Unit 2.

2. Components of aircraft gas turbine

engines
2.1. Air inlet
2.2. Compressor
2.3. Combustion chamber
2.4. Gas turbine
2.5. Exhaust unit
 Each of the engine components will be characterized by figures of
merit that model the component's performance and facilitate
cycle analysis of real air breathing engines.
 The total temperature ratio Ʈ, the total pressure ratio 𝝅, and the
interrelationship between Ʈ and 𝝅 will be used as much as
possible in a component's figure of merit.
2.1. Air inlet
 Inlet losses arise because of the presence of wall friction and shock
waves (in a supersonic inlet).
 Both wall friction and shock losses result in a reduction in total
pressure so that 𝝅d < 1.
 Inlets are adiabatic to a very high degree of approximation, and
so we have 𝝉𝒅= 1.
 The inlet's figure of merit is defined simply as 𝝅d.
 The isentropic efficiency 𝞰d of the diffuser is defined as (refer to
Fig. 6.3)
 Figure 6.4 gives typical values of Ʈd for a subsonic inlet.
 The diffuser efficiency rid was calculated from 𝝅d by using Eq.
(6.4).
 In supersonic flight, the flow deceleration in inlets is accompanied
by shock waves that can produce a total pressure loss much
greater than, and in addition to, the wall friction loss.
 The inlet's overall pressure ratio is the product of the ram
pressure ratio and the diffuser pressure ratio.
 Because of shocks, only a portion of the ram total pressure can be
recovered.
 We now define 𝝅dmax as that portion of 𝝅d that is due to wall
friction and define Ƞr as that portion of 𝝅d due to ram recovery.
Fig. 6.3 Definition of inlet states.
 For subsonic and supersonic flow, a useful reference for the ram
recovery Ƞr is Military Specification 5008B, which is expressed as
follows:

 Because we often do not yet know the details of the inlet in cycle
analysis, it is assumed that Military Specification 5008B applies as
an ideal goal for ram recovery.
 The ram recovery of Military Specification 5008B is plotted in
Fig. 6.5 vs Mo.
2.2. Compressor
Compressor and Turbine Efficiencies
 Compressor Isentropic Efficiency
 Compressors are, to a high degree of approximation, adiabatic.
 The overall efficiency used to measure a compressor's
performance is the isentropic efficiency Ƞc, defined by
 Figure 6.6 shows both the ideal and actual compression processes
for a given 𝝅c a T-s diagram.
 The actual work per unit mass wc is ht3 - hi2 [=Cp (Tt3 - Tt2)],
and the ideal work per unit mass wct is ht3 i - hr2 =[cp(Tt3i-Tt2)].
 Here, ht3 i is the ideal (isentropic) compressor leaving total
enthalpy.
 Writing the isentropic efficiency of the compressor Ƞc in terms of
the thermodynamic properties, we have
 
V
 Here Ʈci is the ideal compressor temperature ratio that is related
to the compressor pressure ratio 𝝅c by the isentropic relationship
 Compressor Stage Efficiency
 For a multistage compressor, each stage (set of rotor and stator)
so  s
will have an isentropic efficiency.
 Let Ƞj denote the isentropic efficiency of the jth stage.
 Likewise, 𝝅sj and 𝝉j represent the pressure ratio and temperature
ratio, respectively, for the jth stage.
 From Eq. (6.9), we can write for the jth stage
 Figure 6.7 shows the process for a multistage compressor.
 Here Ƞsj can be interpreted as the vertical height from A to B
divided by the vertical height from A to C.
 For counting purposes, subscript 0 outside the parentheses is
at the inlet, and subscript N is at the outlet of the compressor.
 Thus (Pt)0 = Pt2,(Tt)o = Tt2, PN =PiN = P3, and TTN = Tt3.
 From Eq. (6.9), we have for the overall compressor isentropic
efficiency
 We can see from Eq. (6.12) that the isentropic efficiency of a
compressor is a function of the compressor pressure ratio, the
pressure ratio of each stage, and the isentropic efficiency of
each stage.
 This complex functional form makes the isentropic efficiency of
the compressor undesirable for use in cycle analysis.
 We are looking for a simpler form of the figure of merit that
will allow us to vary the compression ratio and still accurately
predict the variation of 𝞰c.
 Let us consider the special case when each stage pressure ratio
and each stage efficiency are the same. In this case
 Note: This is a relationship connecting 𝞰c with 𝞰s for an N-
stage compressor with equal stage pressure ratios and equal
stage efficiencies.
 Compressor Polytropic Efficiency

