Composite Structures 76 (2006) 397–405

www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Fabrication and design of multi-layered radar absorbing structures

of MWNT-filled glass/epoxy plain-weave composites
Sang-Eui Lee, Ji-Ho Kang, Chun-Gon Kim *

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Division of Aerospace Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST),
373-1 Guseong-dong, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea

Available online 6 January 2006

Abstract

The object of this study is to design radar absorbing structures (RAS) with load-bearing ability in the X-band. Glass/epoxy plain-
weave composites of excellent specific stiffness and strength, containing multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNT) to induce dielectric
loss, were fabricated. Observations of the microstructure and the permittivity of the composites confirmed that the fabrics are suitable
for use as RASs. A genetic algorithm and a theory of the reflection/transmission of electromagnetic waves in a multi-layered RAS were
applied to design an optimal RAS composed of MWNT-filled composites. The thickness per ply was observed to vary, depending on the
number of plies and the MWNT contents. A fabrication process was proposed that considered the variation. The proposed process was
in the fabrication of a designed RAS, and the theoretical and measured reflection losses of the RAS were found to be in good agreement.
 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: X-band frequency; Permittivity; Radar absorbing structure; Multi-walled carbon nanotube

1. Introduction magnetic or dielectric loss materials, such as ferrite, perm-

alloy, carbon black, and short carbon fiber. RAMs have
Radar cross section (RCS) reduction technology, which the strong advantage of being easily applied to the surfaces
protects aircraft against radar detection, has become essen- of existing structures; however, RAMs increase structure
tial in contemporary warfare high-tech high-performance weights and have poor mechanical and environment-resis-
equipment. This technology is categorized into: shaping tant properties. Thus, RAMs cannot be used as load-bear-
of aircrafts, radar absorbing materials (RAMs) and radar ing structures and they require constant maintenance and
absorbing structures (RASs). The shaping is to design the repair [1].
external features of the aircraft to reduce the electromag- A RAS is composed of continuous fiber–reinforced
netic (EM) waves backscattered to the radar source direc- composites and lossy materials which are mixed and dis-
tion. The RAM and RAS are developed to absorb the persed into the matrix of the composites. The EM proper-
EM energy and thereby minimize reflected waves. In gen- ties of these composites can be also tailored by controlling
eral, the shaping conflicts with the design to improve the the content of the lossy materials. Therefore, RASs avoid
aerodynamic performance. Therefore, the developments the disadvantages of RAMs due to the high stiffness and
of RAM and RAS have become essential for RCS strength of the composites involved and they are also able
reduction. to have the same EM energy dissipating ability of RAMs.
In general, RAMs have been fabricated in the form of The characteristics of the composites to be stacked ply by
sheets that consist of insulating polymer, like rubber, and ply facilitate multi-layered structures, which are necessary
to broaden absorption bandwidth. On the other hand, each
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 42 869 3719; fax: +82 42 869 3710. ply of the composite prepreg has a finite and discrete thick-
E-mail address: cgkim@kaist.ac.kr (C.-G. Kim). ness, and its thickness per ply changes according to the

0263-8223/$ - see front matter  2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2005.11.036
398 S.-E. Lee et al. / Composite Structures 76 (2006) 397–405

number of plies and the content of the lossy materials

involved. Therefore, achieving the precise thickness of a
designed RAS is difficult.
For a lossy filler to be highly effective, it should have a
high conductivity for shielding by reflection, a high aspect
ratio for a conductive network, and a small size relative to
the skin depth [2,3]. In this study, multi-walled carbon
nanotube (MWNT) satisfying those requirements [4,5]
was selected as a lossy filler. Moreover, the MWNT is
expected to act as a mechanical reinforcement [5].
The absorption and reflection of a RAS depend on a
number of variables, including frequency, incident angle,
polarization, and the permittivity, permeability and thick-
ness of each layer of the RAS. To address these variables
and produce an optimal RAS, optimal design concept is
Fig. 1. TEM image of MWNT used.
necessary. In previous studies, Powell’s method or a genetic
algorithm (GA) has been used, and several objective func-
tions have been proposed [6–9]. was difficult to maintain the uniformity of MWNTs in
In this study, a program was coded to predict the reflec- the matrix. The weight fraction of MWNTs to the total
tion loss of a multi-layered RAS for normal incident EM weight of the fabric, the epoxy system and the MWNTs
waves in the X-band (8.2–12.4 GHz); the code was linked is shown in Table 1. Specimens were cured and vacuum-
with a GA to design the RAS. A fabrication process of bagged in an autoclave first for 30 min at 80 C and then
the RAS was proposed that considered the nonlinear mea- for 2 h at 130 C. While the specimens were being cured,
sure of thickness per ply, depending on the number of plies the pressure was stabilized at 3 atm.
and the content of MWNT. The practical applicability of
the process was confirmed by the excellent agreement 2.2. Microstructure
between the theoretical and measured reflection loss of a
designed RAS. The microstructure of the fabricated composites was
captured by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Figs. 2
2. Fabrication of MWNT-filled glass/epoxy plain-weave and 3 show the SEM images of MWNT 1.0. Images of
composites the matrix rich region and the interface between the glass

