The Philippines' Culture of Migration

The Philippines' Culture of Migration
Since the 1970s, the Philippines — a country of about 7,000 islands peopled by diverse ethno-
linguistic groups — has supplied all kinds of skilled and low-skilled workers to the world's more
developed regions. As of December 2004, an estimated 8.1 million Filipinos — nearly 10 percent of the
country's 85 million people — were working and/or residing in close to 200 countries and territories.
Although the Philippines is largely a country of emigration, it also attracts some foreigners to its
shores. Traditionally, the foreign population in the Philippines consists of people of Chinese origin
(some 80 percent of overseas Chinese are in Southeast Asia) and some people of Indian origin who
came to settle in the country years ago.
Presently, there are 36,150 foreign nationals working and residing in the Philippines. The inflows of
foreigners to the country, as well as concerns for unauthorized migration and the use of the
Philippines as a transit point for other destinations, point to a reality in this age of migration: that
countries can no longer be neatly and exclusively
classified as countries of origin, transit, or

destination.
Much of the country's attention and policies, though,

are focused on emigration. A film released in June
2005, La Visa Loca, captures an ordinary Filipino's
feverish quest for a US visa, the perceived ticket to a
better life. In reality, the quest for a visa is not
limited to the United States. Other promised lands in
different regions — the Middle East, Asia, Europe,
Africa, and Oceania — have become the objects of
Filipino dreams.
In the last 30 years, a "culture of migration" has

emerged, with millions of Filipinos eager to work
abroad, despite the risks and vulnerabilities they are
likely to face. A nationwide survey of 1,200 adult
respondents in 2002 found one in five Filipinos expressing a desire to migrate.
More recent surveys carried out by Pulse Asia in 2005 found an increasing percentage of adult
respondents — 26 percent in July and 33 percent in October — agreeing with the statement, "If it
were only possible, I would migrate to another country and live there." Interest in leaving the country
is not limited to adults. In a nationwide survey in 2003 of children ages 10 to 12, 47 percent reported
that they wished to work abroad someday. Sixty percent of children of overseas foreign workers said
they had plans to work abroad.
The development of a culture of migration in the Philippines has been greatly aided by migration's
institutionalization. The government facilitates migration, regulates the operations of the recruitment
agencies, and looks out for the rights of its migrant workers. More importantly, the remittances
workers send home have become a pillar of the country's economy.
Historical Background
After more than three centuries of Spanish colonial rule, the revolution waged by Filipinos in 1896
almost led to the end of Spanish rule. After a year of fighting, the revolutionaries and the Spanish
authorities signed a truce in December 1897, and General Emilio Aguinaldo went into exile in Hong
Kong.
The Spanish-American War broke out in February 1898, sparked by the United States' support for
Cuba's fight against Spain. This spilled over into the Philippines. An American fleet led by Admiral
George Dewey arrived in Manila, defeating Spanish forces in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898.
Upon the urging of Admiral Dewey to resume the fight against Spain, General Aguinaldo returned to
Manila on May 18, 1898. General Aguinaldo's forces liberated several towns south of Manila and
declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898. More American forces arrived, and the Spaniards
surrendered Manila to the Americans that August.
On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed between the United States and Spain, formally
ending the Spanish-American War. Under the treaty, the United States paid Spain to take control of
the Philippines. Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Mariana Islands were ceded to the United States as
well.
Filipinos resisted American rule, and the ensuing Philippine-American War, which began in 1899,
dragged on even after it "officially" ended with the capture of General Aguinaldo in 1901, followed by
the establishment of a civil government throughout the Philippines in 1902. The Philippines became
independent in July 1946, after the Japanese invasion and occupation of World War II.
For much of the 20th century, "international migration" for Filipinos meant going to the United States
and its Pacific territories. The first batch of Filipino workers arrived in the US territory of Hawaii on
December 20, 1906 to work on sugarcane and pineapple plantations.
More workers, mostly single men, followed; others left Hawaii to work in agriculture in California,
Washington, and Oregon, or the salmon canneries of Alaska. On the mainland, low-wage service work
in the cities — waiters, busboys, or domestic work — provided alternative jobs between agricultural
seasons or when other jobs are not available. Some 4,000 Filipinos were employed in the merchant
marine, but this employment possibility ceased with the 1937 passage of a law requiring the crew of
US flag vessels to be at least 90 percent American citizens.
According to one estimate, approximately 120,000 Filipino workers came to Hawaii between 1906 and
1934. Another estimate puts the number of Filipinos arriving in the United States between 1907 and
the 1930 at 150,000, the majority of whom were in Hawaii. A small number of scholars, known as
pensionados, also immigrated to the United States before the 1920s. They were either sponsored by
the US government or by missionary-related programs. Some were sent by rich families to study and
a few were self-supporting students. Those who returned assumed important positions in Filipino
society while others remained in the United States.
Because the Philippines was a US colony, the movement of Filipinos to the United States was
considered internal migration and Filipino migrants were "nationals" (but not citizens). It was not until
the passage of the 1934 Tydings-McDuffie Law (also known as the Philippines Independence Act of
1934), which provided for the granting of Philippine independence in 10 years' time, that the
Philippines became subject to immigration quotas. The 1934 law limited the Philippines to 50 visas per
year, and migration dropped off dramatically.
But even so, there was an exception clause: in case of a labor shortage, the governor of Hawaii was
authorized to hire Filipino workers. As nationals, Filipinos were entitled to American passports and
could enter and leave the country freely. World War II intervened and further migration to the United
States stalled. Between 1946 and the mid 1960s, about 10,000 to 12,000 Filipinos came to Hawaii as
workers, military personnel, and war brides.
It was not until the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act, when nationality-based restrictions were
struck down, that Filipino immigration grew and diversified.
Other countries of settlement also dismantled their pro-European immigration policies in the 1960s
and 1970s, paving the way for Filipinos to enter Canada, Australia, and New Zealand under family or
skills-based provisions. The Philippines eventually became one of the top 10 sending countries in these
traditional immigration countries.
Filipinos also settled in countries that are not traditional countries of immigration, such as Germany
and Japan, through marriage or work-related migration. This permanent migration, however, was
overshadowed by the larger and thornier temporary labor migration that started in the 1970s.

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The Philippines' Culture of Migration

classified as countries of origin, transit, or

Much of the country's attention and policies, though,

In the last 30 years, a "culture of migration" has

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