Energy Technology

solid fuels
Wood and charcoal

 Solid fuel refers to various forms of solid material that

can be burnt to release energy, providing heat and
light through the process of combustion.
 Common examples of solid fuels include wood,
charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, wood
pellets, corn, wheat, rye, and other grains.
 wood contains 25 – 50 % moisture which is air dried to
reduce moisture content to 10 – 15 %.
Cont...
The average content of hardwood is:
Cont...
The average composition of peat from proximate analysis
and ultimate analysis
Cont...
 Charcoal is the product of carbonization and producer
gas is the gaseous product of gasification of wood.
 Charcoal also result from the incomplete burning of fuel.
 The carbonization of wood is characterized by several
temperature regimes:
1. All loosely bound moisture is evaporated between 100 C –
170 C.
2. Gases containing carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and
condensable vapors evolve between 170 C – 270 C.
3. An exothermic step starts at 270 C to 280 C which
spontaneously generate heat.
 Wood carbonization is practiced in open pits, kilns and
metal retorts.
 Lignite or brown coal
 Many forms of lignite which are distinguished by their
physical characteristics:
1. Woody or fibrous brown coal with clear structure of plant tissue
2. Earthy brown lignite
3. Brown coal showing slight woody structure.
 Lignite have high moisture content ranging from 30 – 50%.
 Upon removal moisture, it become brittle and cannot be
transported far from the mine.
 It ignite spontaneously as it absorbs oxygen readily therefore
it cannot be stored in open.
 Proximate and ultimate analysis of lignite

• It contains 70-75% carbon content and 21-26% oxygen. 50% d.m.m.f. volatile
matter and often ratio of volatile to fixed carbon is approx. 1:1.
• The high oxygen content denotes low calorific value. On air-dry basis , the
value is as low as 2500 kcal/kg due to high moisture and ash content.
• The ash content is very high (up to 50%) in Nichahom lignites in Kashmir and in
over all India.
 Cannel Coal and Bohead Coal
 Cannel coal is originated form higher plant and bohead
coal is originated from smaller plant organisms like algae.
 Both types of coal have dull lustre and have conchoidal
fracture.
• These coal have higher volatile matter and higher hydrogen than
corresponding normal coals.
• The high hydrogen content is responsible for high calorific value and
high yield of tar like products.
 Origin of coal
 Their are two theories of origin of coal:
 Autochthonous theory
 Allochthonous theory (drift origin)
1. Autochthonous theory
 Plant grew and decayed in the same area where the coal s
obtained
2. Autochthonous theory
 The organic matter was driven from the original place of
occurrences by the agency of water into neighboring lagoons.
 It has following points in the favor:
 Large quantities of orhganic matter are carried downsteam by rivers
and sometime deposited near estuary (the tidal mouth of a large
river)
 There is similarity betweeb coal and sedimentary rock. Many seams
are stratified and made up of layers of coal with parting of shale, clay
or sandstone.
Cont...
 The recognition of tree stems without attached roots in a
seam afford the evidence in favor of the transport
character of the trunks and may vegetable matter.

 Many of the coal seams are the evidence of in situ

theory of origin.
 The characteristic features of Gondwana coal seams
support the common belief that these coals were
formed from plant materials of terrestrial vegetation
which were transported into lakes and rivers.
 Many coal seams and sedimentary rocks are found in
sequence that is repeated several times. This
represents the cyclic process of accumulation of plant
debris. Such formations are called coal measures.
 Cont...
 Their are two important stages in the formulation of coal
from vegetable matter:
1. Peat stage or biochemical stage : the plant material
underwent decay under moist condition by bacterial
attack. The decay continued until the absence of an
adequate supply of oxygen and the development of
eterminative toxins ended.
2. Metamorphism or dynamochemical stage: The agencies
causing the dynamochemical changes are:
1. Pressure of overburden
2. Tectonic pressure caused by severe earth movement
3. Regional temperature increasing by 0.5 C – 3.5 C for every 100
m depth.
4. Contact with igneous intrusions.
Properties of coal
Moisture:
 Owning to the nature and origin of coal, moisture is always
associated.
External (Accidental/ free
moisture)
Moisture
Inherent (Equilibrium/
hygroscopic moisture)