 The polytropic efficiency ec is related to the preceding efficiencies

and is defined as
 Assuming that the polytropic efficiency ec is constant, we can
obtain a simple relationship between 𝝉𝒄 and 𝝅𝒄 as follows:
 1) Rewrite the preceding equation as
 For a state-of-the-art design, the polytropic efficiency is essentially
constant.
 Substitution of Eq. (6.14) into Eq. (6.9) gives

 Equation (6.15) accurately predicts the relationship between the

isentropic efficiency of a compressor and the compressor ratio for a
given state-of-the-art poly-tropic efficiency.
 This relationship is plotted in Fig. 6.8 for a given value of ec.

 We will use the polytropic efficiency ec as the figure of merit for the
compressor.
 Equations (6.14) and (6.15) will be used to obtain the total
temperature ratio and isentropic efficiency of the compressor,
respectively, in the cycle analysis.
 Relationship Between Compressor Efficiencies
 We have, from Eqs. (6.13) and (6.15), relationships connecting 𝞰c, 𝞰s,
and ec.
 In this section, we wish to see if 𝞰s formally approaches ec as we let
the number of stages get very large and the pressure ratio per stage
get very small.
 To do this, first we note the relationship
 With these basic relationships established, we now write portions
of Eq. (6.13) in the form given in Eq. (i). We consider for a
multistage machine.
 This expression is identical to Eq. (6.15) with ec replaced by 𝞰s.
Thus for very large N, 𝞰s approaches ec.
 Example 2.1
 Say we plan to construct a 16-stage compressor, with each stage
pressure ratio the same, given 𝝅c = 25. Then we have 𝝅s =
251/16 = 1.223. Say 𝞰s is measured at 0.93. Then, with Eq. (6.14)
solved for ec.
 Compressor Stage Pressure Ratio
 For a multistage compressor, the energy added is divided
somewhat evenly per stage, and each stage increases the total
temperature of the flow about the same amount.
 The total temperature ratio of a stage Ʈs that has a total
temperature change of ∆Tt can be written as

 Using the polytropic efficiency ec to relate the stage pressure ratio

𝝅s to its temperature ratio Ʈs we have
 This equation gives the variation of the compressor stage
pressure ratio with stage inlet temperature Tti and total
temperature change ∆Tt.
 This equation shows the decrease in stage pressure ratio with
increases in stage inlet temperature for stages with the same
total temperature change.
 Stage pressure ratio results for y = 1.4 and ec = 0.9 are plotted
in Fig. 6.9 vs ATt/Ta.
 By using this figure, a 30 K change with 300 K inlet
temperature gives a stage pressure ratio of about 1.35.
 Likewise, a 60°R change with 1000°R inlet temperature gives a
stage pressure ratio of about 1.20.
 Figure 6.9 helps explain the change in stage pressure ratio
through a compressor.
 See Table A-32 for the inverse of these values (P/Po, T/To, and
/o) when k = 1.4.
 For the Mach number equal to 1, the sonic location, the static
properties are denoted with a superscript “*”. This condition,
when M = 1, is called the sonic condition. When M = 1 and k =
1.4, the static-to-stagnation ratios are
 Turbine Isentropic Efficiency
 Modem turbines are cooled by air taken from the compressors,
passed through vanes and rotors, and then remixed with the main
flow.
 From the point of view of the overall flow, the flow is adiabatic;
but to be correct, a multiple-stream analysis would have to be
applied.
 Such an analysis is straightforward conceptually, but it is difficult
to estimate the various mixing losses, etc., that occur.
 The concept of isentropic efficiency is still utilized in most such
analyses (for the mainstream portion of the flow), and in any case,
the isentropic efficiency gives a reasonable approximation to the
turbine performance when cooling flow rates are small.
 Hence, in this text, we consider only the adiabatic case.
 In analogy to the compressor isentropic efficiency, we define the
isentropic efficiency of the turbine by
 
