output increases due to the spreading effect. The fixed cost is
spread over more and more units of output as output increases. AVC increases as
output increases due to the diminishing returns effect. Due to diminishing returns
to labor, it costs more to produce each additional unit of output.
d. Average total cost is minimized when 270 cups of yogurt are produced. At lower
quantities of output, the fall attributable to the spreading effect dominates chang-
es in average total cost. At higher quantities of output, the rise attributable to the
diminishing returns effect dominates changes in average total cost.

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-176 10/3/14 8:35 AM

 CHAPTER 11 B E H I N D T H E S U P P LY C U R V E : I N P U T S A N D C O S T S S-177

5. Labor costs represent a large percentage of total costs for many firms. According
to data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. labor costs were up 0.8% in 2013,
compared to 2012.
a. When labor costs increase, what happens to average total cost and marginal cost?
Consider a case in which labor costs are only variable costs and a case in which
they are both variable and fixed costs.
An increase in labor productivity means each worker can produce more output.
Recent data on productivity show that labor productivity in the U.S. nonfarm busi-
ness sector grew by 1.7% between 1970 and 1999, by 2.6% between 2000 and 2009,
and by 1.1% between 2010 and 2013.
b. When productivity growth is positive, what happens to the total product curve
and the marginal product of labor curve? Illustrate your answer with a diagram.
c. When productivity growth is positive, what happens to the marginal cost curve
and the average total cost curve? Illustrate your answer with a diagram.
d. If labor costs are rising over time on average, why would a company want to adopt
equipment and methods that increase labor productivity?

Solution
5. a. When labor costs are a variable cost but not a fixed cost, an increase in labor costs
leads to an increase in both average total cost and marginal cost. When labor
costs are a variable cost and a fixed cost, the result is the same: both the average
total cost and the marginal cost increase.
b. When productivity growth is positive, any given quantity of labor can produce
more output, causing the total product curve to shift upward. Since each unit of
labor can produce more output, the marginal product of labor will increase and
the marginal product of labor curve will shift upward. In panel (a) of the accom-
panying diagram, the upward shift of the total product curve is illustrated by the
movement from its initial position, TP1, to its new position, TP2. In panel (b), the
upward shift of the marginal product of labor curve is illustrated by the movement
from its initial position, MPL1, to its new position, MPL2.

(a) Total Product Curves (b) Marginal Product Curves

Quantity Marginal
product of
TP2 labor

TP1
MPL2

MPL1

Quantity of labor Quantity of labor

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-177 10/3/14 8:35 AM

 S-178 CHAPTER 11 B E H I N D T H E S U P P LY C U R V E : I N P U T S A N D C O S T S

c. When productivity growth is positive, the marginal cost curve and the average
total cost curve will both shift downward, assuming labor costs have not changed.
In the accompanying diagram, the movement of the average total cost curve is
illustrated by the shift from its initial position, ATC1, to its new position, ATC2.
The movement of the marginal cost curve is illustrated by the shift from its initial
position, MC1, to its new position, MC2.

Cost MC1
of unit MC2
ATC1
ATC2

Quantity

d. Rising labor costs will shift the average total cost and marginal cost curves
upward. Productivity growth will counteract this, shifting the average total cost
and marginal cost curves downward.

6. Magnificent Blooms is a florist specializing in floral arrangements for weddings,

graduations, and other events. Magnificent Blooms has a fixed cost associated with
space and equipment of $100 per day. Each worker is paid $50 per day. The daily
production function for Magnificent Blooms is shown in the accompanying table.

Quantity of labor Quantity of floral

(workers) arrangements

0 0
1 5
2 9
3 12
4 14
5 15

a. Calculate the marginal product of each worker. What principle explains why
the marginal product per worker declines as the number of workers employed
increases?
b. Calculate the marginal cost of each level of output. What principle explains why
the marginal cost per floral arrangement increases as the number of arrangements
increases?

