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Study on Drainage Related Performance of Flexible Highway Pavements

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 International Journal On Recent & Innovative Trend In Technology ISSN: 2454-1400
Volume: 2 Issue: 9 December 2016

Study on Drainage Related

Performance of Flexible Highway
Pavements
Zishan Ahemad Abdul Farukh
U. G. Student, PRMIT&R,
Amravati(Mah.), India

Prof. V. P. Ravekar
Assistant Professor, PRMIT&R,
Amravati(Mah.), India

Abstract: Moisture in the pavement system can lead to moisture damage, modulus reduction, and strength loss.
Complete saturation of pavement systems can happen only when positive total heads are present and apportioned in
such a way that saturation of the pavement system is reached. These pernicious effects can be decreased by
preventing water from entering the pavement system. Pavement service life can be 1.5 times more, if infiltrated water
can be drained off without delay. Pavement systems having good drainage can be expected to have a design life of 2 to
3 times that of undrained pavement systems. This paper gives a study of drainage related performance of flexible
pavements.

Keywords: surface drainage, pavement performance, flexible pavement, pavement distresses, drainage
quality.

d) Frost heave and reduction of strength during

1. INTRODUCTION frost melt, and
e) Movement of fine particles into base or sub-
It is a well-known fact that water in pavement base course materials resulting in a reduction of the
systems is one of the principal causes of premature hydraulic conductivity considerably.
pavement failure. Indian road network at over 3.3 Proper surface drainage can reduce the
million km falls under one of the world's longest amount of water infiltrating through the pavement
road networks. Most of the highways built in our and is a strategy that goes hand in hand with proper
country have very slow draining systems, largely subsurface drainage. Most free water will enter the
because standard design practices emphasizes on pavement through joints, cracks, and pores in the
density and stability but place little importance on surface of the pavement. Water also will enter from
subsurface drainage. The poor sub-surface drainage backup in ditches and groundwater sources.
on these roads leads to large amount of costly Drainage prevents the buildup of free water in the
repairs or replacements long before reaching their pavement section, thereby reducing the damaging
design life. Subsurface drainage is a key element in effects of load and environment. Based on
the design of pavement systems. Indiscriminate documented case histories, studies have shown that
exclusion of this element will assuredly lead to the pavement life can be extended up to three times if
premature failure of pavement systems, thereby adequate subsurface drainage systems are installed
resulting in high lifecycle costs. Excessive water and maintained.
content in the pavement base, sub-base, and sub- 1.1. Highway Drainage System
grade soils can cause early distress and lead to a Highway drainage may be classified into the
structural or functional failure of pavement, if following categories:
counter measures are not undertaken. Water-related 1. Surface drainage
damage can cause one or more of the following 2. Sub-surface drainage
forms of deteriorations: 3. Cross Drainage Works
a) Reduction of sub-grade and base/sub-base 5. Disposal of acceptable quality of water
strength, 1. Surface drainage:
b) Differential swelling in expansive sub-grade Removal and diversion of surface water from the
soils, roadway and adjoining land is termed as surface
c) Stripping of asphalt in flexible pavements, drainage. The surface water is to be collected and

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the disposed off. The water is first collected in 3. Cross drainage