2.1. Material and fabrication

The MWNTs used in this study, purchased from ILJIN

nanotech Co. (South Korea), were synthesized via a
chemical vapor deposition method with a carbon mass
fraction of about 95%. The MWNTs were 10–25 nm in
diameter and 10–50 lm in length. A transmission electron
microscopy (TEM) image of the MWNTs is shown in
Fig. 1.
Glass/epoxy plain-weave composites, K618, were sup-
plied by Hankuk Fiber Co. (South Korea). First, the
MWNTs were dispersed in epoxy matrix. The fabric com-
posites were impregnated by the mixture of the matrix and
the MWNTs. Then, The MWNT-filled fabric composites
were dried for 5–7 min at 100 C. Drying times increased
with MWNT contents. As the viscosity of the premixture
increased rapidly over the 3.0 weight percent (wt.%), it Fig. 2. SEM image of MWNT 1.0.

Table 1
Denotation of MWNT-filled glass/epoxy plain-weave composites
Denotation
MWNT 0.0 MWNT 0.4 MWNT 0.7 MWNT 1.0 MWNT 1.3 MWNT 1.6 MWNT 3.0 MWNT 5.0
MWNT content (wt.%) 0.0 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.6 3.0 5.0
 S.-E. Lee et al. / Composite Structures 76 (2006) 397–405 399

Fig. 4. SEM image of MWNT 3.0.

3. Permittivity of MWNT-filled glass/epoxy plain-weave

composites

3.1. Measurement

The cured composites were cut precisely to the

dimensions of an X-band rectangular waveguide, 22.86 ·
10.16 mm, and were then inserted into the waveguide.
The S-parameter was measured by using a network ana-
lyzer, HP 8722ES. The permittivities were calculated by
using the phase change of S21 in the composites [10]. The
phase change should be more than 90 in a specimen, which
is why a specimen with low loss is required to be thick.
However, the high thickness caused the magnitude of S21
Fig. 3. Enlarged SEM image of MWNT 1.0: (a) matrix rich region and (b) to be reduced to measurement limit, resulting in an mea-
interface between yarns in warp and fill direction. surement error. Thus, each specimen had a range of thick-
ness that enabled precise permittivity calculation. The
thickness, shown in Table 2, was determined considering
as explained above. Thus, the thickness of MWNT 1.3
fiber yarns in the warp and fill directions, shown in Fig. 2, and MWNT 1.6 decreased compared to the other speci-
are enlarged in Fig. 3(a) and (b). It can be observed from mens. The air gap between the waveguide and the specimen
Fig. 3 that the MWNTs were distributed mainly in the affected the signal of S21, so that the gap was perfectly
matrix rich region and in the interface between the yarns; sealed up with silver paste.
in addition, the MWNTs did not penetrate far into the
yarns. The uneven distribution of MWNT and glass fiber 3.2. Permittivity
yarns is expected to induce a high dielectric loss by
multi-reflection in the composites. Fig. 4 shows the Five specimens per MWNT content were used to mea-
microstructure of MWNT 3.0. It can be observed from sure permittivity, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6. These figures
Fig. 4 that porosity increases as the wt.% of the revealed that the permittivities of all the specimens were
MWNT increases. This porosity also affects the permitti- nearly constant, regardless of frequency, and that
vity, because it can enable multiple reflections in the they increased exponentially with the weight fraction of
materials. MWNT. The latter tendency was also found in the

Table 2
Thickness of specimen used for permittivity measurement
Denotation
MWNT 0.0 MWNT 0.4 MWNT 0.7 MWNT 1.0 MWNT 1.3 MWNT 1.6
Thickness (mm) 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 5.0 3.0
400 S.-E. Lee et al. / Composite Structures 76 (2006) 397–405