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-178 10/3/14 8:35 AM

 CHAPTER 11 B E H I N D T H E S U P P LY C U R V E : I N P U T S A N D C O S T S S-179

Solution
6. a. MPL, shown in the accompanying table for the five workers, is the change in out-
put resulting from the employment of one additional worker per day. MPL falls as
the quantity of labor increases due to the principle of diminishing returns.

Marginal
product
of labor Variable
MPL = cost Marginal cost
Quantity Quantity ΔQ/ΔL VC = of floral
of labor of floral (floral number Total cost arrangement
L arrangements arrangements of workers TC = MC =
(workers) Q per worker) ⴛ wage rate FC + VC ΔTC/ΔQ

0 0 $0 $100
5 $10.00 (= 50/5)
1 5 50 150
4 12.50 (= 50/4)
2 9 100 200
3 16.67 (= 50/3)
3 12 150 250
2 25.00 (= 50/2)
4 14 200 300
1 50.00 (= 50/1)
5 15 250 350

b. The marginal cost, MC, of floral arrangements is the change in total cost divided
by the change in output. So, to compute MC, we first need to compute total cost,
TC = FC + VC, as shown in the table. MC per floral arrangement is also shown in
the table. MC increases as output increases due again to the principle of diminish-
ing returns.

7. You have the information shown in the accompanying table about a firm’s costs.
Complete the missing data.

Quantity TC MC ATC AVC

0 $20 — —
$20
1 ? ? ?
10
2 ? ? ?
16
3 ? ? ?
20
4 ? ? ?
24
5 ? ? ?

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-179 10/3/14 8:35 AM

 S-180 CHAPTER 11 B E H I N D T H E S U P P LY C U R V E : I N P U T S A N D C O S T S

Solution
7. The accompanying table contains the complete cost data. The total cost of producing
one unit of output is the total cost of producing zero units of output plus the mar-
ginal cost of increasing output from zero to one, and so forth. The average total cost
is just the total cost divided by output. Since the total cost of producing zero output
is $20, the variable cost is TC − $20. The average variable cost is then just the vari-
able cost divided by output.

Quantity
of output TC MC of unit ATC of unit AVC of unit

0 $20.00 — —
$20.00
1 40.00 $40.00 $20.00
10.00
2 50.00 25.00 15.00
16.00
3 66.00 22.00 15.33
20.00
4 86.00 21.50 16.50
24.00
5 110.00 22.00 18.00

8. Evaluate each of the following statements. If a statement is true, explain why; if it is

false, identify the mistake and try to correct it.
a. A decreasing marginal product tells us that marginal cost must be rising.
b. An increase in fixed cost increases the minimum-cost output.
c. An increase in fixed cost increases marginal cost.
d. When marginal cost is above average total cost, average total cost must be falling.

Solution
8. a. True. If each additional unit of the input adds less to output than the previous
unit (decreasing marginal product), then in order to produce additional output,
the firm needs to use increasingly more of the input; that is, the marginal cost of
production increases.
b. True. As the fixed cost rises, the average fixed cost also rises; that is, the spread-
ing effect is now larger. It is the spreading effect that causes average total cost to
decline. Since this effect is now larger, it dominates the diminishing returns effect
over a greater quantity of output. That is, average total cost decreases over a great-
er quantity of output.
c. False. An increase in fixed cost does not change marginal cost. Marginal cost is
the additional cost of producing an additional unit of output. Fixed cost does not
change as output is increased, and so the additional cost of producing an addi-
tional unit of output is independent of the fixed cost.
d. False. When marginal cost is above average total cost, average total cost must be
rising. If the additional cost of producing one more unit of output is greater than
what it costs to produce each unit of output on average, then producing that one
more unit of output must increase the average total cost.

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-180 10/3/14 8:35 AM

 CHAPTER 11 B E H I N D T H E S U P P LY C U R V E : I N P U T S A N D C O S T S S-181

9. Mark and Jeff operate a small company that produces souvenir footballs. Their fixed
cost is $2,000 per month. They can hire workers for $1,000 per worker per month.
Their monthly production function for footballs is as given in the accompanying
table.

