Question Bank
Question Bank
Question Bank
QUESTION BANK
OML751 - TESTING OF MATERIALS
8. List out some standards for conducing tensile test in ferrous materials
Standard. ASTM E8 / E8M is one of the most common test method for determining the
tensile properties of metallic materials, with the other being ASTM A370.
IS 1608 (2005): Mechanical testing of metals - Tensile Testing
ISO 7500-1 :1986, Metallic materials - Verification of static uniaxial testing machines
-
9. List out some standards for conducing tensile test in polymer materials
Ash Content ASTM D5630, D2584, ISO 3451
Barcol Hardness ASTM D2583
Brittleness Temperature ASTM D746 ISO 974
Brookfield Viscosity (Relative Viscosity of Polyamides) ASTM D789, D4878
Capillary Rheometry Shear Sweep ASTM D3835, ISO 11443
Capillary Rheometry Thermal Stability ASTM D3835, ISO 11443
Carbon Black Content ASTM D1603
Charpy Impact ISO 179
Chemical Compatibility ASTM D543
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10. List out some standards for conducing impact test in materials
ASTM A370
EN 10045-1
ISO 148
MPIF Standard 40
PART-B
1. Explain the different types of material testings in details
Materials testing, measurement of the characteristics and behaviour of such substances
as metals, ceramics, or plastics under various conditions. The data thus obtained can be used
in specifying the suitability of materials for various applications
e.g., building or aircraft construction, machinery, or packaging. A full- or small-scale
model of a proposed machine or structure may be tested. Alternatively, investigators may
construct mathematical models that utilize known material characteristics and behaviour to
predict capabilities of the structure.
Materials testing breaks down into five major categories: mechanical testing; testing
for thermal properties; testing for electrical properties; testing for resistance to corrosion,
radiation, and biological deterioration; and nondestructive testing. Standard test methods have
been established by such national and international bodies as the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO), with headquarters in Geneva, and the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM), Philadelphia.
Mechanical testing
Structures and machines, or their components, fail because of fracture or excessive
deformation. In attempting to prevent such failure, the designer estimates how much stress
(load per unit area) can be anticipated, and specifies materials that can withstand expected
stresses. A stress analysis, accomplished either experimentally or by means of a mathematical
model, indicates expected areas of high stress in a machine or structure. Mechanical property
tests, carried out experimentally, indicate which materials may safely be employed
Testing of materials
1. Destructive Testing
2. Non-Destructive Testing.
Destructive testing
The destructive test is meant to test the material strength.
The specimen which is under destructive test subjected to the fracture.
The destructive test intended to study the behaviour of the metal under different
loading conditions.
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Non-Destructive testing
The Non-destructive tests are employed for the finished products.
The finished product which is under Non-destructive test will not be subjected to the
fracture.
The Non-destructive test intended to know the internal defects of the finished product.
Material Testing Methods
Classification of Destructive Testing
1. Static Testing
2. Impact Testing
3. Cyclic Testing
Static Testing:
Where the load is applied gradually in static testing. different material testing methods
available under static testing. they are listed below.
Tension Test
Compression Test
Shear Test
Hardness Test
Creep Test
Impact (Dynamic) Testing
When the given specimen is subjected to shock loads then it is known as the impact load
testing or the dynamic load testing.
Charpy Test
Izoid Test
Cyclic Testing
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2. Explain the role of engineers for the selection of materials in engineering applications
Engineering design relates to the design of engineered artifacts formed by materials of
various types. Materials play an important role during the entire design process. At the early
design stage, materials may achieve some of the required functions. Hence, designers may
need to identify materials with specific functionalities in order to find feasible design
concepts. ‘Materials identification’ is used to refer to this materials-related design activity.
At the downstream design stages, when the physical structure for a design has been
determined, materials with specific properties should be selected from a set of candidates,
which is commonly referred to as ‘materials selection’.In this paper, an overview of recent
research in materials identification and materials selection is conducted, that provides
materials support for the early and downstream stages of engineering design respectively.
The purpose of this work is to provide a documentary of latest research efforts in this
area, to recognize the importance of materials identification and selection for engineering
design problem solving, as well as to propose prospects of future research, so that more effort
can be spent on those lacking materials-related research.
Facts to Consider When Selecting Materials
Engineering companies Perth-wide often come to us to gain our professional advice on
what materials to use for their specific projects. And, we are more than happy to help. When
it comes to metal and stainless-steel fabrication, Perth clients from various industries have
benefited from our professional opinions and technical expertise over the years.
The Right Material Selection Ensures Design Integrity
The actual integrity of a design is only ensured after an in-depth systemic material
selection is carried out. Otherwise, the result could be extremely susceptible to failures.
Throughout the entire selection process, materials are assessed in term of strength, fatigue
endurance and so on depending on the future application. This will make sure that the design
is more likely to succeed in the long term in addition to ensuring that the design is technically
fit for purpose
Ensuring Structural Integrity for a Lifetime in the Field
In terms of stainless-steel fabrication, Perth industries need their products to last. Our
climate here is particularly harsh and unforgiving so the right materials need to be used in all
applications. If you are in doubt with regards to what materials to use for your particular
project, just leave it in our capable hands. We fully understand that even the greatest design
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may fail in its actual working environment. For example, it could be chemically damaged or
be subjected to a higher load than is usually expected. Bearing this in mind, the best materials
to maintain structural integrity in all conditions should be used.