longitudinal drains, generally in side drains and Whenever highway crosses a river or stream, cross
then the water is disposed off at the nearest stream, drainage works have to be provided. Sometimes
valley or water course. Cross drainage structures water from side drains also is diverted away from
like culverts and small bridges may be necessary the road through cross drains. On highways
for the disposal of surface water from the road side generally, usually culverts and bridges are used as
drains. Surface drainage deals with arrangements cross water way of about 6 meters, then the cross
quickly and effectively leading away the water that drainage structure is known as a culverts. For
collects on the surface of pavements, shoulders, higher discharge and greater linear way the
slopes of embankments and cuts and the land structure is known as a bridge.
joining the highway. The water so collected is led 4. Disposal of acceptable quality of water:
to natural water-channels or artificial channel, such In the present scenario of rapid urbanization, the
that they do not interfere with the proper adverse impact of development activity needs to be
functioning of any part of the highway, including mitigated. Urban storm water management practice
the embankment, pavement shoulders, medians, has to be employed for benefit of storm water
slopes, and structures. control and pollutant removal capabilities. Water
2. Sub-surface drainage quality practices shall be adopted of acceptable
Diversion or removal of excess soil-water from the standards while disposing off of storm water.
sub-grade is termed as sub-surface drainage. Generally, urban storm water management practice
Changes in moisture content of sub-grade are shall adopt high pollutant removal for non-soluble
caused by fluctuations in ground water table particles pollutants such as suspended sediments. In
seepage flow, percolation of rain water and the the global scenario of recycling of available water,
movement of capillary water and even water vapor. continuous disposal of contaminated water will
In sub-surface drainage of highway, it is attempted seriously jeoparadise the availability of potable
to keep the variation of moisture in sub-grade soil water. In such circumstances, addition of recycled
to minimum. Veeraragavan A. Et al carried out water to available fresh water is becoming a
“sub surface drainage is a key element in the design popular option and is in existence in a few parts of
of pavement system. An optimum performance of a the world. All possible efforts shall be made for
pavement system can be achieved by preventing continuous and constant removal of pollutants in
water entering by means of a well-designed the drainage system. All available open tanks,
subsurface drainage system. Most of the highway parks, nearby quarry pits shall be modernized
and airfield pavements built in our country in the effectively and utilized as detention and retention
past 30 years or so have very slow drainage system, ponds and new additional ponds in the flow stream
largely because standard design practices shall be created and added.
emphasizes on density and stability but place little
important on sub surface drainage. Water may seep 1.2. The detrimental effects of water in the
upward from a high ground water table, or it may pavement system:
flow laterally from the pavement edges. Ground As per IRC 42, the following bad results can
water can be particularly troublesome for occur on the flexible pavement:
pavements in low-lying areas. When pavements are a) Water in the asphalt surface can lead to
constructed below the permanent or a seasonally moisture damage, modulus reduction and loss
high water table, drainage systems must perform or of tensile strength. Saturation can reduce the
rapid pavement failure will occur. This moisture, dry modulus of the asphalt by as much as 30
when combined with traffics loads, voids in percent or more
pavement sections, and freezing temperatures, can b) Added Moisture in unbound aggregate base
have a negative effect on both material properties and sub base is anticipated to result in a loss of
and overall performance of a pavement system. stiffness on the order of 50 percent or more
The most significant source of excess water in c) Modulus reductions of up to 30 percent can be
pavements is typically infiltration through the expected for asphalt treated base and increase
surface through joints, cracks, and other defects in erosion susceptibility of cement or lime treated
the surface that provide an easy path for water. The base
problem only worsens with time. As pavements age d) Saturated fine grained roadbed soils could
and deteriorate, cracks become wider and more experience modulus reduction of over 50
abundant and joints and edges deteriorate into percent.
channels through which water is free to flow. The
result is more water being allowed into the 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
pavement structure with increasing age, which A drainage system includes the pavement and
leads to accelerated development of moisture- the water handling system. They must be properly
related distresses and pavement deterioration. designed, built, and maintained. The water

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handling system includes: road surface, shoulders, a good quality drained road structure. These kinds
drains and culverts; curb, gutter and storm sewer. of problems become more hazardous in case of low
When a road fails, whether it’s concrete, asphalt or volume roads due to unpaved roads, less attention,
gravel, inadequate drainage often is a major factor. poor ditches, poor cross slop etc. The computed
Poor design can direct water back onto the road or SNC were used to predict the performance of low
keep it from draining away. Too much water volume roads in terms of roughness using
remaining on the surface combine with traffic deterioration models. Analysis and results indicated
action is responsible to cause potholes, cracks and that rate of deterioration of the roads increases with
pavement failure. Many researches clearly the traffic growth rate, saturation time and drainage
demonstrating that poor drainage can adversely quality. The average growth rate of deterioration of
affect pavement performance. pavement in case of very poor drainage quality
Rokade et al [1] reported that inadequate drainage increases with the increase in the age of pavement.
leads to major cause of pavement distresses due to Thus, analysis of this study indicated that
large amount of costly repairs before reaching their functional performance of the low volume road (in
design life. He found that pavement service life can terms of roughness) increases sharply with the
be increased by 50% if water can be drained pavement age for pavements having very poor
without delay. Similarly, pavement systems drainage quality. The average growth rate of
incorporating good drainage can be expected to deterioration of pavement in case of very poor
have a design life of two to three times that of drainage quality increases with increase in the
undrained pavement sections. Gurjar et al. [2] saturation time. If the saturation time is more and
presented a framework with which effect of drainage quality is the worst, then the performance
drainage can be quantified. He reported that of low volume roads is the worst. Rokade et al [5]
excessive water content in the pavement base, sub- reported that subsurface drainage is required
base, and sub-grade soils can cause early distress when conditions exist that can cause prolonged
and lead to a structural or functional failure of exposure of the pavement structure to excess
pavement. Thus, when selecting appropriate moisture, resulting in accelerated pavement
maintenance strategies the cost of pavement deterioration under existing levels of traffic
maintenance needs to be compared with the cost of loading. So concluding his remarks he states
improving the quality of drainage. Hence, there is a that:
need to quantify the effect of various types of 1. Cumulative heavy axle loading measured over
drainage quality on performance of the pavement. the life of the pavement is a necessary factor in
Effective drainage in roads is a critical requirement design for subsurface drainage system. This is
for ensuring stability and preventing the failure of indicative of potential for damage to pavement
pavement. Rokade et al. [3] recommends that to structure from axle loading.
minimize premature pavement distresses and to 2. Soil characteristics are key factors influencing
enhance the pavement performance, it is imperative design features for reduced moisture damage.
to provide adequate drainage to allow infiltrated Strength, deformation, gradation, and
water to drain out from the base and sub-base, thus permeability properties of subgrade soil
avoiding saturation of base and subgrade soil. influence pavement design and the need for
When two types of base layers where both subsurface drainage.
pavement structures contained longitudinal edge- 3. Climatic conditions such as rainfall, snow, ice,
drains were compared, the use of a treated frost penetration, cyclic freezing and thawing,
permeable drainage layer improved the rutting and daily and seasonal variation in temperature
performance over that provided by unbound dense- all influence sub-grade soil and pavement
graded aggregate base layers. Pavement drainage is layers, and are therefore important in selection
most beneficial when excessive moisture can be of alternate design.
rapidly removed from the structure, ideally within 4. Economic analysis which compares major cost
2 hours and preferably within 24 hours; however, of highway improvement over chosen period
the benefits derived from a subsurface drainage must consider initial construction costs,
system will vary depending on pavement type, rehabilitation costs, and road user costs.
annual rainfall, subgrade conditions, geometric 5. Maintainability of the system and expected
design, and design of the overall pavement system. performance should be considered.
P. K. Agarwal et al [4] concludes that water 6. Some additional factors that are specific to
remains on the roadway surface that can contribute subsurface drainage, includes:
to vehicle hydroplaning, in winter, standing water  Types of construction(new or a
can freeze and cause skidding etc. It results in rehabilitation of an existing pavement)
frequent and premature deterioration in subgrade,  How similar subsurface drainage designs
base/ sub base as well as surface layers. In such in the area are performing?
cases, roads will need maintenance more often than  Characteristics of surface drainage