Quantity of labor
(workers) Quantity of footballs
0 0
1 300
2 800
3 1,200
4 1,400
5 1,500

a. For each quantity of labor, calculate average variable cost (AVC), average fixed cost
(AFC), average total cost (ATC), and marginal cost (MC).
b. On one diagram, draw the AVC, ATC, and MC curves.
c. At what level of output is Mark and Jeff’s average total cost minimized?

Solution
9. a. The AVC, AFC, ATC, TC, and MC are given in the accompanying table.

Quantity of
labor Quantity of AVC of AFC of ATC of TC of MC of
(workers) footballs football football football footballs football

0 0 — — — $2,000.00
$3.33
1 300 $3.33 $6.67 $10.00 3,000.00
2.00
2 800 2.50 2.50 5.00 4,000.00
2.50
3 1,200 2.50 1.67 4.17 5,000.00
5.00
4 1,400 2.86 1.43 4.29 6,000.00
10.00
5 1,500 3.33 1.33 4.67 7,000.00

b. The accompanying diagram shows the AVC, ATC, and MC curves.

Cost of
football
MC
$10

6
ATC
4
AVC
2

0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600

Quantity of footballs

c. According to the table, Mark and Jeff’s average total cost is minimized at 1,200
footballs per month, where the ATC is $4.17.

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-181 10/3/14 8:35 AM

 S-182 CHAPTER 11 B E H I N D T H E S U P P LY C U R V E : I N P U T S A N D C O S T S

10. You produce widgets. Currently you produce four widgets at a total cost of $40.
a. What is your average total cost?
b. Suppose you could produce one more (the fifth) widget at a marginal cost of $5.
If you do produce that fifth widget, what will your average total cost be? Has your
average total cost increased or decreased? Why?
c. Suppose instead that you could produce one more (the fifth) widget at a marginal
cost of $20. If you do produce that fifth widget, what will your average total cost
be? Has your average total cost increased or decreased? Why?

Solution
10. a. Your average total cost is $40/4 = $10 per widget.
b. If you produce one more widget, you are producing five widgets at a total cost of
$40 + $5 = $45. Your average total cost is therefore $45/5 = $9. Your average total
cost has decreased because the marginal cost of the additional widget is below the
average total cost before you produced the additional widget.
c. If you produce one more widget, you are producing five widgets at a total cost of
$40 + $20 = $60. Your average total cost is therefore $60/5 = $12. Your average
total cost has increased because the marginal cost of the additional widget is above
the average total cost before you produced the additional widget.

11. In your economics class, each homework problem set is graded on the basis of a
maximum score of 100. You have completed 9 out of 10 of the problem sets for the
term, and your current average grade is 88. What range of grades for your 10th prob-
lem set will raise your overall average? What range will lower your overall average?
Explain your answer.

Solution
11. Any grade for your 10th problem set greater than 88 will raise your overall average;
any grade lower than 88 will lower it. This is the same principle at work as that for
average total cost and marginal cost. If the marginal cost curve (the 10th grade) is
above the average total cost curve (the average over the first 9 grades), then the aver-
age total cost is rising (that is, the average over the 10 sets is greater than the average
over the 9 sets). And if the marginal cost curve (the 10th grade) is below the average
total cost curve (the average over the first 9 grades), then the average total cost is
falling (that is, the average over the 10 sets is lower than the average over the 9 sets).
To see this arithmetically, note that your current average, 88, is found by

Sum of grades for first 9 sets = 88 = Average over first 9 sets

9

Hence,
Sum of grades for first 9 sets = 88 × 9 = 792
So your overall grade—the grade over all 10 problem sets—is

792 + Grade for 10th set = Overall average

10 10

If your 10th grade is 90, then your overall grade is

792 + 90 = 79.2 + 9.0 = 88.2

10 10

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-182 10/3/14 8:35 AM

 CHAPTER 11 B E H I N D T H E S U P P LY C U R V E : I N P U T S A N D C O S T S S-183

which is greater than 88. And if your 10th grade is 86, then your overall grade is

792 + 86 = 79.2 + 8.6 = 87.8

10 10

which is less than 88.