Design Flexibility
Another aspect you need to consider is that material selection gives your designer more
flexibility when it comes to the design process. He could create various different designs so
that he can evaluate how each material performs.
Environmental impact
As he finds how each material acts, he can modify the process or design to make
adjustments and improvements. This is especially helpful to avoid any failures in the future.
5. Explain in detail the different types of standards used for material testing
Material Testing Standards provide a unified reference for test methods, equipment,
and industry-specific usage scenarios and specifications for a wide array of materials and test
environments. Ranging from medical devices that are implanted within a patient's body, to
key mechanical components relied upon by planes and automobiles, these standards provide
vital information and instructions on how to attain it for many different industries.
Metallic Material Testing Standards:
Metallic Material Testing Standards focus on hardness, tensile, and fatigue testing,
approaching the issues from multiple angles to provide a range of information. In addition,
metallic material testing standards cover corrosion testing, weld testing, and other areas of
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15. What are the properties are determined from tension testing of metallic products?
i. Limit of proportionality
ii. Yield strength
iii. Maximum tensile strength
iv. Breaking strength
v. Percentage elongation
vi. Modulus of elasticity
16. How will you express the deformation characteristics of a material through tension
test?
The deformation characteristics of a material through tension test expressed as the
stress strain curve. With the help of stress strain curve, the various tensile properties such as
elastic stress, strain yield strength, young’s modulus, etc are calculated.
20. What are the different types of loadings available for fatigue testing?
Shock or impact load
Static load
Random load
Repeated or reversed load.
PART-B
1. Explain the characteristic of ductile fracture and brittle fracture? Explain the testing
Fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the
action of stress. The fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain
displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops perpendicular
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to the surface, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops
tangentially, it is called a shear crack, slip band or dislocation.
Brittle fractures occur with no apparent deformation before fracture. Ductile fractures
occur after visible deformation. Fracture strength, or breaking strength, is the stress when a
specimen fails or fractures. A detailed understanding of how fracture occurs in materials may
be assisted by the study of fracture mechanics.
Types:
1. Brittle:
In brittle fracture, no apparent plastic deformation takes place before fracture. Brittle
fracture typically involves little energy absorption and occurs at high speeds up to 2133.6 m/s
(7000 ft/s) in steel. In most cases brittle fracture will continue even when loading is
discontinued.
In brittle crystalline materials, fracture can occur by cleavage as the result of tensile
stress acting normal to crystallographic planes with low bonding (cleavage planes).
In amorphous solids, by contrast, the lack of a crystalline structure results in a conchoidal
fracture, with cracks proceeding normal to the applied tension.
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2. Ductile:
In ductile fracture, extensive plastic deformation (necking) takes place before fracture.
The terms "rupture" and "ductile rupture" describe the ultimate failure of ductile materials
loaded in tension. The extensive plasticity causes the crack to propagate slowly due to the
absorption of a large amount of energy before fracture.
Because ductile rupture involves a high degree of plastic deformation, the fracture
behavior of a propagating crack as modeled above changes fundamentally. Some of the
energy from stress concentrations at the crack tips is dissipated by plastic deformation ahead
of the crack as it propagates.
The basic steps in ductile fracture are void formation, void coalescence (also known as
crack formation), crack propagation, and failure, often resulting in a cup-and-cone shaped
failure surface. Voids typically coalesce around precipitates, secondary phases, inclusions,
and at grain boundaries in the material. Ductile fracture is typically transgranular and
deformation due to dislocation slip can cause the shear lip characteristic of cup and cone
fracture.
calculations are independent of the size of the indenter; and the same indenter (a pyramidal
diamond) can be used for all materials, irrespective of hardness.
The Vickers hardness test:
Ideal for micro hardness testing
Can be used for case hardness depth measurement, Jominy testing and hardness testing
of welds
Standards: ASTM E384, ISO 6507 and JIS Z 2244
The Vickers Hardness calculation
The Vickers Hardness (HV) is calculated by optically measuring the diagonal lengths of
the impression left by the indenter. The measurements are converted to HV using a table or
formula.
Load range: From 10 gf up to 100 kgf
Diagram:
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3. What does impact test signify? Explain impact Izod test with neat sketches.
An impact test is a technique for determining the behavior of material subjected to
shock loading in:
Bending
Tension
Torsion
This test is designed to determine how a specimen of a known material will respond to
a suddenly applied stress. The test ascertains whether the material is tough or brittle.
It is mostly used to test the toughness of metals, but similar tests are used for polymers,
ceramics and composites. Metal industry sectors that use the impact test include:
Oil and gas
Aerospace
Power generation
Automotive
Nuclear
Impact testing is also known as ASTM E23.