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 Types of pavement and other design

features 3. METHODOLOGY
 The quality of materials
 Conditions of the pavement for retrofitting The objective of this study is to study the drainage
edge-drain related performance of flexible highway pavements
 Topography for which the methodological framework has been
A well designed drainable pavement system should prepared which consists of five stages namely as
consist of the following design elements and problem statement, identification of the problems,
features: causes of problems, remedial measures and
1. Full width permeable base, a non-erodible maintenance strategies and outputs which is briefly
base as a sub base layer explained as follows:
2. A separator layer under the permeable Based on saturated flow conditions, there are two
base to prevent contamination from different approaches that are typically considered
subgrade materials. for the hydraulic design of pavement systems: the
3. Longitudinal edge drains with closely steady-state flow conditions and the time-to-drain
spaced outlets, or edge-drain directly laid conditions. However, difficulties in estimating the
in to a side ditch. design rainfall rate and the portion of rainfall that
Magdi M. E. Zumrawi [6] reported in his study enters the pavements make the application of
that to prevent or minimize premature pavement steady state analyses tedious under most
failures and to enhance the road performance, it is circumstances. Therefore, many engineers
imperative to provide adequate drainage. As case nowadays prefer the time to- drain approach. This
study, two major roads in Khartoum state were approach is based on flow entering the pavement
selected for field survey of the existing condition of until the aggregate base course is saturated. Excess
the provided drainage system and its subsequent runoff will not enter the pavement section after it is
impacts on pavement performance. As a result of saturated; this flow will simply run off on the
this investigation, it was found that most roads in pavement surface. After the precipitation event, the
Khartoum state suffered from poor drainage which base will drain to a drainage system. Table 1
causes severe distresses and damages of pavement. presents the different drainage levels for a
Regular annual evaluation of drainage systems is pavement structure, according to AASHTO, for
an important part of maintaining and managing 50% of drainage. This approach drains 50 percent
road. Before making any pavement surface of the water that can be drained. It does not
improvements, make drainage improvements. It is consider the water retained by the effective
most economical and effective to plan and upgrade porosity quality of the material.
drainage as part of road surface improvements.
Kokeb Zena Besha et al. [7] concludes that poor STUDY ON DRAINAGE RELATED
integration between road and urban storm water PERFORMANCE OF FLEXIBLE HIGHWAY
drainage infrastructures, poor maintenance, illegal PAVEMENTS
sewer connection, absent of drains and lack of good
layout plan for the road are among the major causes
that resulted in street flooding. Therefore, Problem Statement
improvement in the integration of road and urban
storm water drainage facilities; maintenance of
drains before the rainy season, awareness creation
Identification of the Problems
and construction of additional drainage
infrastructures with sufficient dimensions will help
in the mitigation of flood disaster in the town.
Contrary to the general assumption that heavy
Causes of Problems
rainfall is the major cause of urban flooding which
mostly results into destruction of human lives and
properties, the study shows that: inadequate
drainage system, illegal sewer connection, solid Remedial Measures or Maintenance Strategies
waste dumping, and poor layout of road profile are
the major factors responsible for street flood.

Output

Fig. 3.1. Methodological framework of study related to

drainage related performance of flexible pavement.