20 high filler contents were expected to have very high dielec-

18 tric losses, they had low reproducibility of EM properties.
This result was due to the viscosity increase of the mixture
16
Real permittivity, εr'

of the epoxy matrix and the MWNT, leading to the poor

14 impregnation of glass fiber yarns. Therefore, MWNT 3.0
12 and MWNT 5.0 were excluded from use as RAS materials.
10
8 4. Optimal design of a multi-layered RAS
6
4.1. Reflection and transmission of a multi-layered RAS
4
MWNT0.0 MWNT0.7 MWNT1.3
2 MWNT0.4 MWNT1.0 MWNT1.6 The condition that the whole incident energy is
0 absorbed requires that the effective input impedance of a
8.2 9 10 11 12 12.4
multi-layered RAS be identical to that of the free space.
Frequency (GHz) Considering the entire multi-layered RAS shown in
Fig. 7, the generalized reflection coefficient R e i;iþ1 at the
20
MWNT0.0 MWNT0.7 MWNT1.3
interface between region i and i + 1 can be written as
18
Imaginary permittivity, εr''

MWNT0.4 MWNT1.0 MWNT1.6 e 2ik iþ1;z ðd iþ1; d i Þ

16 e i;iþ1 ¼ Ri;iþ1 þ R iþ1;iþ2 e
R ð1Þ
1 þ Riþ1;i Re iþ1;iþ2 e2ikiþ1;z ðd iþ1; d i Þ
14
l k i;z  li k iþ1;z
12 Ri;iþ1 ¼ iþ1 ð2Þ
liþ1 k i;z þ li k iþ1;z
10
8 where Ri,i+1 is the reflection coefficient between region i
and region i + 1, considering only the reflection between
6
the two regions. For a case in which the last layer consists
4 of a metal or a carbon fiber reinforced composite with elec-
2 trical conductivity corresponding to metals, the generalized
0 reflection coefficient in the first layer is obtained by putting
8.2 9 10 11 12 12.4 e N ¼ 1 in Eq. (1) and calculating the reflection coefficient
R
Frequency (GHz)
between each region sequentially.
Fig. 5. Relative permittivity of MWNT-filled composites with frequency.
4.2. Genetic algorithm

20 A genetic algorithm [12] is a search algorithm based on

εr' the mechanics of natural selection and genetics. It simulates
εr'' natural evolution so that multiple design points evolve to
16 converge to a global optimum. A GA combines the sur-
Permittivity at 10.3 GHz

vival of the fittest among string structures having a struc-

12 tured, yet randomized, information exchange to form a
search algorithm with some of the innovative flair of a

8
z
x
4
Region 1 μ 1, ε 1
–d 1
0 Region 2 μ 2, ε 2
0.0 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.6 –d 2
Wt% of MWNT Region 3 μ 3, ε 3
–d 3
Fig. 6. Relative permittivity of MWNT-filled composites with weight Region 4 μ 4, ε 4
fraction of MWNT at 10.3 GHz.

Region N-1 μ N –1, εN –1

previous research [1,11], and it is believed to originate from –d N–1
a rapid buildup of the conductive network and the forming Region N μ N , εN
of porosities with increasing MWNT contents. From the
above results, although MWNT 3.0 and MWNT 5.0 with Fig. 7. Reflection and transmission in multi-layered RAS.
 S.-E. Lee et al. / Composite Structures 76 (2006) 397–405 401

