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UNIT 3- ELECTRICAL TYPE FLOW METER

Principle and constructional details of electromagnetic flow meter – Ultrasonic

flow meters – Laser Doppler anemometer – Vortex shedding flow meter – Target
flow meter – Guidelines for selection of flow meter – Open channel flow
measurement – Solid flow rate measurement

Electromagnetic Flowmeter
Electromagnetic flow meter is different from all other flow meters due to its uniqueness on
several accounts. The advantages of this type of flow meter can be summarized as:
1. It causes no obstruction to flow path.
2. It gives complete linear output in form of voltage.
3. The output is unaffected by changes in pressure, temperature and viscosity of the fluid.
4. Reverse flow can also be measured.
5. Flow velocity as low as 10-6 m/sec can be measured.

Fig 3.1 Electromagnetic flowmeter

Basic Principle

 Electromagnetic flow meters are suitable for measurement of velocity of conducting

(Mercury) and weakly conducting (water) liquid. The basic principle of operation can be
understood from Fig 3.1. It works on the principle of basic electromagnetic induction; i.e.
when a conductor moves along a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of flow, a
voltage would be induced perpendicular to the direction of movement as also to the
magnetic field
 The flowing liquid acts like a conductor. External magnetic field is applied perpendicular
to the direction of the flow and two electrodes are flushed on the wall of the pipeline as
shown. The expression for the voltage induced is given by.

Eo= Blv - (3.1)

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 Where l is the length of the conductor (diameter d in this case) and v is the velocity of the
liquid. The above expression shows the complete relationship between the voltage
induced and the velocity. However, the magnetic field applied is not d.c. if the liquid
medium is water or any other polarizable liquid. This is because, if the magnetic field is
d.c. the voltage induced will also be d.c. and a small amount of d.c. current will flow if a
measuring circuit is connected to the terminals.
 This small d.c. current will cause electrolysis; oxygen and hydrogen bubbles will be
formed and they will stick to the electrodes surfaces for some time. This will provide an
insulating layer on the electrodes surfaces that will disrupt the voltage generation process.
As a result, the magnetic field applied for these cases is a.c., or pulsed d.c. excitation. The
meter can only be used for liquids having moderate conductivities (more than
10/mhocmμ). As a result, it is not suitable for gases or liquid hydrocarbons. The
accuracy is around ±1%.

Ultrasonic flow meters:

 An ultrasonic flowmeter (non-intrusive Doppler flow meters) is a volumetric flow meter

which requires particulates or bubbles in the flow. Ultrasonic flowmeters are ideal for
wastewater applications or any dirty liquid which is conductive or water based.
 Ultrasonics flowmeters will generally not work with distilled water or drinking water.
Aerations would be required in the clean liquid applications. Ultrasonic flowmeters are
also ideal for applications where low pressure drop, chemical compatibility, and low
maintenance are required.

Basic Principle :

 The basic principle of operation employs the frequency shift (Doppler Effect) of an
ultrasonic signal when it is reflected by suspended particles or gas bubbles
(discontinuities) in motion. This metering technique utilizes the physical phenomenon of
a sound wave that changes frequency when it is reflected by moving discontinuities in a
flowing liquid.
 Ultrasonic sound is transmitted into a pipe with flowing liquids, and the discontinuities
reflect the ultrasonic wave with a slightly different frequency that is directly proportional
to the rate of flow of the liquid (Figure 1). Current technology requires that the liquid
contain at least 100 parts per million (PPM) of 100 micron or larger suspended particles
or bubbles.

Ultrasonic flowmeters works in general after two different principles:

 The Doppler Effect Ultrasonic Flowmeter

 The Time of Flight Ultrasonic Flowmeter
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The Doppler Effect Ultrasonic Flowmeter

The Doppler Effect Ultrasonic Flowmeter (shown in Fig 2.2) use reflected ultrasonic sound to
measure the fluid velocity. By measuring the frequency shift between the ultrasonic frequency
source, the receiver, and the fluid carrier, the relative motion is measured.

The resulting frequency shift is named the Doppler Effect.