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when subsurface water causes a weakness in

To perform optimally, the subsurface drainage the pavement.
system need to be designed, constructed and  Rutting: Rutting is the displacement of
maintained with high standards. It is good practice pavement material that creates channels in the
to have surfaces on which drainage materials are wheel path. Very severe rutting will actually
placed, well compacted, stable, dry, and free from hold water in the rut. Rutting is usually a
loose materials and completed to true line and failure in one or more layers in the pavement.
gradient. On completion of construction of The width of the rut is a sign of which layer
drainage systems, inspection should be conducted has failed. A very narrow rut is usually a
to verify that these conditions have been met. surface failure, while a wide one is indicative
Necessary measures should be taken to prevent of a subgrade failure. Inadequate compaction
intrusions of foreign material into any portion of can lead to rutting.
drainage system due to construction, operations and  Depressions: Depressions are small, localized
natural rainfall events during and immediately bowl-shaped areas that may include cracking.
following construction. Depressions cause roughness, are a hazard to
Table 1 presents the different drainage levels for motorists, and allow water to collect.
a pavement structure, according to AASHTO, Depressions are typically caused by localized
for 50 percent of drainage. consolidation or movement of the supporting
Quality of Drainage Time to Drain layers beneath the surface course due to
instability.
Excellent 2 hours  Swell: A swell is a localized upward bulge on
Good 1 Day the pavement surface. Swells are caused by an
Fair 7 Days expansion of the supporting layers beneath the
Poor 1 Month surface course or the subgrade. The expansion
Very poor Does not drain is typically caused by frost heaving or by
moisture. Subgrades with highly plastic clays
3.1. Problem statement: can swell in a manner similar to frost heaves
Drainage of pavement including its adjoining (but usually in warmer months).
areas is an important aspect of pavement design.  Potholes: Potholes are bowl-shaped holes
When a road is constructed on a natural terrain, the similar to depressions. They are a progressive
waterways are intercepted and hence necessary failure. First, small fragments of the top layer
measures have to be taken to divert such water are dislodged. Over time, the distress will
from road. Otherwise distresses are possible. progress downward into the lower layers of the
Pavement Deterioration/Damages may be seen in pavement. Potholes are often located in areas
the form of: of poor drainage. Potholes are formed when
1. Cracking the pavement disintegrates under traffic
2. Surface deformation loading, due to inadequate strength in one or
3. Disintegration (potholes, etc.) more layers of the pavement, usually
4. Surface defects (bleeding, etc.) accompanied by the presence of water. Most
The above damages can be categorized as follows potholes would not occur if the root cause was
and described briefly. repaired before development of the pothole.
 Fatigue cracking (Alligator cracking): Fatigue Repair by excavating and rebuilding. Area
cracking is commonly called alligator repairs or reconstruction may be required for
cracking. This is a series of interconnected extensive potholes.
cracks creating small, irregular shaped pieces  Erosion of earth shoulders: For economising
of pavement. It is caused by failure of the cost of construction, shoulders are generally
surface layer or base due to repeated traffic constructed with subgrade soil even on
loading (fatigue). Eventually the cracks lead to highways in India. As surface water cannot
disintegration of the surface. The final result is flow freely on earthen surface and camber is
potholes. Alligator cracking is usually enhanced from 2.5 percent to 3 percent in
associated with base or drainage problems. normal cross-section.
 Edge cracking: Edge cracks typically start as  Corrugation: It is referred to as wash boarding
crescent shapes at the edge of the pavement. because the pavement surface has become
They will expand from the edge until they distorted like a washboard. The instability of
begin to resemble alligator cracking. This type the asphalt concrete surface course may be
of cracking results from lack of support of the caused by too much asphalt cement, too much
shoulder due to weak material or excess fine aggregate, or rounded or smooth textured
moisture. They may occur in a curbed section coarse aggregate. Corrugations usually occur