human search. In every generation, a new set of artificial Table 3

strings is created using bits and pieces from the fittest of Parameters of genetic algorithm
the old strings (which is called ‘crossover’ in the algorithm); Parameters Value
while an occasional new part is added for good measure Population size 200
(which is called ‘mutation’ in the algorithm). Its calculation Probability of crossover 0.7
process uses a nondeterministic scheme and exclusive of Probability of mutation 0.05
Convergence limit
differentiability or convexity. The most useful advantage # of successive same best designs 50
of this algorithm is that it uses discrete design variables Error of the average value 0.01%
by nature. Therefore, it is simple to use discrete values as Selection parameter
design variables, such as the thickness of each layer and Tourney size 10
the stacking sequence of a multi-layered RAS. For this rea-
son, a GA was selected as an optimal algorithm in this
study.
where jCij2 in Eq. (3) refers to the ratio of the reflected
4.3. Application of the GA power to incident one and NF represents the number of
the points at which reflection loss is calculated. The objec-
The optimal design algorithm was established by linking tive function refers to the area between the frequency axis
a GA with a reflection loss analysis of multi-layered RAS. and the reflection loss curve. By adding Eq. (4), the only
Fig. 8 shows the flow chart of the optimal design algo- area within 20 dB absorption, that means 99% absorp-
rithm. The parameters used to solve the optimal design tion of incident power, was maximized.
problem were set up through a number of optimizations
and are shown in Table 3.
In this study, the thickness and permittivity of each layer
Table 4
were selected as design variables. The number of layers and
Optimal results of two-layered RAS
the sweeping thickness to be simulated were specified as
Case Material Thickness (mm) Fitness
constraints to limit the design space, and the thickness
per ply was fixed as 0.1 mm. The optimal design was per- 1st layer 2nd layer 1st layer 2nd layer
formed 10 times by varying random number seeds and 1 MWNT 0.4 MWNT 1.6 1.9 1.4 64.9
the distribution of the initial populations before the fittest 2 MWNT 0.4 MWNT 1.6 1.9 1.4 64.9
3 MWNT 0.4 MWNT 1.6 1.9 1.4 64.9
of 10 cases was selected as an optimal solution.
4 MWNT 0.4 MWNT 1.6 1.9 1.4 64.9
The objective function was defined as follows. 5 MWNT 0.4 MWNT 1.6 1.9 1.4 64.9
Z fmax XNF   6 MWNT 0.4 MWNT 1.6 1.9 1.4 64.9
2 2 fmax  fmin 7 MWNT 1.6 MWNT 0.0 0.3 2.5 62.2
F ¼ jCi j df ¼  jCi j ð3Þ
fmin i¼1
NF  1 8 MWNT 0.4 MWNT 1.6 1.9 1.4 64.9
2 2 9 MWNT 0.4 MWNT 1.6 1.9 1.4 64.9
If jCi j < 20 dB, jCi j ¼ 20 dB ð4Þ 10 MWNT 1.3 MWNT 0.0 0.9 1.5 59.9

START
0
Assign constraints
- maximum thickness Calculate fitness
- the n umber of la yer -10
- stand ard of abso rp tio n
Reflection loss (dB)

Selection & reproduction

Generate initial population -20
Crossover
Make input for R.L.
-30
Mutation
Calculate Reflection Loss
- Transmi ssion l ine m eth od
no -40
Converge ?
Read Reflection Loss
yes -50
8.2 9 10 11 12 12.4
END
Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 8. Flow chart of genetic algorithm linked with calculation program of Fig. 9. Reflection loss of the optimal RAS of MWNT 0.4 (1.9 mm) and
reflection loss. MWNT 1.6 (1.4 mm).
402 S.-E. Lee et al. / Composite Structures 76 (2006) 397–405

