UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

Centre of Diploma Studies

_____________________________________________________

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GROUP PROJECT REPORT

Course Name & Code DAC 11603
Civil Engineering Materials
Title of new
construction material Glass
and Technology
Section
7&8
Group
10
Lecturer/Instructor’s 1) Dr. Noorul Hudai Abdullah (Section 1,2,3&4)
Name 2) Ts. Dr. Norhayati Binti Ngadiman (Section
5&6)
3) Ts. Hj. Amir Khan bin Suwandi (Section 7&8)
Name of Group Leader Matric No.
MUHAMMAD SHAQEEL
BIN SHARIFDDIN AA212115

Group Members Matric No.

1. MUHAMMAD SHAQEEL BIN AA212115

SHARIFUDDIN

2. SHEIKH OMAR BAJRAI BIN YAHYA AA210868

3. MUHAMMAD ISWAN QUZAIMY BIN

AA210268
AHMAD REDZUAN

4. MUHAMMAD MUHRIZ BIN MAZANI AA212514

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 NO. CONTENT MARK

1. - INTRODUCTION

2. - MATERIAL PROPERTIES

3. - PROCESS

4. - PROCEDURES

5. - DISCUSSION

6. - CONCLUSION

7. - REFERENCES

CONTENT
NAME MUHAMMAD SHAQEEL BIN SHARIFUDDIN

MATRIX NUMBER AA212115

I/C NUMBER 031015-08-1045

PLACE OF BIRTH POKLIKLINIK AR RIDZUAN, IPOH, PERAK

DATE OF BIRTH 12 DECEMBER 2003

FACULTY CENTRE OF DIPLOMA STUDIES - CeDS

COURSE DIPLOMA OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PHONE NUMBER 011-63513944

ADDRESS N0 3, JALAN PADI HUMA 7 BANDAR BARU
UDA, 81200, JOHOR BAHRU, JOHOR
EMAIL AA212115@siswa.uthm.edu.my

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NAME SHEIKH OMAR BAJRAI BIN YAHYA

MATRIX NUMBER AA210858

I/C NUMBER 030428-01-0435

PLACE OF BIRTH HOSPITAL BESAR BATU PAHAT

DATE OF BIRTH 28 APRIL 2003

FACULTY CENTRE OF DIPLOMA STUDIES - CeDS

COURSE DIPLOMA OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PHONE NUMBER 011-62166830

ADDRESS NO 15 JALAN F/J 5, TAMAN FLORA JAYA, 83000,
BATU PAHAT, JOHOR
EMAIL AA210858@siswa.uthm.edu.my

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NAME MUHAMMAD ISWAN QUZAIMY BIN AHMAD
REDZUAN
MATRIX NUMBER AA210268

I/C NUMBER 030206-07-0539

PLACE OF BIRTH HOSPITAL PULAU PINANG

DATE OF BIRTH 6 FBRUARY 2003

FACULTY CENTRE OF DIPLOMA STUDIES - CeDS

COURSE DIPLOMA OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PHONE NUMBER 011-128462550

ADDRESS BLOCK D-04-06 KONDOMINIUM MUTIARA
BANDAR BARU PERDA, 14000, BUKIT
MERTAJAM, PULAU PINANG
EMAIL AA210268@siswa.uthm.edu.my

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 NAME MUHAMMAD MUHRIZ BIN MAZANI

MATRIX NUMBER AA212514

I/C NUMBER 031212-05-0141

PLACE OF BIRTH HOSPITAL TUANKU JA’AFAR, SEREMBAN,

NEGERI SEMBILAN
DATE OF BIRTH 12 DECEMBER 2003

FACULTY CENTRE OF DIPLOMA STUDIES - CeDS

COURSE DIPLOMA OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PHONE NUMBER 011-12866436

ADDRESS NO 70, JALAN 5/15, TAMAN PINGGIRAN
SENAWANG, SUNGAI GADUT, 71450,
SEREMBAN, NEGERI SEMBILAN
EMAIL AA212514@siswa.uthm.edu.my

1.0 INTRODUCTION

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Glass is an amorphous hard, bittle, transparent or translucent super cooled liquid of infinite
viscosity. The term of glass signifies an amorphous solid substance that has been formed by
super cooling, a liquid solution containing chiefly silica and some other selected component.
Glass has been made into practical and decorative objects since ancient times, and it is still
very important in applications as disparate as building construction, housewares and
telecommunications.