V

 The actual and ideal expansion processes for a given 𝝅t

are shown in Fig. 6.10 on a T-s diagram.
 The actual turbine work per unit mass is ht4 - hi5
[=cp(Tt4 - Tts)], and the ideal turbine work per unit
mass is ht4 - htsi [=cp(Tt4 - Tt5i)].
 Here, Ttsi is the ideal turbine leaving total
temperature.
 Writing the isentropic efficiency of the turbine in
terms of the thermodynamic properties, we have
  
dh  VdV  0
 Turbine Stage Efficiency
 In a completely similar analysis to that for the compressor, the
turbine isentropic efficiency can be written in terms of 𝞰Tsj and
𝝅sj:


V
 Turbine Polytropic Efficiency
 The polytropic turbine efficiency et is defined similarly to the
turbine isentropic efficiency as
 Assuming that the polytropic efficiency et is constant over the
pressure ratio, we integrate the preceding equation to give
 This relationship is plotted in Fig. 6.11 along with Eq. (6.15) for
the compressor.
 Note that the turbine efficiency increases with the turbine
expression ratio 1/𝝅𝒕 for a constant et.
 In cycle analysis, Ʈt is usually first obtained from the work
balance.
 Then 𝝅t can be calculated for a known et by using Eq. (6.21), and
𝞰t, can be calculated by using either Eq. (6.22) or Eq. (6.23).
 We will use the polytropic efficiency et as the figure of merit for
the turbine.
 Burner Efficiency and Pressure Loss
 In the burner, we are concerned with two efforts: incomplete
combustion of the fuel and total pressure loss. Combustion
efficiency 𝞰b is defined by

 We can approximate Cp3 as Cpc (a constant for the engine

upstream of the burner) and cp4 as Cpt (a constant average value
for the gases downstream of the burner).
 Thus the combustion efficiency is
 The total pressure losses arise from two effects: the viscous losses
in the combustion chamber and the total pressure loss due to
combustion at finite Mach number.
 These effects are combined for the purpose of performance
analysis in

 We will use both 𝞰b and 𝝅b as the figures of merit for the burner.
 There are similar combustion efficiencies and total pressure ratios
for afterburners (augmenters) and duct burners.
 Exhaust Nozzle Loss
 The primary loss due to the nozzle has to do with the over- or
under expansion of the nozzle.
 In addition, there will be a loss in total pressure from turbine to
exit.
 Thus we may have .

 We still have 𝝉n = 1, because the nozzle is very nearly adiabatic.

 We will use 𝝅n as the figure of merit for the nozzle.
 Mechanical Efficiency of Power Shaft
 We define the mechanical efficiency of a shaft to account for the
loss or extraction of power on that shaft.
 The mechanical efficiency 𝞰m is defined as the ratio of the power
leaving the shaft that enters the compressor, Wc, to the power
entering the shaft from the turbine, Wt. This can be written in
equation form as
 The mechanical efficiency ~m is less than one due to losses in
power that occur from shaft bearings and power extraction for
driving engine accessories like oil and fuel pumps.
 For multi shaft engines, each shaft will have a mechanical
efficiency associated with the power transfer on the shaft.
  Summary of Component Figures of Merit (Constant Cp Values)
 Table 6.1 summarizes the ideal and actual behaviors of gas
turbine engine components with calorically perfect gases.
 Note that for a compressor with constant polytropic efficiency,
the isentropic efficiency follows from Eq. (6.15).
 We will use these figures of merit in the following chapter.
 At a particular level of technological development, the polytropic
efficiency ec for the compressor can be considered to be a
constant, and thus the compressor pressure ratio 𝝅c determines
the compressor efficiency 𝞰c [see Eq. (6.16)].
 Similarly, the polytropic efficiency et for the turbine can be
considered to be a constant, and thus the turbine temperature
ratio 𝝉t determines the turbine efficiency 𝞰t [see Eq. (6.22)].
 For the analysis in the following chapter, we will use the
polytropic efficiencies as input data and will calculate the
resulting component efficiencies.
 The values of these figures of merit have changed as technology
has improved over the years.
 In addition, the values of the figures of merit for the diffuser and
nozzle depend on the application.
 For example, a commercial airliner with engine nacelles and
convergent, fixed-area exhaust nozzles will typically have much
higher values of 𝝅d and 𝝅n than a supersonic fighter with its
engines in the air-frame and convergent-divergent, variable-area
exhaust nozzles.
 Table 6.2 lists typical values for the figures of merit that
correspond to different periods in the evolution of engine
technology (called levels of technology) and the application.
 Component Performance with Variable Cp
 In Section 2.6.6 of Chapter 2, we developed the relationships
[Eqs. (2.53), (2.54), and (2.57)] for the thermodynamic properties
h, ∅ and s of a perfect gas with variable specific heat.
 In addition, the reduced pressure Pr and reduced volume vr were
defined by Eqs. (2.55) and (2.56), respectively.
 We will use these properties to describe the performance of
engine components when the variation of specific heat is to be
included.
 We will use Appendix D or the computer program AFPROP to
obtain the thermodynamic properties.
 The notation 𝝅a [see Eq. (5.3)] represents a component's total
pressure ratio.
 However, we will use a modified definition for 𝝉a to represent the
ratio of total enthalpies [see original definition given by Eq. (5.4)].
Thus