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at places where vehicles accelerate or In the two cases studied above, the factors which
decelerate. contribute to poor drainage and road pavement
conditions in Amravati are:
3.2. Problem identification: 1. Problems related to pavement construction
Drainage facilities in the entire town Amravati are and maintenance:
very poor. As per the field observation, we can say All structural elements of road from wearing coat
that the problem is improper planning and to sub-grade, footpath etc. have been deteriorated
designing of routes. Though most of the part is leading to major maintenance, as efficiency of
designed as per geometric requirement, they do not disposal system is inadequate. One major cause of
perform satisfactorily. The reason behind is pothole formation on road surface is due to
negligence of certain important factors. Most inadequate storm water disposal mechanism.
important of which are concerned with the drainage The causes of the damaged occurred in the roads
facilities. Consequences of lack of effective throughout the town are:
subsurface drainage system results in premature Geometrics of the road: Various geometric features
failure of pavement with formation of cracks, of roads have been observed and it is found that
settlement, rutting, and boggy action. Effects of they were not performing efficiently as the poor
some phenomenon causing problems due to lack of construction practices in the town is continuously
proper surface drainage facilities are: going on local streets. Also most of the important
Hydroplaning: A flat pavement surface is not streets in the area are left unattended relating to the
conducive to flow of water and hence it has to be drainage characteristics of the road elements. The
suitably profiled to help quick disposal of observation shows that following are the causes
precipitated water. A thick film of water on a road relating to geometrics of roads for various
surface is a safety hazard as it may result in loss of problems mentioned above.
contact between tyres and road surface due to a) Improper longitudinal gradient of roads
formation of a wedge under tyres causing skidding b) Insufficient cambers to drain water from the
of vehicles. This phenomenon known as surface of roads.
hydroplaning or aquaplaning is dangerous when c) Inadequate drainage provisions on
vehicles are moving at high speed. superelevated portions of the road. There are
Stripping of bitumen from aggregates: Standing such places where there are curves, but not
water remaining on bituminous pavement for a required amount of superelevation provided.
long period of time is not desirable as it tends to This leads to major deterioration on curves.
cause early deterioration of pavement. It can cause d) Improper shoulder slope and side slopes
stripping of bitumen from aggregates especially causing shoulder erosion
when they are prone to stripping in case of some e) Inadequate provision for the exit of storm
stones like granite, quartzite, quartz etc. If the water on the road sides causing the edge
bituminous mix is open-graded or poorly cracking. On the kerbed regions this allows the
compacted or surface has cracks/ potholes, the standing water on the road which is a cause of
water seeps to lower layers and accelerates the street flooding. Water on the pavement has
process of stripping. This water tends to migrate to reduced skid resistance, interrupts traffic,
lower layers of pavement and gets entrapped in limits visibility due to splash and spray,
granular base and sub-base layers. If the base and increases potential for hydroplaning, and cause
sub-base layers are not permeable enough to drain difficulty in driving of vehicle. Due to slow
away this water laterally, it results in pavement precipitation of water and pooling on the
resting on a waterbed leading to loss of aggregate carriageway resulting in restricted width and
to aggregate contact thus reducing load dispersal carrying capacity, in turn leading to congestion
capacity and eventually leading to premature and slow movement of traffic after showers.
deterioration of pavement. f) Inadequate height of subgrade from the water
Stagnant water on granular or earthen surface: It table leading to capillary rises up to the
is not desirable as it seeps to lower layers. Earthen subgrade, reducing the strength of the overall
surfaces become slushy making them unusable. pavement as defect of any layer is reflected to
Cross-slope of shoulder provided should be steeper the layers above in case of flexible pavements.
so that water can flow expeditiously on such Quality of material and their selection as required
surfaces. Requirement of cross-slope in earthen for efficient drainage of water: As there is no or
shoulder, therefore, always has to be more than the low emphasis on the drainage, low drainage quality
paved surface. The damages that are observed on materials are generally used. They are not selected
the field are rutting, edge cracking, depression, to drain the surface water from the pavement itself
swell, potholes, scaling, corrugations, flooding of as well as water which rises from the ground water
streets, and erosion of shoulders. table (including capillary water) or infiltrated from
3.3. Causes of problems: the sides and intercepted in the pavements. This

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results in reduction of material strength of the drains located in their communities clean and
pavement and ultimately under heavy traffic, it not use them as refuse dump places
caused the severe damages to the roads. iv. Use of low quality materials: Use of low
2. Problems related to drains: quality construction materials such as bricks,
i. Poor design and construction: In general, most concrete, corrugated steel adversely affects the
of the side drains provided to roads in quality of the drains and culverts. This
Amravati region are earth drains or ditches. sometimes occurs in the form of the improper
Some drains built from bricks, stones or concrete mixture for construction of drain
concrete materials are open drains without channels. The use of extreme cohesive and
covers. Others built drains are covered with expansive soil as foundation soil results in
concrete slab or blocks. Failures of built drains prolonged consolidation, heave or settlement
like collapse of bed, side walls and/or covers of the bed of the drain and culvert. The use of
caused by improper design and construction, soil of low bearing capacity as foundation soil
settlement or heave may lead to the leads to the failure of the drains and culverts.
development of cracks and subsequent failure. v. No local standard of practice: There is a great
Most of the drains channels in Maharashtra need for adequate monitoring and control in
state are designed by the engineers of the the local construction process. This can be
public work departments or by consultants done by the provision of a standard method of
who have no experience of the drainage work. practice which will be strictly followed,
This leads to a situation where preliminary monitored and maintained. The professional
studies that will help the design and bodies in the country will play a very
construction decisions are not done. This leads important role at this stage. They should be
to poor understanding of the drainage which able to provide a local standard of practice for
subsequently leads to poor design and the country, maintain it and monitor
construction of drainage system. compliance to the use of the standard. This is
ii. Poor maintenance culture: Even if the drains because a local standard will take cognizance
and their structures, culverts are well built they of the local peculiarities that will affect the
need adequate maintenance for sustainability. environment where drainage works are
One of the main problems of drainage located.
development in Amravati region is
maintenance. The drains and culverts are rarely 3.4. Remedial measures and maintenance
maintained and whenever maintenance is strategies:
attempted it is done haphazardly. The The defects stated above can be remedied by
financing of the maintenance, rehabilitation using following corrective measures as per
and conservation of the drainage network in IRC 42 and IRC 50.
Amravati region had always been left to the 1. Longitudinal and Transverse gradient (camber)
government at the state and local levels who of pavement of pavement: This minimum
because of their lack of maintenance culture do longitudinal gradient is more important for a
not release funds for drainage maintenance at kerbed pavement than for an unkerbed
the appropriate time. The drainage network pavement. Desirable longitudinal gradients
was therefore left to deteriorate. The drainage shall not be less than 0.50 percent for
worldwide were considered critical pavements for satisfactory drainage. A
infrastructure in any nation’s life and were minimum longitudinal gradient of 0.30 percent
paid premium attention. is necessary to facilitate flow of water in side
iii. Negative attitude of residents: The attitude of drains. Cross slopes of 2 percent have little
residents in communities under which these effect on driver comfort in steering or on
drainage channels are constructed and located friction for vehicle stability. The use of cross
is so negative. The investigation conducted slope exceeding 2 percent on pavements with a
and as seen in the photographs which are taken central crown line is not desirable. Water from
from the drains sites during the field survey road should get directed towards the road edge
clearly shows that residents have converted the and should enter the storm water drain through
drains and the culverts into refuse dump kerb opening. Covered drain may be Hume
places. This results in blockage of these drains pipe/cast in situ/precast channel.
and its subsequent failures which in turn does 2. The Kerb depth would be more than
negatively affect conditions of the road conventional kerb depth & green area level
pavement. There is very urgent need for should be lower than adjacent road level.
government agencies and concerned bodies to 3. For shoulders along unkerbed pavement the
organize sensitization programs towards cross fall should be at least 0.5 percent steeper
enlightening residents on the need to keep