2.0 PROPERTIES OF GLASS

2.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

2.1.1 Density

The density of glass is 2, 5, which gives flat glass a mass of 2, 5 kg per m2 per mm of
thickness, or 2500 kg per m3.

2.1.2 Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of glass is extremely high: 1000 N/mm2 = 1000 MPa. This means
that to shatter a 1 cm cube of glass, it requires a load of some 10 tonnes.

2.1.3 Tensile Strength

When glass is deflected, it has one face under compression and the other in tension. Whilst
the resistance of glass to compressive stress is extremely high, its resistance to tensile stress is
significantly lower.

2.1.4 The resistance to breakage on deflection is in the order of:

I. 40 MPa (N/mm2) for annealed glass.

II. 120 MPa for toughened glass (depending on thickness, edgework, holes, notches etc).

The increased strength of toughened glass is the result of the toughening process putting both
faces under high compression. Dual Seal Glass can advise on appropriate working stresses for
different glass types and can calculate suitable thicknesses for architectural applications.

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2.1.5 Elasticity

Glass is a perfectly elastic material: it does not exhibit permanent deformation, until
breakage. However it is fragile, and will break without warning if subjected to excessive
stress.

2.1.6 Young’s Modulus, E

This modulus expresses the tensile force thatwould theoretically have to be applied to a glass
sample to stretch it by an amount equal to its original length. It is expressed as a force per
unit area. For glass, in accordance with European standards: E = 70 GPa.

2.1.7 Poisson’s Ratio, Μ (Lateral Contraction Coefficient)

When a sample is stretched under mechanical stress a decrease in its cross-section is

observed. Poisson’s ratio (μ) is the relation between the unit decrease in the direction
perpendicular to the axis of the effort and the unit strain in the direction of the effort. For
glass in buildings, the value of coefficient μ is 0.2.

3.0 THE MANUFACTURE OF GLASS

Although several glass making processes have been used for many years, most glass today is
produced by the float process. The first production of glass by this method was in 1959 by the
English firm, Pilkington Brothers, Ltd. This process is now used worldwide.

3.0.1 Float Glass

The float process involves producing the molten glass in a furnace from which it is conveyed
to a float bath. Here the molten glass is floated across a bath molten tin (Fig. 1). The molten
tin gives a very flat surface that supports the glass as it is polished by the application of heat
from above. The heat melts out any irregularities in the glass. The ribbon of glass moves on
to a cooling zone where heat is reduced, permitting the glass to solidify enough to be
conveyed on to the annealing lehr. After the glass has been annealed, it is moved to a section

8
where it is cut into lengths, inspected, and packed. The sheets of glass produced by this
method have parallel surfaces, a smooth=, clear finish, and high optical clarity.

Figure 1.0 The process for making float glass

Float glass is a flat glass that is available as regular float glass or heavy float glass.
Thicknesses range from 3/32 to 1/2 in. (2.5 to 12mm). Regular float glass is made in three
qualities: silvering, which is used for selected high-quality pieces for optical uses and
mirrors; mirror glazing, which is for general-purpose mirrors; and glazing, which is for door
and window glazing. Heavy float glass is available in glazed type. Float glass is used when
clarity and visual transparency with a minimum of distortion are desired. Float glass is used
for many many products, such as reflective glass, mirrors, tinted glass, laminated glass, and
insulating glass. Selected data are in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Thickness of Community Used Float Glass Sheet

Thickness In mm
3/32 2.5
1/8
3.0
5/32
4.0
3/16
5.0
1/4
6.0
3/8
10.0
1/2
12.0
3.0.2 Sheet Glass

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Sheet glass is a type of flat glass that is less expensive than float glass. It is made by older
methods than involve drawing a ribbon of molten glass along a series rollers where its
thickness is established and it is annealed, cooled, and cut to size. Sheet glass has more
distortion than float glass and is not as widely used as in the past. It is available in single
strength, 3/32 in. (2.3 mm) thick; double strength, 1/8 in. (3.1 mm) thick; and heavy sheet,
3/16 in. (4.7 mm) and 7/32 in. (5.6 mm) thick. Picture glass is a thinner version, 3/64, 1/16,
and 5/64 in. (1.2, 1.6, and 2.0 mm) thick, that is used for covering pictures and charts, and for
other purpose for which strength is not a factor. Sheet glass is available in three grades, AA
(best), A (good), and B (general glazed) and as clear, tinted, reflective, tempered or heat-
treated products.