The fluid velocity can be expressed as

v = c (fr - ft) / 2 ft cosΦ (3.2)

Fig 3.2 Doppler effect flowmeter

where

fr = received frequency

ft = transmission frequency

v = fluid flow velocity

Φ = the relative angle between the transmitted ultrasonic beam and the fluid flow

c = the velocity of sound in the fluid . more about speed of sound

This method requires there are some reflecting particles in the fluid. The method is not suitable
for clear liquids.
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Advantages with the Doppler Effect Ultrasonic Flowmeter

Doppler meters may be used where other meters don't work. This might be liquid slurries,
aerated liquids or liquids with some small or large amount on suspended solids. The advantages
can be summarized to:

 Obstruct less flow

 Can be installed outside the pipes
 The pressure drop is equal to the equivalent length of a straight pipe
 Low flow cut off
 Corrosion resistant
 Relative low power consumption

Limitations with Doppler Effect Ultrasonic Flowmeters

 The Doppler flowmeters performance are highly dependent on physical properties of the
fluid, such as the sonic conductivity, particle density, and flow profile.
 Non uniformity of particle distribution in the pipe cross section may result in a
incorrectly computed mean velocity. The flowmeter accuracy is sensitive to velocity
profile variations and to the distribution of acoustic reflectors in the measurement section.
 Unlike other acoustic flowmeters, Doppler meters are affected by changes in the liquid's
sonic velocity. As a result, the meter is also sensitive to changes in density and
temperature. These problems make Doppler flowmeters unsuitable for highly accurate
measurement applications.

The Time of Flight Ultrasonic Flowmeter

With the Time of Flight Ultrasonic Flowmeter (Fig 2.3) the time for the sound to travel between
a transmitter and a receiver is measured. This method is not dependable on the particles in the
fluid.

Fig 3.3 Transit time flowmeter

Two transmitters / receivers (transceivers) are located on each side of the pipe. The transmitters
send pulsating ultrasonic waves in a predefined frequency from one side to the other. The
difference in frequency is proportional to the average fluid velocity.
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Downstream pulse transmit time can be expressed as

td = L / (c + v cosΦ) (3.3)

where td = downstream pulse transmission time

L = distance between transceivers

upstream pulse transmit time can be expressed as

tu = L / (c - v cosΦ) (3.4)

where tu = upstream pulse transmission time

Since the sound travels faster downstream than upstream, the difference can be expressed as

t = td - tu

= 2 v L cosΦ / ( c2 - v2 cos2Φ)

= 2 v L cosΦ / c2 (4) (since v is very small compared to c)

Benefits with Ultrasonic Flowmeters

 Obstruction less flow

 Pressure drop equal to an equivalent length of straight pipe
 Unaffected by changes in temperature, density or viscosity
 Bi-directional flow capability
 Low flow cutoff
 Corrosion-resistant
 Accuracy about 1% of flow rate
 Relative low power consumption

Limitations with Ultrasonic Flowmeters

 The operating principle for the ultrasonic flowmeter requires reliability high frequency
sound transmitted across the pipe. Liquid slurries with excess solids or with entrained
gases may block the ultrasonic pulses.
 Ultrasonic flowmeters are not recommended for primary sludge, mixed liquor,
aerobically digested sludge, dissolved air flotation thickened sludge and its liquid phase,
septic sludge and activated carbon sludge.
 Liquids with entrained gases cannot be measured reliably.

Laser Doppler Anemometer:

 A typical laser Doppler anemometer which is shown in Fig 2.4 issues two split laser
beams to form a fringe pattern across the targeted area, as described above. When the
targeted area is within a flowfield, as shown in the schematic below, entrained particles
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passing through the fringes produce a burst of reflected light whose flicker frequency
depends on the fringe spacing and the particle velocity normal to the fringes.

Fig 3.4 Laser Doppler Anemometer:

Laser Doppler Optical System

The frequency of the Doppler burst fD is the velocity of the particle normal to the fringes vn
divided by the fringe spacing ,

fD = vn / 

Since the fringe spacing  is a function of the laser wavelength  and crossing angle , the
Doppler frequency becomes,

The normal velocity of the particle is found to be,

Note that there are no negative terms in the above formula. In other words, the direction of the
particle motion cannot be determined by this formula. Furthermore, the measured velocity of the
particle is the velocity component normal to the fringe pattern, not the actual velocity.