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than that of the pavement subject to the  Drainage of Flyovers and Bridges: The entire
minimum values given below: rain water on the carriage way of flyover shall
WBM surface = 3 percent, Gravel surface = 4 be drained though efficient piping network of
percent, Earth surface = 5 percent rainwater of the area. Caution shall be
4. Disposal of Acceptable Quality of Storm exercised not to allow straight drop of water
Water: The adverse impact of development from flyover to road surface below, which
activity in urbanization with respect to storm results in disruption of traffic and damage to
water quality needs to be mitigated. Sewerage road pavement. The rain water on flyover,
drains and their content shall strictly be which has to be above road is drained through
forbidden from entering storm water drains. either down take pipes or pipes embedded in
This can be achieved by providing cutoff the piers into series of network of rainwater
drains all along and lead to storage tank & this harvesting system of the area and overflow can
sewage water can be treated through STP & then be directed to the drains. All such
used for watering plants, medians & excess disposal systems shall blend well and
can be lead to main SWD. There shall be a aesthetically pleasing.
programme of self-designed storm water  Drainage at Foot of Flyovers: The longitudinal
pollution prevention plan. Some sort of gradient of ramp of flyovers is usually upto 3
regulation shall be in place for setting forth percent or even more and the cross slope will
practices, procedures and objectives for be about 2 percent. The majority of rain water
controlling storm water quality in urbanized flows rapidly in longitudinal direction rather
locations. Existing open tanks or wet ponds than cross slope resulting in very large
which are nothing but retention ponds, serves quantity of water reaching the valley curve
both the purposes of controlling the volume of area where it meets ground level road. This
runoff and treating the runoff for pollutant junction shall be provided with finger plate
removal. These wet ponds can have aesthetic drain across the pavement. The valley junction
value; can be used for recreational purposes shall be engineered in such a way that even
and also as emergency water supply. In the below road pavement shall have downward
urban scenario where parking lots, bigger longitudinal gradient towards valley junction,
complexes and other structures which so that entire rain water from flyover can be
discharge large quantity of pollutants along efficiently discharged into the drain at the
with storm water needs to install filter and oil- edge. Then it can be directed to nearby storm
grit separator arrangement so that drained out water management facility and overflow can
water shall be free from pollutants. The sewer be directed to the main drain which will stop
water can be prevented from flowing into the water from flowing directly to the road.
storm water system by providing cutoff.  Vehicular Subways: Drainage of vehicular
5. Managing Water quality for health of subways shall be efficiently planned at its
ecosystems and human consumption: conception stage itself. Most preferable system
Monitoring quality of water flowing into the of drainage shall be by gravity. Entire surface
drainage channels or nallas is to be ensured for drain of subway shall be taken to a lowest
health of ecosystem and human consumption. level and a suitable grating provided across
(Stricter norms for solid waste disposal, full width of road. The grating shall have a
industrial effluent control and any illegal disposal chamber which will collect the storm
discharge of waste into the drainage network water and dispose it to the nearby storm water
by providing cutoff drains). management facility like detention, retention
6. Working open space network: Designing of ponds or open ground and overflow can be
open space systems along drainage corridor directly connected to the main drain. The lead
based on ecological value, planning for off drain shall be preferably pipe drains with
preserving and enhancing them. These could manholes at a maximum spacing of 30 m. In
be used for eco mobility (Pedestrian and NMT case of larger subways, two inlets can be
movement) or as a city level park system with provided at both ends of box approach ramp
leisure trails and recreation zones. junctions. The gratings shall be at least 10 m
 To protect the existing water ways away from the deck to minimize ascending
 To formulate guidelines for design, water during rains in the box portion. In case
construction, operation and maintenance the drainage cannot be effectively discharged
of the system by gravity, necessary suitable pumping
7. Storm Water Drainage of Special Locations: arrangement shall be made size of pumps shall
The special locations in urban scenario for be calculated based on drainage quantity with
drainage will normally be: necessary sumps, debris filters etc.