3.1 GLASS PRODUCT

Glass product involves two main methods which is the float glass process that produces sheet
glass, and glassblowing that produces bottles and other containers. It has been done in a
variety of ways during the history of glass.

3.1.1 Blowing glass

Glass blowing is a glass forming technique that humans have used to shape glass since the 1 st
century B.C. The technique consists of inflating molten glass with a blow pipe to form a sort
of glass bubble, that can be molded into glassware for practical or artistic purposes.

Thanks to the glass blowing glass process, glass has been one of the most useful materials in
human society for centuries.

4.0 PROCEDURE

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4.1 THE STEP BY STEP MANUFACTURING FLOAT GLASS

There are two types of glass made by the float process, clear glass and tinted glass. Most of
the flat glass made by the float process is clear glass. As its name implies, clear glass is
transparent and colorless. Depending upon its thickness, clear glass allows about 75 to 92
percent of the visible light to pass through.

Tinted glass (also called heat absorbing glass) is made by adding coloring agents to the batch
mix. These agents include bronze, gray, green and blue. As the glass gets thicker, the density
of the color also increases. This causes the glass to transmit less visible light. The light
transmittance of tinted glass varies from 14 to 83 percent depending upon its color and
thickness.

4.1.1 Melting and Refining

In order to make clear glass, the right set of raw materials is required. This consists of silica
sand (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from soda ash, calcium oxide (CaO) from
limestone/dolomite, dolomite (MgO), and feldspar (Al2O3). These ingredients are mixed in
the right proportion, and the entire batch is flown into a furnace heated to 1500 degree
Celsius.
In order to impart colour to the glass, certain metal oxides are also mixed in the batch.

4.1.2 Float bath

The molten material from the furnace flows into the float bath which consists of a mirror-like
surface made from molten tin. This material enters the bath at 1500 degree Celsius and leaves
the bath at around 650 degree Celsius. Its shape at the exit is like a solid ribbon.

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 Figure 1.2 Float bath

4.1.3 Coating for reflective glass

Thereafter, if one is producing reflective glass surfaces that help in keeping indoors cooler,
then coating procedures are followed in which either a hard coat or a soft coat is applied on
the surface of the cooled ribbon at high temperatures

4.1.4 Annealing

Next, in order to remove the internal stresses built up in glass, a process called annealing is
done. This process allows the glass ribbon to pass through a layer which eliminates any
stresses on the glass surface and gradually cools it to give it its final hardened form. This
makes it easier to cut the glass and shape it accordingly.

Figure 1.3 Process annealing

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4.1.5 Inspecting
Through acute and advanced inspection technology, more than a 100 million inspections can
be made throughout the glass manufacturing procedure to identify air bubbles, stresses or
grains of sand that refuse to melt. This is essential in quality-proofing the final form of glass.

4.1.6 Cutting to order

Finally, diamond steels are used to trim and cut the glass ribbons into square shapes.

4.2 THE STEP BY STEP MNUFACTURING GLASS BLOWING

4.2.1 The glass blowing process equipment

An art glass studio is filled with hot stuff. There is a furnace in which clear glass is melted.
The glass is held inside a crucible, pictured at the right. There is a Glory Hole where the glass
blower forms or her work, an oven that keeps pipes and punties hot, and an annealing oven to
slowly cool down finished work.

A piece begins when the glass blower reaches inside the furnace and into the crucible that is
filled with clear, melted glass and gathers a layer of molten glass on a steel blow pipe. The
artist then rolls the molten glass on a steel table called a marver to give it a cylindrical shape.
The glass is then heated in the glory hole-all the while the artist is turning the blow pipe and
keeping it in constant motion. There will be many trips back and forth to the Glory Hole
because the glass needs to be kept above 1000° F.

4.2.2 Adding color to art glass

Next, it’s time to add color to the piece. Various forms of colored glass such as powders, frits
and bars are used to create varied patterns and designs in the piece. The artist takes the heated
glass on the blow pipe and rolls it over the color, picking up pieces with each roll. Then, it’s
back to the Glory Hole where the colored glass is heated to melt into the clear. Again, the
glass blower keeps turning the pipe to keep the shape at the end of the pole.

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4.2.3 Constant motion

The glass blower sits and rests the pipe on the steel arms of the bench and turns it with one
hand. With the other hand the artist uses tools such as cherry wood blocks, wet newspaper,
wooden paddles and tools made of stainless steel. This process requires perfect coordination
between right and left hands. The artist may be shaping a round piece, an oval, or intend to
make a wide open plate or bowl. Sitting at the bench is where she determines the shape.The
artist may decide to add more clear glass or color. The process of heating and turning in the
Glory Hole and shaping at the bench will be repeated many times.