Vortex shedding flowmeter

Vortex Shedding Phenomenon
When an obstruction (a non-streamlined object) is placed in the path of a flowing stream, the
fluid is unable to remain attached to the object on its downstream sides and will alternately
separate (shed) from one side and then the other. The slow-moving fluid in the boundary layer
on the body becomes detached on the downstream side and rolls into eddies and vortices,. Fig.
1.69. It is also noted that the distance between the shed vortices is constant, regardless of flow
velocity.
This principle is called as Karman’s principle.
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Fig 2.5 Vortex shedding flowmeter

 Stated in terms of a flag fluttering in the wind, it is noted that the intervals between
vortices (l) is constant and is only a function of the diameter of the flag pole (d).
Therefore, the faster the wind, the faster the vortices are formed and the faster the flag
flutters as a consequent, but without changing its wavelengths.
 In building a flow meter based on Karman’s principle, the manufacturer usually selects
an obstruction width (d) that is one-quarter of the pipe diameter (ID). As long as the
obstruction is not coated, as long as the pipe Reynolds’s number high enough to produce
vortices and as long as the detector is sensitive enough to detect these vortices, what
results is a flow meter that is sensitive to flow velocity and is insensitive to the nature of
the flowing media (liquid, gas, steam), density etc.
 As per Strouhal’s statement, if one knows the vortex shedder width (d) and has a
detector that is sensitive enough to count the vortices and determine the vortex
frequency (f), one can measure the flowing velocity of any substances as :
 Flow velocity =
Kfd ...(3.5) where
K is a constant.
Vortex Flow Meter Detection
As a vortex is shed from one side of the bluff body, the fluid velocity on that side increases and
the pressure decreases. On the opposite side, the velocity decreases and the pressure increases,
thus causing a net pressure change across the bluff body. The entire effect is then reversed as the
next vortex is shed from the opposite side. Consequently, the velocity and pressure distribution
adjacent to the bluff body change at the same frequency as the vortex shedding frequency.
Various detectors can be used to measure one of the following:
 The oscillating flow across the face of the bluff body.
 The oscillating pressure difference across the sides of the bluff body.
 A flow through a passage drilled through the bluff body.
 The oscillating flow or pressure at the rear of the body.
 The presence of free vortices in the downstream to the bluff body.
A flow-sensitive detector can be either a heated thermistor element or a spherical magnetic
shuttle. Detectors that are sensitive to pressure use either metal diaphragms or vanes. Pressure
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exerted on diaphragms can be converted into variable capacitance or variable strain or can be
converted into an electrical signal through any of the sensor. Depending on the characteristics of
the sensing system, the flow meter will be suitable for liquid or gas or both. The earliest detector
designs were highly sensitive to plugging and required frequent maintenance.

Fig 2.6: Early Vortex flow meter Detectors

Those early detectors were replaced by units that could not plug and were solid state in design.
Other design modifications aim at compensating for background noise by using two detectors, of

which one is exposed to vortex forces and the other is not, and using their difference as the
measurement signal.

Fig 2.7 Solid state flow meter Detectors

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Features of Vortex Shedding Flow Meter

 The vortex shedding meter provides a linear digital output signal without the use
of separate transmitters or converters, simplifying equipment installation.
 Meter accuracy is good over a potentially wide flow range, although this range
is dependent upon operating conditions.
 The shedding frequency is a function of the dimensions of the bluff body and it ensures
good long term stability of calibration and repeatability of better than± 0.15% of rate.
 There is no drift because this is a frequency system.
 The meter does not have any moving or wearing components, providing
improved reliability and reduced maintenance.
 The calibration of the meter is virtually independent of the operating conditions(viscosity,
density, pressure, temperature and so on) whether the meter is being used on gas or liquid.
 The vortex shedding meter also offers a low installed cost, particularly in pipe
sizes below 6 inch diameter.
 The limitations include meter size range. Meters below 12 mm diameter are not practical.