4.4. Result of the optimal design 5.2. Fabrication and measurement

Optimal design was performed for a two-layered RAS. The fabrication method of RAS is categorized into; the
The maximum thickness to be simulated was limited to co-curing method and secondary bonding method. The lat-
3.5 mm. The back surface of the RAS was assumed to be ter method requires an additional process to bond together
a perfect conductor. Table 4 shows the design results. Of the materials with different filler contents by using an adhe-
10 simulated cases, the RAS with the largest absorption sive film. Thus, the co-curing process is more advantageous
bandwidth was composed of MWNT 0.4, with a thickness in terms of cost, and so it was used to fabricate the multi-
of 1.9 mm, and MWNT 1.6, with a thickness of 1.4 mm. layered RAS.
The reflection loss of this RAS is shown in Fig. 9. It had A number of fabrications of MWNT-filled composites
a 10 dB absorbing bandwidth over the entire X-band, with various thicknesses revealed that the thickness per
and had a 20 dB absorbing bandwidth of 1.0 GHz (9.1– ply (TPP) decreased with an increase in the number of plies
10.1 GHz). and that the TPP increased with the weight fraction of
MWNT; the dependence of the TPP on the number of plies
is due to the increase in compaction of composites with the
5. Fabrication of a multi-layered RAS and
number of plies, and the dependence of the TPP on the
measurement of reflection loss
MWNT concentration results from the support of curing
pressure by MWNTs. This nonlinear behavior of TPP,
5.1. Free space measurement system
shown in Table 5, makes the precise thickness of a designed
RAS difficult to be achieved. Therefore, the fabrication
The free space technique system used in this study for
process in this study was established, based on the assump-
measuring the reflection loss of transverse electromagnetic
tion that the TPP of each material in a designed multi-lay-
(TEM) waves is shown in Fig. 10. The system consists of a
ered RAS is similar to that of the material with the same
pair of spot-focusing horn lens antennas, a sample holder,
thickness of the RAS. Fig. 11 shows a schematic of fabrica-
an HP 8510C network analyzer and a computer for data
tion process that considers the nonlinearity of TPP. For a
acquisition. The width and length of the aluminum table
case in which a RAS, tRAS in thickness, was designed com-
are 1.83 m and 1.83 m, respectively, and the standard size
posed of MWNT 0.4, with a thickness of t1, and MWNT
of the sample specimens for holder is 150 mm · 150 mm.
1.6, with a thickness of t2, it is difficult to determine the
This system used the spot-focusing horn lens antennas
number of plies of each material (STEP 1). First, the sin-
for minimizing diffraction effects, the TRL (through-
gle-layered RAS of each material is fabricated tRAS in
reflect-line) calibration technique and the time-domain gat-
thickness before its TPP is calculated (STEP 2). Then, the
ing of the HP 8510C network analyzer for minimizing mul-
number of plies of each material, n1 and n2, is obtained
tiple reflection [13].
by dividing the designed thickness, t1 and t2, by the
TPP calculated in the previous step, TPP3 and TPP4
(STEP 3).
The above process was applied to the two-layered RAS
of Section 4. First, MWNT 0.4 and MWNT 1.6 was fab-
ricated with a thickness of 3.3 mm, respectively. The
MWNT 0.4 with 21 plies was 0.149 mm in TPP and
3.28 mm in total thickness. The MWNT 1.6 with 20 plies
was 0.169 mm in TPP and 3.38 mm in total thickness
(STEP 2). As the designed thicknesses of MWNT 0.4
and MWNT 1.6 was 1.9 mm and 1.4 mm, respectively,

Table 5
Ply thickness according to the number of plies and MWNT contents
Material No. of plies Thickness (mm) Thickness/ply (mm)
MWNT 0.4 13 2.17 0.167
21 3.28 0.149
MWNT 1.6 9 1.47 0.184
20 3.38 0.169

MWNT 0.0 10 1.62 0.162

16 2.44 0.153
MWNT 1.3 6 1.11 0.185
15 2.39 0.159
Fig. 10. Free space measurement system.
 S.-E. Lee et al. / Composite Structures 76 (2006) 397–405 403

thickness difference compared to the predicted thickness

of 3.29 mm.
The analytical and experimental reflection losses and
the resonance frequency of the RAS are shown in
Fig. 12 and Table 6. The analytical reflection loss of the
designed RAS was identical to the reflection loss calculated
with the thickness value that considered fabrication pro-
cess. The results were found to be in good agreement,
except that the resonance frequency shifted down by
0.3 GHz and that the 20 dB bandwidth became wider.
A high value of reflection loss over 30 dB is almost
meaningless as it means the EM energy absorption of
99.9%.

5.3. Discrepancy between analysis and measurement

The main reasons behind the discrepancy between the

Fig. 11. Schematic of fabrication process considering nonlinearity of analysis and the measurement are as follows: the MWNT
thickness per ply. transfer in the interface between composites with different
filler contents; the difference between the specimen thick-
nesses in permittivity measurement and those of materials
the RAS was expected to have a thickness of 3.29 mm in the designed RAS.
by using 13 plies for MWNT 0.4 (1.94 mm) and nine To observe the MWNT transfer in an interface, 10th
plies for MWNT 1.6 (1.35 mm) (STEP 3). As the TPP RAS in Table 4 was fabricated including MWNT 0.0.
of each material was finite and discrete, not continuous, The inclusion of MWNT 0.0 facilitated the observation,
it was difficult to realize precisely the designed thicknesses because MWNT 0.0 has no MWNTs. The RAS was also
of each material. However, the fabricated RAS had obtained by conducting optimal design using a constraint
a thickness of 3.27 mm, which has only 0.02 mm on the sweeping thickness of 2.6 mm.
The RAS was expected to have a thickness of 2.49 mm
by using six plies of MWNT 1.3 with 0.96 mm and 10 plies
of MWNT 1.6 with 1.53 mm. The fabricated RAS had a
0 thickness of 2.55 mm, having the reasonable thickness dif-
ference of 0.06 mm, compared to the predicted thickness of
-10
2.49 mm.
Reflection loss (dB)