4.2.4 Blowing into the pipe

The actual blowing begins. It starts with a puff on the end of the blow pipe to create a bubble.
Then it's back to the Glory Hole for more heating and turning. And back to the bench for
more shaping. This cycle gets repeated many times, depending on the size and shape desired
by the artist. Once the shape is satisfactory, the piece has to be transferred to a punty another
steel pipe that's been heating over flames. Moving the piece from the blow pipe to the punty
will make it possible for the artist to create the opening of the vase or the bowl. The punty
will be attached to what will become the bottom of the piece.

4.2.5 Tricky transfer to the punty

The artist- or an assistant - takes a small gather of clear glass from the furnace. As the glass
blower seated at the bench briefly stops turning the piece, the punty with the molten glass is
attached to the other end. At the right moment, the artist wraps the blow pipe and it breaks
away, leaving the piece attached to the Punty. This is a tricky step in the process and the
transfer sometimes results in a dropped piece. Since glass is hard to rescue, that usually
means starting all over.

4.2.6 Opening up the piece

The piece on the punty is again heated in the Glory Hole. Then the blower returns to the
bench and uses a variety of tools to create the mouth of a vase or to open up a vessel. He or

14
she will use the heat in the Glory Hole to to make changes in the shape of the piece using
other tools at the bench. When the glass blower is satisfied, it's time to remove the plece from
the punty. The blower then takes the punty and hits it firmly so that the piece drops off into a
box that is filled with thick layers of fire blanket. The blower then takes the punty and hits it
firmly so that the piece drops off into a box that is filled with thick layers of fire blanket.

4.2.7 Into the annealing oven to cool

Using Kevlar gloves, the artist picks up the scorching-hot piece and quickly transfers it to an
annealing oven. This oven is kept at 960ºF and then cooled down over a period of 14 hours to
room temperature. This slow cooling down is to prevent the piece from cracking or breaking -
although glass blowers sometimes get a few unhappy surprises when they open the oven the
next day.Finally, if needed, the artist grinds down the bottom of the piece to eliminate the
sharp edges that were left when the piece was knocked off the punty.Glass blowing requires
extreme patience, tenacity and dexterity. That said, people of all ages and many physical
abilities have learned to blow glass and delight in its magic.

DISCUSSION

We know that things have advantage and disadvantage, so for advantage in this topic is glass
does not rust, so chemical and environmental effects do not gradually damage it. Besides that,
glass has a smooth glossy surface and easily to cleaned because it is dust proof. Thirdly, glass
allows natural light to reach the house even though doors or windows are closed, so it saves
energy and also decrease electricity bills, brightens the space and most importantly, brings
out the nature of the homeland, improving the occupant’s mood.

Next we go trough disadvantage for glass is the glass is very rigid and brittle materials so
when it is subjected to stress, it breaks without significant (strain). Lastly, broken glass pieces
can be sharp, and there is a very high risk of injury.

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CONCLUSION

Glass is commonly used in the building industries. It is most typically used as transparent
glazing material in the building envelope, including windows in the external walls. Glass is
also used for internal partitions and as an architectural feature. When used in buildings, glass
is often of a safety type, which include reinforced, toughened and laminated glasses. That is
because, glass can absorb, refract or transmit light. It has the ability to make any building
look more stunning and modern. Using glass in building facades and interiors enhances the
ambience. Interiors appear larger and more open, with abundant natural lighting. In addition,
glass is much safer from electric hazards. The glass is a very excellent insulator. It is thus
impossible for it to conduct electric current. Glass is also rust resistant. Unlike any other, it
won’t degrade by chemical and the surrounding environmental effects.

REFERENCES

 https://www.dreieck-design.com/en/guide/floatglass/
 Civil engineering material book
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glassblowing
 http://www.sacramentoartglass.com/the-process-of-blowing-glass.html
 https://www.engineeringenotes.com/engineering/glass/how-to-manufacture-glass-glass-
manufacturing-process/46790
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production
 https://www.aisglass.com/glass-made-step-step-process/
 https://www.admet.com/testing-applications/testing-standards/astm-c158-glass-flexure-
tesing-modulus-of-rupture/
 https://dmgschoolproject.org/the-glass-blowing-process/
 https://youtu.be/uxWvG1g8a1k

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