Selection of Vortex Shedding Flow Meter

As the first step in the selection process the operating conditions should be compared with the
meter specification. The meter wetted materials (including bonding agents) and sensors should
then be checked for compatibility with the process fluid both with regard to chemical attack and
safety. Applications where there are large concentrations of solids, two-phase flow, or pulsating
flow should be avoided or approached with extreme caution. The meters can have a rangeability
of about 20: 1 with a pressure loss of approximately 0.2 kg/cm2. The meter’s good accuracy and
digital linear output signal make its application over wide flow ranges a practical proposition.
The rangeability declines proportionally with increases in viscosity and decreases in density, or
reductions in the maximum flow velocity of the process. Vortex shedding meters are therefore
unsuitable for use of high-viscosity liquids.

Target flow meter

Principle of Working.
 Material buildup in front of orifice plates can cause both measurement errors and
plugging when the process stream is a liquid slurry or a gas carrying wet solids. The
annular orifice, which is illustrated in Fig. 1.39 was introduced to solve this problem by
providing an annular opening for the solids to pass through.
 Target flow meters are similar in design except that the pressure taps have also been
eliminated and the detection of differential pressure been replaced by force measurement.
Both of these designs are suited for dirty or low turbulence flow metering applications, if
high precision is not required.
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Fig. 1.39 Annular orifice plate installation

Construction:
 The target meter combines in a single unit an annular orifice and a force-balance
transducer. Output is either an electric or pneumatic signal proportional to the square of
the flow. Target meters are available in sizes from 1/2 to 8 inch pipe diameter.
 The annular orifice is formed by a circular disk supported in the center of a tubular
section having the same diameter. Flow through the open ring between disk and tube
develops a force on the disk proportional to velocity head (the square of the flow). The
disk is mounted on a rod passing out through a flexible seal. The force on the disk is
measured from the rod outside the seal, using a standard force-balance transducer
integrally mounted on the flow tube.

Applications. The target meter is applied in a number of fields for measurement of liquids,
vapours and gases. It allows unimpeded flow of condensates and extraneous material along the
bottom of a pipe and at the same time allows unimpeded flow of gas or vapour along the top of
the pipe.
Operating temperature range : 300° C.
Operating pressures : 15 kg/cm2.
Targets with diameters of 0.6, 0.7 and 0.8 times tube diameter are available. Overall
accuracy of calibrated target meters is better than that of orifice-type systems.

With the target meter a physical target is located directly in the fluid flow.

Fig 2.8: Target flow meter

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The deflection of the target and the force bar is measured in the instrument.

The force on the target can be expressed as

F = cd ρ v2 At / 2 (1)
Where F = force on the target (N)
cd = overall drag coefficient obtained from empirical
data ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
v = fluid velocity (m/s)
At = target area (m2)
Advantages with the Target Flow Meter

 Can be used for any type of liquid, gas, or steam cryogenics.

 There is no moving parts such as bearings, to wear out causing failures.
 High reliability where life tests have been made to 20,000,000 cycles.
 Can be used for any line size from 0.5 inches and up with any type of mounting.
 Range/fluid changes accomplished by simply changing targets
 Turndowns aprox.15:1
 Can accept bi-directional flow where signal polarity indicates direction.
 Several materials are available. Among them 303/304 SS, 316 SS, hastelloy and inconel.

Disadvantages with the Target Flow Meter

 Calibration must be verified in the field.