 When wet coal is exposed to the atmosphere the external

moisture evaporated.
 However, some of the moisture content is still present internally
which is removed at 100 C temperature.
 The external moisture content usually depends mainly on the
mode of occurrence and handing of coal.
 To obtain reproducible results, it is necessary to first equilibrate
the coal sample in a standard atmosphere of specific
temperature and humidity before actual determination is
done.
Cont...
 Air-dried moisture:
 It s determined by observing the loss in weight of coal sample
on heating to about 150 C.
 For peat and lignite this method is not applicable as they
decompose at 150 C therefore Dean-Stark Method is used.
 Removal of moisture is important as it take away appreciable
quantities of heat on conversion to the vapor.
 If coal is exposed to an atmosphere hav ing higher humidity at
fixed temperature, then it absorb more and more moisture.
 The quantity of moisture held by coal at an approximately
saturated atmosphere is called near saturation moisture or
capacity moisture or bed moisture.
 Air dried moisture content of coal decreases with increase rank from
value of 25 % for lignite to a minimum value of 0.5 % for a low volatile
bituminous coal.
Ash and mineral matter
 The inorganic mineral substances are converted into ash upon
chemical reaction during combustion.
 Ash and mineral content are not identical.
 Mineral matter can be classified as inherent or extraneous.
 The inorganic material of the original vegetable substances is
responsible for inherent mineral matter.
 The extraneous mineral matter is due to:
 The substances which got associated with the decaying vegetable
material during its conversion into coal.
(it is in fine state and closely associated with organic matter, hence
difficult to remov e the mineral)
 Rocks and dirt getting mixed up during mining and handling of coal.
(more amenable to the cleaning process)
 The inherent mineral matter cannot be removed by any
mechanical means.
 Indian coal have high inherent mineral matter as well as it is
closely associated type due its drift origin.
 Empirical formula for calculating
mineral content from the ash values
 Parr formula

𝐌𝐌 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟖𝐀 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝐒 ...(1)

 KMC (King, Mares and Crossley) formula

𝐌𝐌 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝐀 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝐒𝐏𝐘𝐑 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒𝐂𝐎𝟐 − 𝟏. 𝟏𝐒𝐎𝟑𝐀𝐒𝐇 + 𝐒𝐎𝟑𝐂𝐎𝐀𝐋 + 𝟎. 𝟓 𝐂𝐥 ...(2)

Where MM= Mineral matter, A=ash, S=total sulphur, Spyr=pyritic sulphur, CO2= carbon
dioxide from carbonates, SO3ash= sulphate in ash, SO3coal = sulphate in pure coal and
Cl = chlorine. (all in %)
The KMC formula is regarded as the standard of reference but it involves
too many analytical steps.
Parr formula is simple, it recognizes only two losses of consequences during
conversion of mineral matter into ash i.e. loss of water of hydration and loss
in the conversion of pyrites into oxides.
The simplified parr formula is used for coals:
𝐌𝐌 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝐀 ...(3)
(Assumption: difference in weight of mineral matter and ash is due to the water of
hydration which is taken to be 10% of ash value)
Volatile matter and fixed carbon
 Volatile matter and fixed carbon are not constituents of coal. They
represent the volatile and non-volatile matter of thermal decomposition
under specific condition.
 Volatile matter does not include the moisture of coal, however, the water
is formed during the decomposition due to hydrogen and oxygen of coal.
 When volatile matter is reported on air-dried and d.a.f. bases, it also
includes the part of the mineral matter, e.g., water of hydration, which
escapes into the gaseous and vaporous state.
 On d.m.m.f. basis however it represents only the volatile products from the
organic mass.
 Fixed carbon does not include the ash. It is the nonvolatile residue of the
organic mass. Furthermore the term "fixed carbon" is a misnomer; it
contains the nonvolatile parts of other elements also.
 The volatile matter and fixed carbon, both expressed as per cent on a
d.m.m.f. basis, add up to 100 parts of pure coal (organic mass).
 The higher the volatile matter, the lower the fixed carbon.
 There is a correlation between volatile matter and maturity of coal. With
the increase in the maturity or rank of coal, its volatile matter decreases.
 However, there seems to be a critical value of volatile matter, 32 to 33 per
cent d.m.m.f. above which this relationship is not valid
Calorific value
 The basic property of fuel which is determined by bomb
calorimeter.
 The complete combustion is ensured by using powdered coal
and pure oxygen at a moderately high pressure of 25 atm.
 Their are many formula to calculate the calorific value, one of
the formula is Goutal formula based in proximate analysis.
𝑪𝑮 = 𝟖𝟐 𝑭 + 𝒂 𝑽 … (𝟒)
Where CG = gross calorific value, kcal/kg air-dried, F= fixed carbon
(% air-dried), V= volatile matter ((% air-dried) and a = a constant
depending upon the value of volatile matter expressed as percent
d.a.f. (V’) as shown:
 This formula looks upon coal consisting of volatile matter and fixed
carbon, each contributing to the calorific value of the coal.
 The fixed carbon of different coals is assumed to be of a fixed
composition and hence of fixed calorific value.
 The composition and calorific value of the volatile matter differ
from coal to coal and are assumed to depend upon the nature
of coal as indicated by the volatile matter on a d.a.f. basis. These
assumptions limit the utility of the Goutal formula.
 The following are the modified Mazumdar formula for the
calculation of calorific value of Indian coals from their proximate
analysis :
 For low moisture coal M ≤ 2 %
CG = 91.7F + 75.6(V - 0 .1A) - 60M ...(5)
 for high moisture coals M ≥ 2%
CG = 85.6[100 - (1.1A + M)] - 60M ...(6)
where, M, A, V and F denote moisture, ash, volatile matter and fixed
carbon all in per cent air-dried, respectively
 There are also several formulae that are based upon the ultimate
analysis of coal. The original Dulong formula is :
𝐎
𝐂𝐆 = 𝟖𝟎. 𝟖 𝐂 + 𝟑𝟒𝟒 𝐇 − ...(7)
𝟖