12. Don owns a small concrete-mixing company. His fixed cost is the cost of the concrete-
batching machinery and his mixer trucks. His variable cost is the cost of the sand,
gravel, and other inputs for producing concrete; the gas and maintenance for the
machinery and trucks; and his workers. He is trying to decide how many mixer
trucks to purchase. He has estimated the costs shown in the accompanying table
based on estimates of the number of orders his company will receive per week.

VC
Quantity 20 40 60
of trucks FC orders orders orders
2 $6,000 $2,000 $5,000 $12,000
3 7,000 1,800 3,800 10,800
4 8,000 1,200 3,600 8,400

a. For each level of fixed cost, calculate Don’s total cost for producing 20, 40, and
60 orders per week.
b. If Don is producing 20 orders per week, how many trucks should he purchase
and what will his average total cost be? Answer the same questions for 40 and 60
orders per week.

Solution
12. a. The answers are given in the accompanying table.

TC
Quantity 20 40 60
of trucks orders orders orders
2 $8,000 $11,000 $18,000
3 8,800 10,800 17,800
4 9,200 11,600 16,400

b. Don should choose the number of trucks that minimizes average total cost for
each level of output. Given this, Don should buy 2 trucks if he is producing 20
orders per week. His average total cost per order will be $400. He should buy 3
trucks if he is producing 40 orders per week. His average total cost per order will
then be $270. He should buy 4 trucks if he is producing 60 orders per week. His
average total cost per order will then be $273.

13. Consider Don’s concrete-mixing business described in Problem 12. Assume that Don
purchased 3 trucks, expecting to produce 40 orders per week.
a. Suppose that, in the short run, business declines to 20 orders per week. What is
Don’s average total cost per order in the short run? What will his average total
cost per order in the short run be if his business booms to 60 orders per week?
b. What is Don’s long-run average total cost for 20 orders per week? Explain why his
short-run average total cost of producing 20 orders per week when the number of
trucks is fixed at 3 is greater than his long-run average total cost of producing 20
orders per week.

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-183 10/3/14 8:35 AM

 S-184 CHAPTER 11 B E H I N D T H E S U P P LY C U R V E : I N P U T S A N D C O S T S

c. Draw Don’s long-run average total cost curve. Draw his short-run average total
cost curve if he owns 3 trucks.

Solution
13. a. In the short run, producing 20 orders per week with 3 trucks, Don’s average total
cost per order will be ($7,000 + $1,800)/20 = $440. If he instead produces 60
orders per week with 3 trucks, his average total cost per order will be $297.
b. The long-run average total cost of producing 20 orders per week is $400 because
Don would choose the number of trucks (2 trucks) that minimizes the total cost
of producing 20 orders. His short-run average total cost is greater than the long-
run minimum because, using 3 trucks, the level of the fixed input is greater than
he needs to optimally produce 20 orders per week.
c. The accompanying diagram shows Don’s LRATC and ATC.

Cost of
order

$450

400

350

300 ATC
LRATC
250

0 20 40 60
Quantity of orders

14. True or false? Explain your reasoning.

a. The short-run average total cost can never be less than the long-run average total
cost.
b. The short-run average variable cost can never be less than the long-run average
total cost.
c. In the long run, choosing a higher level of fixed cost shifts the long-run average
total cost curve upward.

Solution
14. a. True. The long-run average total cost is the average total cost you get by choosing
the most favorable level of fixed cost in the long run; that is, it is the lowest aver-
age total cost that is possible when you can adjust how much of the fixed input
you use. In other words, the long-run average total cost of producing a certain
level of output is the lowest average total cost with which that level of output can
be produced.
b. False. The long-run average total cost is the lowest average total cost possible. But
average variable cost will always be less than average total cost (it is lower than
the average total cost by just the amount of the average fixed cost). So short-run
average variable cost can be lower than long-run average total cost.
c. False. In the long run, choosing a higher level of fixed cost allows you to move
along and to the right on the long-run average total cost curve. In the long run, if
you want to produce a larger quantity of output, you would optimally increase the
level of fixed cost (this will decrease the average variable cost). You will do this in
such a way as to spend the lowest possible average total cost; that is, you will be
on the long-run average total cost curve but farther to the right (at a larger quan-
tity of output).