Selection Criteria of Flowmeter

 To select a suitable flowmeter for a particular application it was not an easy task
especially with the wide variety of flowmeters in the market. It requires considerable
evaluation of the total cost, fluid state, flowing condition, Reynolds number, density,
range ability, mechanical installation constraints and accuracy requirements. The design
engineer should decide the design condition for mass, volume (operating standard) or
energy. Besides that, pressure and temperature of the fluid should be providing as well
for the flow meter and transmitter to compensate for process variations in these variables.
A specific gravity or density analyzer may also be needed to account for variability in
stream composition.
 In considering the cost, it should consider the total cost involve, included equipment cost,
total cost installation, maintained cost, and operating cost. Costs must be carefully
evaluated, particularly as meter size or operating pressure changes. For instance, a small
sized Venturi might be of comparable cost to an averaging pitot, but as the size increases
the cost of the Venturi rapidly exceeds that of the averaging pitot for a given pipe size.
Increasing design pressure has the same effect.
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Accuracy
 A term used frequently in flow measurement is accuracy. Accuracy is more abused than
correctly used. Unfortunately, it is a sales tool used commercially by both suppliers and
users of metering equipment.
 The supplier with the best number wins the bid. Likewise, the user will sometimes
require accuracies beyond the capabilities of any meter available. In previous decades,
accuracy was the term most commonly used to describe a meter’s ability to measure flow.
It was defined as the ratio of indicated measurement to true measurement. The antithesis
of uncertainty and is an expression of the maximum possible limit of error at a defined
confidence.

Flow Range and Rangeability

Flow range is the differential between the minimum and maximum flow rate over which a meter
produces acceptable performance within the basic accurately specification of meter. Rangeability
is a flow meter's ability to cover a range of flow rates within specified accuracy limits. It is
usually defined as the ratio of the maximum to minimum flow rates and is also known as meter
turndown. This is important parameter when do selecting of the flowmeter (specific range ability
of respectively flowmeter are discussed in the following section). For example, a meter with
maximum flow (100%) of 100 gallons per minute and minimum flow of 10 gal/min (within a
stated tolerance such as ±0.5%) has a10:1 range ability or turndown of 10. It will be accurate
±0.5% from 10 to 100 gal/min.

Discharge Coefficient (C)

The discharge coefficient corrects the theoretical flow rate equation for the influence of velocity
profile (Reynolds number). Specific discharge coefficients for various flow meter geometries
have been determined by actual tests run by many different organizations (e.g., API, ASME, and
ISO). The discharge coefficient is a very important factor in defining the shape of the flow path.
It is heavily influenced by factors such as: the size of the orifice bore, the size of the pipe, fluid
velocity, fluid density, and fluid viscosity.

Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number (Re) is a useful tool in relating how a meter will react to a variation in
fluids from gases to liquids. Since there would be an impossible amount of research required to
test every meter on every fluid we wish to measure, it is desirable that a relationship of fluid
factors be known.
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Guidelines to flow meter Selection
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Open Channel flow measurement

Venture flumes
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The flow rate is q CA2 2gh  CM 2gh

2
A 
1
2

A
 1
h  h1  h2
The maximum value of flow occurs when h2=(2/3)*h

Maximum discharge is given by Qmax  1.7b2 H1.5

Level to flow

The level of the water is measured at a designated point behind a hydraulic structure (a weir or
flume) using various means (bubblers, ultrasonic, float, and differential pressure are common
methods). This depth is converted to a flow rate according to a theoretical formula of the form Q
= KHX where Q is the flow rate, K is a constant, H is the water level, and X is an exponent which
varies with the device used; or it is converted according to empirically derived level/flow data
points (a "flow curve"). The flow rate can then integrated over time into volumetric flow.

Solid Flow Measurement

Introduction
Continuous determination of flow rate of dry materials such as coal, cement, powdered
chemicals, paper and fruits is necessary in many industrial processes. Meters for measuring flow
of dry materials are essentially of the weighing type, in that they determine the weight ofmaterial
passing a given point. Belt feeders are compact factory—assembled devices utilizing belts to
transport the material across a weight-sensing mechanism. In the case of meters, an uncontrolled
solids flow passes across a constant speed belt and the belt load signal is thus a function of
gravimetric flow rate.
The feeder in its most basic form consists of a meter to which a controller and volumetric
solids flow regulator is added. The flow regulator is normally a simple gate, but may be in
the form of a rotary gate, screw or other volumetric control device capable of being fitted with
a suitable actuator.