-20 Fig. 13 shows the cutting plane of the RAS. Although a

distinct interface between MWNT 0.0 and MWNT 1.3 was
-30 observed, as shown in Fig. 13(b), the sinusoidal function-
like pattern observed in Fig. 13(a) indicates the mixing of
-40 the matrices of the two layers and the MWNT transfer in
the interface. There was little difference in frequency
-50 between both cases to observe. The ambiguity of the inter-
Simulation: 3.30 (mm) [1.90 | MWNT0.4 + 1.40|MWNT1.6 ]
-60 Simulation: 3.29 (mm) [1.94 | MWNT0.4 + 1.35|MWNT1.6 ]
face may lead to a resonance frequency shift and an
Experiment: 3.27 (mm) absorbing bandwidth change.
-70 The reflection loss and the absorbing bandwidth of the
8.2 9 10 11 12 12.4 RAS are shown in Fig. 14 and Table 7. The analytical
Frequency (GHz)
reflection losses for the designed thickness and for
Fig. 12. Comparison of reflection loss between simulation and experiment the thickness considering the fabrication process are
for the RAS of MWNT 0.4 and MWNT 1.6. shown with the measured reflection loss in Fig. 14. The

Table 6
Comparison between analysis and experiment for the RAS of MWNT 0.4 and MWNT 1.6
Thickness (mm) fr (GHz) 10 dB BW (GHz) 20 dB BW (GHz)
Simulation (using designed thickness) 3.30 9.5 4.2 (8.2–12.4) 1.0 (9.1–10.1)
Simulation (considering fabrication process) 3.29 9.5 4.2 (8.2–12.4) 1.0 (9.1–10.1)
Experiment 3.27 9.8 4.1 (8.3–11.6) 1.2 (9.2–10.4)
404 S.-E. Lee et al. / Composite Structures 76 (2006) 397–405

Fig. 13. Cutting planes of the RAS of MWNT 1.3 and MWNT 0.0: (a) sinusoidal function-like interface and (b) distinct interface.

0 6. Conclusion

-10 In this study, a MWNT was selected as a lossy filler with

consideration for geometry and electrical conductivity. The
Reflection loss (dB)

-20 MWNT was added into glass/epoxy plain-weave compos-

ites to fabricate the materials used for RASs. The observa-
-30 tion of the microstructure of the composites revealed that
the uneven distribution of MWNTs could induce a high
-40
dielectric loss, which was confirmed through the measure-
ment of permittivity.
-50
The optimal design of two-layered RAS, consisting of
Simulation 1: 2.40 (mm) [0.90|MWNT1.3 + 1.50|MWNT0.0 ]
-60 Simulation 2: 2.49 (mm) [0.96|MWNT1.3 + 1.53|MWNT0.0 ]
the MWNT-added glass/epoxy fabric composites, was per-
Experiment: 2.55 (mm) formed by linking a GA with a program for the reflection/
-70 transmission of electromagnetic waves in a multi-layered
8.2 9 10 11 12 12.4 RAS. As a result, a two-layered RAS was designed having
Frequency (GHz) 90% absorption of EM energy for the entire X-band.
Fig. 14. Comparison of reflection loss between simulation and experi- An RAS fabrication process was proposed that consid-
ment; for the RAS of MWNT 1.3 and MWNT 0.0. ered the nonlinearity of thickness per ply with MWNT con-
tents and the number of plies. The comparison between the
theoretical and experimental reflection loss confirmed that
comparison between the simulation considering fabrication the process is applicable to the fabrication of multi-layered
process and the experiment showed that the resonance fre- RASs.
quency shifted about 0.3 GHz (9.6–9.9 GHz) and that the A study in progress aims to broaden the absorbing
10 dB absorbing bandwidth became broader 2.8– bandwidth of a RAS which is composed of a multi-layered
3.1 GHz. RAS and a frequency selective surface.

Table 7
Comparison between analysis and experiment for the RAS of MWNT 1.3 and MWNT 0.0
Material Thickness (mm) fr (GHz) 10 dB BW (GHz) 20 dB BW (GHz)
Simulation (using designed thickness) 2.40 10.2 3.1 (8.9–12.0) 0.9 (9.7–10.6)
Simulation (considering fabrication process) 2.49 9.6 2.8 (8.4–11.2) 0.8 (9.2–10.0)
Experiment 2.55 9.9 3.1 (8.5–11.6) 0.9 (9.5–10.4)
 S.-E. Lee et al. / Composite Structures 76 (2006) 397–405 405

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