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 Drains underneath the Carriageway: At many disposable systems where in the offending
locations in urban limits, storm water drains party shall be penalized and booked under
run across the carriageway. The storm Water various punitive clauses of respective local
can directly be drained through gratings urban bodies. All vulnerable stretches of drains
designed appropriately. which are thickly populated and where debris
 Drainage at Intersections: Drainage at the is likely to be thrown into the drain shall be
intersections shall be well planned. The level fenced suitably. In light of serious choking of
of junction shall be slightly higher than the storm water drains by reckless disposal of
roads meeting, so that water can reach the debris, punitive action like criminal
traffic island at the corners, which already proceedings with respective state municipal
exist along respective roads. Any stagnation acts shall be imposed, in addition, larger
water at intersections would reduce the corporations shall deploy patrolling vehicles
capacity of junction resulting in traffic jams for containing the same.
and underutilization of junction. In the event of
junction at lower level, the drainage shall be Construction and Maintenance recommendations:
engineered in such a way that rain water shall According to P K Agrawal, the following materials
be directed to this green traffic island and can be adopted for maintaining good drainage
overflow can be connected to the main conditions:
drainage system. : In urban situations, many i. Provide moisture-insensitive materials:
intersections, particularly load traffic volume Another means of preventing moisture-
intersect sections are provided in the form of accelerated damage is to use moisture
rotary. In such locations, due to super insensitive or non-erodible base materials that
elevation requirement water from a large area are less affected by the detrimental effects of
flows towards the center of the rotary. It is moisture. However, although some materials
essential to this water and drains it to the main can reduce or delay the detrimental effects of
drainage system. Minimum size of outflow moisture, moisture-insensitive materials by
from rotary shall be 600 mm width for ease of themselves may not fully address moisture-
maintenance. related problems in pavements that are heavily
8. Maintenance of Drains loaded. Materials that are used often to reduce
a. Pavement crown or cross slope is moisture related damage are as follow:
maintained in design profile conducive to Cement and Asphalt -treated base: In addition
quick drainage. to the conventional strength testing for
b. Road shoulders are clear and dressed for durability, such materials should also be
efficient clear off. checked for resistance to moisture erosion. In
c. If there is a need for new side drain chutes addition, an aggregate sub-base is
in high embankment. recommended to prevent pumping and loss of
d. If the kerb channel is clean and slopes fines from beneath the treated base in areas
towards the inlet is to be provided. with adverse site conditions (e.g., high design
e. If the kerb inlets/bell mouths are clear. traffic, wet climates, and high amounts of
f. The drain is desilted before rainy seasons, pumpable fines in the sub-grade). Hot-mix
all manholes and grit chambers are asphalt base materials can also be effective in
cleaned. minimizing moisture problems in hot mix
g. Inspection after heavy rains is required to asphalt (HMA) pavements. The stripping of
know the deficiencies in the system and asphalt binder, caused by many factors but
reporting unsatisfactory performance and particularly aggregate characteristics and
also rectifications. inadequate film thicknesses, has been the
h. Inspection in October/November can be major problem with asphalt-treated base
carried out and list defects for summer (ATB). Therefore, just as with CTB, adequate
maintenance. film thickness of asphalt cement around the
i. Gratings/metallic covers should be aggregates and quality aggregates are required
checked before monsoon for repair or in ATBs to ensure long-term durability.
replacement if any. Open graded base materials: Granular
j. Discourage & enforce street, house materials with a high amount of crushed
sweeping being dumped into open drains materials, low fines contents, and low
or gutter openings. plasticity may also be used to resist the effects
9. Enforcement of Cleaning the Drains: of moisture. These open-graded materials
As since large quantum of public funds are provide better resistance to the effects of
spent on storm water drainage implementation, moisture than dense-graded materials with
time has come for enforcement of certain high fines contents. First, open-graded

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 International Journal On Recent & Innovative Trend In Technology ISSN: 2454-1400
Volume: 2 Issue: 9 December 2016

materials allow easier movement of moisture v. The above stated defects/deformations

through the material, so the layer remains such as potholes, ruts, cracking etc. will be
saturated for less time. Second, the reduction avoided and lead to increase in the life
of fines means there is less material that can be time and performance of the flexible
ejected through joints and cracks. However, pavement.
stability of these untreated permeable base vi. The ground water which is depleting at
layers is a major concern because settlement very rapid rates can be recharge by
can lead to serious problems and needs to be adopting one or combinations of the
addressed adequately. methods as discussed.
ii. Installation of longitudinal edge drain and use vii. Environmental sanitation can be
of treated permeable drainage layer: It is maintained and the major factors causing
recommend that regular inspection of the diseases like dengue, malaria etc. (due to
under-drain outlet pipes needs to be a key part spread of mosquitoes) and unhygienic
of maintaining a pavement that includes conditions can be prevented with proper
subsurface drainage features. Installation of removal of storm or standing water from
longitudinal edge-drains in pavements the road surface.
containing no subsurface drainage layers viii. Construction and maintenance using
significantly increases the subgrade resilient above strategies will lead to a great
modulus. Installation of edge-drains improves economy in the flexible pavement
the fatigue performance of pavements development throughout the country.
constructed on unbound dense graded ix. India is a developing country. As the road
aggregate layers. When two types of base network will be maintained into the high
layers where both pavement structures performance condition, they will provide
contained longitudinal edge-drains were the rapid transportation facilities,
compared, the use of a treated permeable reduction in congestion and deterioration.
drainage layer improved the rutting They will serve the nation in its economic
performance over that provided by unbound development.
dense-graded aggregate base layers.