Belt Type Gravimetric Feeder

Fig. 2.10 illustrates a simpler feeder. It incorporates a constant speed belt coupled with
a gate to modulate the solids flow rate such that belt load is balanced by an adjustable poise
weight. The feeder, which is still used in some industrial applications today, is unique in its
simplicity but includes number of disadvantages relative to more modern designs as follows :
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Fig 2.10 Belt Type Gravimetric Feeder

1. The entire feeder is weighed rather than only a portion of the belt ; consequently, the low
ratio of live load to tare coupled with mechanical friction in the linkage pivots results
inrelatively low sensitivity in the belt load detection system.

2. The position of the gate control element is proportional to the belt load error. In thesame
manner that a float-operated level control valve cannot maintain the level at set point ifvalve
supply pressure vary, this feeder cannot maintain set gravimetric rate if the bulk density
of the solids varies.

It should be noted that the basic principle involving the weighing of the entire feeder
has been applied in modern designs. Successful operation of these versions has been
achieved by adding belt load error detecting instrumentation and by actuating the control gate
from an external power source. A controller with reset function eliminates the set point error.

Belt Type Electromechanical Gravimetric Feeder

Fig2.11 describes the basic construction of the electromechanical gravimetric feeder.

Here the belt load is balanced by a mechanical beam and poise weight system which energizes
one or other of two clutches via a pair of mercury switches energized by a magnet attached to
the beam. These clutches actuate and establish the direction of travel of the gate-positioning

Fig 2.11 Belt Type Electromechanical Gravimetric Feeder

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mechanism. The gate modulates as required to maintain the desired belt load as established by
the position of the poise weight on the balance beam. It can be seen that this feeder will maintain
belt load regardless of changes in material density, subject to the volumetric control limits of the
gate. Belt load set point is indicated by a mechanical counter geared to the beam poise weight
drive. A second counter geared to the belt drive totalizes the length of the belt travelled. By
varying drive gears, these counters can be provided to read directly.
Total weight fed can thus be calculated by multiplying the readings of the two counters. Remote
belt load set point and readout functions are available as well as a belt travel contact switch may
be used to operate a remote counter or to shut down the feeder via a predetermining counter after
the desired total weight of material has been fed. Adjustable micro switches actuated by gate
position may be utilized to activate alarms indicating either a stoppage of the material supply to
the feeder or over travel of the control gate resulting from abnormal low material density.

Belt Type Gravimetric Feeder with Pneumatic system

Fig. 2.12 illustrates the gravimetric meter which is available with either pneumatic or electronic
weight detection and transmission system. In the case of the pneumatic version shown, the
preliminary calibration procedure involves adjustment of the tare weight with
beam in center position, and location of the nozzle relative to the flapper. This establishes a
condition such that balance is achieved when balancing piston pressure is 0.2 kg/cm2. When
material crosses the belt, beam movement throttles the nozzle. Nozzle back pressure is imposed
on the pneumatic relay, which in turn increases its output pressure until the balancing piston
rebalances the beam. The balancing pressure is thus proportional to belt load and since the belt
speed is constant, balancing pressure is proportional to measured weight-rate. Also shown is an
optional ball and disc integrator.

The disc is driven by the front belt roll of the feeder and the ball is positioned by a pneumatic
positioner. This ball and disc type integrates continuously. It is especially recommended for user
with gravimetric meters in applications involving the measurement of rapidly varying
instantaneous flow rates. The integrator is supplied with a digital totalizer and can be furnished
with a pulse transmitting switch to operatea remote counter. The feed rate of all belt-type
gravimetric feeders is a function of the belt speed and the belt load. Belt speed is normally
expressed in terms of meter per minute, while belt load is defined as kg per metre of belt.
Feed rate = Belt speed × Belt load

Fig 2.12 Belt Type Gravimetric Feeder with Pneumatic system

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In the case of the constant speed belt feeders, rate is directly proportional to belt load. Rate set
point is thus in terms of belt load, and the belt load signal generated by the device can be read
out as rate. Another method of rate adjustment utilizes belt speed variation with belt load as
controlled constant. Still another involves variation of both belt speed and belt load wherein the
rate signal is the multiplicand of the belt speed and belt load measurement signals generated by
the feeder.