 Free stream Properties

 From the definition of the total enthalpy and total pressure, we
can write
 Inlet
 Because the inlet is assumed to be adiabatic, then

 By using Eq. (2.57), the inlet total pressure ratio can be

expressed in terms of the entropy change as follows:

 Compressor
 The variable 𝝉𝒄 represents the total enthalpy ratio of the
compressor, and 𝝅c represents its total pressure ratio, or
 The polytropic efficiency of the compressor ec can be written as

 By using the Gibbs equation [Eq. (2.31)], the numerator in the

preceding equation can be expressed as For a constant polytropic
efficiency, integration of the preceding equation between states t2
and t3 gives
 Thus the compressor pressure ratio 𝝅c can be written
as

 The reduced pressure at state t2 can be obtained from

Appendix D or the computer program AFPROP, given
the temperature at state t2.
 If the values of 𝝅e and ec are also known, one can get
the reduced pressure at state t3 by using


 Given the reduced pressure at state t3, the total
temperature and total enthalpy can be obtained from
Appendix D or the computer program AFPROP.
 The isentropic efficiency of a compressor can be
expressed as

 This equation requires that the total enthalpy be known

at states t2, t3,and t3i.
 Example 2.2
 Air at 1 atm and 540°R enters a compressor whose
polytropic efficiency is 0.9. If the compressor pressure
ratio is 15, determine the leaving total properties and
compressor isentropic efficiency.
Burner
 The 𝝉b represents the total enthalpy ratio of the burner,
and 𝝅b represents its total pressure ratio, or
 Example 2.2
 Air at 1 atm and 540°R enters a compressor whose
polytropic efficiency is 0.9. If the compressor pressure
ratio is 15, determine the leaving total properties and
compressor isentropic efficiency.
Burner
 The 𝝉b represents the total enthalpy ratio of the burner,
and 𝝅b represents its total pressure ratio, or
 Where is the ratio of the fuel flow rate to the airflow
rate entering the burner, or f = mf/m.
 In the analysis of gas turbine engines, we determine the
fuel/air ratio f and normally specify 𝞰b, hpR, and Tt4.
 The enthalpy at station t3 (ht3) will be known from
analysis of the compressor. Equation (6.35) can be
solved for the fuel/air ratio f, giving

 Note: The value of ht4 is a function of the fuel/air ratio

f, and thus the solution of Eq. (6.36) is iterative.
 Turbine
 The 𝝉 represents the total enthalpy ratio of the turbine,
and 𝝅t represents its total pressure ratio or


 Example 2.3
 Products of combustion (f= 0.0338) at 20 atm and
3000°R enter a turbine whose polytropic efficiency is
0.9. If the total enthalpy of the flow through the turbine
decreases 100Btu/lbm, determine the leaving total
properties and turbine isentropic efficiency.
Nozzle
 Because the nozzle is assumed to be adiabatic, then
THE END!