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-184 10/3/14 8:35 AM

 CHAPTER 11 B E H I N D T H E S U P P LY C U R V E : I N P U T S A N D C O S T S S-185

15. Wolfsburg Wagon (WW) is a small automaker. The accompanying table shows
WW’s long-run average total cost.

Quantity of cars LRATC of car

1 $30,000
2 20,000
3 15,000
4 12,000
5 12,000
6 12,000
7 14,000
8 18,000

a. For which levels of output does WW experience increasing returns to scale?

b. For which levels of output does WW experience decreasing returns to scale?
c. For which levels of output does WW experience constant returns to scale?

Solution
15. a. WW’s long-run average total cost is decreasing over the range of output between 1
and 4 cars. So over that range, WW experiences increasing returns to scale.
b. WW’s long-run average total cost is increasing over the range of output between 6
and 8 cars. So over that range, WW experiences decreasing returns to scale.
c. WW’s long-run average total cost is constant over the range of output between 4
and 6 cars. So over that range, WW experiences constant returns to scale.

16. The accompanying table shows a car manufacturer’s total cost of producing cars.

Quantity of cars TC

0 $500,000
1 540,000
2 560,000
3 570,000
4 590,000
5 620,000
6 660,000
7 720,000
8 800,000
9 920,000
10 1,100,000

a. What is this manufacturer’s fixed cost?

b. For each level of output, calculate the variable cost (VC). For each level of output
except zero output, calculate the average variable cost (AVC), average total cost
(ATC), and average fixed cost (AFC). What is the minimum-cost output?
c. For each level of output, calculate this manufacturer’s marginal cost (MC).
d. On one diagram, draw the manufacturer’s AVC, ATC, and MC curves.

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-185 10/3/14 8:35 AM

 S-186 CHAPTER 11 B E H I N D T H E S U P P LY C U R V E : I N P U T S A N D C O S T S

Solution
16. a. The manufacturer’s fixed cost is $500,000. Even when no output is produced, the
manufacturer has a cost of $500,000.
b. The accompanying table shows VC, calculated as TC − FC; AVC, calculated as VC/Q;
ATC, calculated as TC/Q; and AFC, calculated as FC/Q. (Numbers are rounded.)
The minimum-cost output is 8 cars, the level at which ATC is minimized.

Quantity
of cars TC MC of car VC AVC of car ATC of car AFC of car

0 $500,000 $0 — — —
$40,000
1 540,000 40,000 $40,000 $540,000 $500,000
20,000
2 560,000 60,000 30,000 280,000 250,000
10,000
3 570,000 70,000 23,333 190,000 166,667
20,000
4 590,000 90,000 22,500 147,500 125,000
30,000
5 620,000 120,000 24,000 124,000 100,000
40,000
6 660,000 160,000 26,667 110,000 83,333
60,000
7 720,000 220,000 31,429 102,857 71,429
80,000
8 800,000 300,000 37,500 100,000 62,500
120,000
9 920,000 420,000 46,667 102,222 55,556
180,000
10 1,100,000 600,000 60,000 110,000 50,000

c. The table also shows MC, the additional cost per additional car produced. Notice
that MC is below ATC for levels of output less than the minimum-cost output and
above ATC for levels of output greater than the minimum-cost output.
d. The AVC, ATC, and MC curves are shown in the accompanying diagram.

Cost
of car

$600,000

500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000
MC

100,000 ATC
AVC
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Quantity of cars

KrugWellsECPS4e_Micro_CH11.indd S-186 10/3/14 8:35 AM