3.5. Outputs:
i. It has been observed that the main reason
for any problem related to deterioration
will be highly increased due to presence of
standing water on any of the type of
pavement. Standing water may result in
phenomenon like hydroplaning, stripping
of bitumen binder, mud pumping (in case
of rigid pavement). Standing water also
arrests much width of road reducing the
width for driving of vehicles and hence
less area is subjected to more traffic which
in turn results in more detrimental
situations.
ii. In Amravati region, all the emphasis
remains on strength of pavement in which
density of soil is an important parameter
and drainage is completely neglected in
most parts. The best example of this is
State Highway 252 (MIDC road). The
damages seen are severe.
iii. Drainage prevents the buildup of free
water in the pavement section, thereby
reducing the damaging effects of load and
environment.
iv. The surface water from the carriage way
and shoulder will be effectively drained
off without allowing it to percolate to
subgrade and weaken the soil.

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 International Journal On Recent & Innovative Trend In Technology ISSN: 2454-1400
Volume: 2 Issue: 9 December 2016

REFERENCES
4. CONCLUSIONS
[1] Rokade, S., Agarwal, P.K. and Shrivastava, R.
(2012):“Study on drainage related performance of flexible
1. A major objective in pavement design should
highway pavements,” International Journal of Advanced
be to keep the base, sub-base, subgrade, and Engineering Technology (IJAET),Vol.3, Issue 1, pp: 334-
other susceptible paving materials from 337.
becoming saturated or even being exposed to [2] Jitendra Gurjar, Pradeep Kumar Agarwal, Manoj Kumar
Sharma (2013): “A Framework for Quantification of
constant high moisture levels over time. Four
Effect of Drainage Quality on Structural and Functional
approaches commonly employed to control or Performance of Pavement”, International Journal of
reduce moisture problems are listed below: Engineering Research Volume No.2, Issue No. 3, pp: 257-
• Prevent moisture from entering the pavement 263
[3] Siddhartha Rokade, P.K. Agarwal, Rajnish Shrivastava
system.
(2012) “Drainage and Flexible Pavement Performance”,
• Use materials that are insensitive to the International Journal of Engineering Science and
effects of moisture. Technology (IJEST), pp: 1308-1311
• Incorporate design features to minimize [4] Dr P K Agarwal, Jitendra Gurjar, S Choudhary (2014)
“Evaluation of Effect of Drainage Quality on the
moisture damage.
Performance of Low Volume Roads in India”, Journal of
• Quickly remove moisture that enters the Advanced Research in Civil and Environmental
pavement system. Engineering Volume 1, Issue 1, 2014, pp: 42-52
It is important to recognize that no approach [5] Siddhartha Rokade, P. K. Agarwal and Rajnish
Shrivastava(2012), Effect of Subsurface Drainage
can completely negate the effects of moisture
on Pavement Performance, NICMAR-Journal of
on the pavement system under heavy traffic Construction Management, Vol. XXVII, No. 2&3,
loads over many years. April-June & July-Sept. 2012, pp: 92-96
2. Pavement drainage is most beneficial when [6] Magdi M. E. Zumrawi (October 2014), “The Impacts of
excessive moisture can be rapidly removed Poor Drainage on Road Performance in Khartoum”, Int. J.
of Multidisciplinary Sciences and Engineering Research,
from the structure, ideally within 2 hours and Vol.3, No.1 (October 2014), pp: 901-907
preferably within 24 hours; however, the [7] Kokeb Zena Besha, Addisu Adamu Alemayehu (May
benefits derived from a subsurface drainage 2016), “Assessment of Road and Surface Water Drainage
system will vary depending on pavement type, Condition in Urban Ethiopia, with Special Reference of
Assosa Town”, European Academic Research Vol. IV,
annual rainfall, subgrade conditions, geometric Issue 2/ May 2016 , pp: 1966-1991
design, and design of the overall pavement [8] Sharad.S.Adlinge, Prof.A.K.Gupta (2015), “ Pavement
system. Deterioration and its Causes”, IOSR Journal of
3. The above study will help in maintaining the Mechanical & Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE), pp:9-15
[9] IRC: SP 42-2014, “Guidelines on Road Drainage”,
flexible pavements to be in their service Special Publication, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
condition for long time and deterioration of August 2014.
pavement structure will be reduced to a great [10] IRC: SP 50-2013, “Guidelines on Urban Drainage”,
extent. Special Publication, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
August 2013.
4. The study will give more environment friendly
[11] S. K. Khanna, C.E.G. Justo, A Veeraragavan, “ Highway
results such as sanitation as well as recharge of Engineering”,10th Edition, Nem Chand and Bros.,
depleting ground water table can be achieved Roorkee.
effectively.
From the above study the need to study the
drainage related performance of flexible highway
pavement is justified.

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