where, C, H and O = carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, respectively, as %

of the coal.
 This formula assumes that the heat of formation of coal is zero and
the only heat giving elements are carbon and surplus hydrogen, the
latter meaning the hydrogen in excess of that required to combine
with the oxygen of the coal to form water.
 On including the sulphur as a heat giving element the Dulong
formula is amended as:
𝐎
𝐂𝐆 = 𝟖𝟎. 𝟖𝐂 + 𝟑𝟒𝟓 𝐇 − 𝟖
− 𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝐒 ....(8)

Where S= sulphur, % coal.

Specific gravity and bulk density
 The proportion and nature of both the organic mass and mineral
matter influence the specific gravity of coal.
 Mineral matter is heavier than pure coal.
 Therefore for the same type of coal, the higher ash coals have higher
specific gravity.
 The true specific gravity of average bituminous coals normally varies
between 1.27 and 1.45.
 Formula for specific gravity for many coals in India:
𝐀
𝐠 =𝐤+ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
...(9)

Where, g = specific gravity, k = a constant having an average value of

1.25 and A= % ash.
This formula assumes an overall specific gravity seems to increase with
maturity:
Peat 1.15 – 1.25, lignite 1.25 – 1.3, bituminous coal 1.27 – 1.45 and
anthracite 1.4 – 1.7.
Angle of repose
 The angle that a heap of coal forms with the horizontal is of
importance in its storage and its flow in conveyers and feed hoppers.
 Higher the size of the particle, higher will be angle of repose.
 The approx. values are:

Size of coal, mm 18 - 30 12 - 8 6 - 12 0-6

Angle with horizontal 41 40 38 32

Porosity and surface area

 Coal is a porous substance with high internal surface area.
 When it is brought in suitable organic liquid, it enter into the pores and
wets the coal.
 The wetting process releases energy leading to the exothermic
process.
 The heat of wetting also determines the surface area.
Refractive index and reflectance:
 Both these optical properties are found to increase with increase in
coal rank.
 Reflectance is a god parameter for the determination of coal rank.
 The following vale were reported for vitrain rich samples:

Carbon % d.m.m.f. 75 80 84 91 95
Refractive index - 1.6 - 1.9 -
Reflectance % incident light 0.51 0.67 0.92 2.23 4.17
Grindability
 There are two methods of determining the ease of grinding coal to
fine sizes, namely:
 ball mill method and
 Hardgrove method.
 The former measures the amount of work done in grinding a pre-sized
material to a given fineness.
 The Hardgrove method measures the increase of surface produced
by the application of a standard amount of work and expresses the
result as Hardgrove grindability index, G which ranges between 20
and 100 for most coals:
G = 13 + 6.93W ...(10)
 where, W = grams of coal passing through a 200-mesh sieve after 50 g
of coal of size 16 to 30 mesh are ground in a standard mill for 60
revolutions.
 The use of a 200-mesh sieve in determining Hardgrove index is
significant because in the pulverised coal firing the size below 200-
mesh is often specified.
 A high value of G indicates a soft and easily grindable coal.
Examples