Izod impact strength test:
The Izod impact strength test is an ASTM standard method of determining the impact
resistance of materials. A pivoting arm is raised to a specific height (constant potential
energy) and then released. The arm swings down hitting a notched sample, breaking the
specimen. The energy absorbed by the sample is calculated from the height the arm swings to
after hitting the sample. A notched sample is generally used to determine impact energy and
notch sensitivity.
The test is similar to the Charpy impact test but uses a different arrangement of the
specimen under test. The Izod impact test differs from the Charpy impact test in that the
sample is held in a cantilevered beam configuration as opposed to a three-point bending
configuration.
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This shows the cross-section of the specimen has changed during the experiment
process.
The cross-section does not remain constantly and will be different from the given value
of diameter. This stress is called True Stress. Applied force is divided by the area of
the section at that instant.
Tensile Testing
Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials science and
engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure.
Fracture Behavior:
Fracture behavior is considered under two main material behaviours which are called
Ductile and Brittle materials.
Ductile material:
Significant plastic deformation and energy absorption (toughness) reveals before
fracture. Characteristic feature of ductile material is necking before material failure.
Brittle material:
Little plastic deformation or energy absorption reveals before fracture. Characteristic
feature of brittle materials is different compare to ductile materials. Brittle materials fracture
without any necking.
Engineering stress:
Engineering stress is the applied load divided by the original cross-sectional area of a
material. Also known as nominal stress.
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True stress:
True stress is the applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional area (the changing
area with respect to time) of the specimen at that load.
Engineering strain:
Engineering strain is the amount that a material deforms per unit length in a tensile test.
Also known as nominal strain.
True strain:
True strain equals the natural log of the quotient of current length over the original
length.
where:
BHN = Brinell Hardness Number (kgf/mm2)
P = applied load in kilogram-force (kgf)
D = diameter of indenter (mm)
d = diameter of indentation (mm)
Brinell hardness is sometimes quoted in megapascals; the Brinell hardness number is
multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity, 9.80665 m/s2, to convert it to megapascals.
The BHN can be converted into the ultimate tensile strength (UTS), although the relationship
is dependent on the material, and therefore determined empirically. The relationship is based
on Meyer's index (n) from Meyer's law. If Meyer's index is less than 2.2 then the ratio of UTS
to BHN is 0.36. If Meyer's index is greater than 2.2, then the ratio increases.
BHN is designated by the most commonly used test standards (ASTM E10-14and ISO
6506–1:2005) as HBW (H from hardness, B from brinell and W from the material of the
indenter, tungsten (wolfram) carbide).
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where:
F = applied load (newtons)
D = diameter of indenter (mm)
d = diameter of indentation (mm)
Standards:
International (ISO) and European (CEN) Standard
EN ISO 6506-1:2014: Metallic materials – Brinell hardness test – Part 1: test method
EN ISO 6506-2:2017: Metallic materials – Brinell hardness test – Part 2: verification
and calibration of testing machine
EN ISO 6506-3:2014: Metallic materials – Brinell hardness test – Part 3: calibration of
reference blocks
EN ISO 6506-4:2014: Metallic materials – Brinell hardness test – Part 4: Table of
hardness values
US standard (ASTM International)
ASTM E10-14: Standard method for Brinell hardness of metallic materials
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3. Visual testing is inherently part of all other NDT methods. Justify the Statement.
Visual Testing (VT) is based on the inspection for flaws that are visible to the
naked eye and is the most commonly used NDT method across all industries. It allows for
a feasible and fast control of quality at every step of the fabrication or maintenance process.
Visual Testing (VT) is used to detect visible flaws such as deformation, welding defects and
corrosion. Many tools can be used during the inspection such as a ruler, gauges, cameras, etc.
6. Name two of the NDT techniques that can be used to detect internal defects.
Some of the different techniques for detecting internal defects are: Eddy Current
Testing (ET) but only near surface defects; • Magnetic Testing (MT) but only near surface
defects; • Radiographic Testing (RT); • Resonant Testing; • Thermographic Testing (only
near surface defects); • Ultrasonic Testing (UT).
6.
11. Name the list of optical aids used for visual inspection.
Optical aids include low-power magnifiers, microscopes, telescopes and also specialised
devices such as boroscopes, endoscopes and other fibre-optic devices for the inspection of
restricted access areas. These devices can also be used with television camera systems.
15. Discuss various methods of cleaning used for surface preparation in Liquid
Penetrant Testing.
The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil, grease or any loose scale that
could either keep penetrant out of a defect or cause irrelevant or false indications. Cleaning
methods may include solvents, alkaline cleaning steps, vapour degreasing, or media blasting.
17. Magnetic particle inspection cannot be used to detect internal defects. Why?
Magnetic powder techniques cannot be recommended for the detection of internal
defects because the possibility of a defect indication rapidly decreases when the defect is
more than 0.2 mm below the surface. In spite of optimum magnetization, cases can occur
where it is difficult to generate the force required for a positive defect indication.
20. Magnetic particles with fluorescent coating are seen under which light?
In magnetic particle testing, only ferrous materials can be tested using a magnetic
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particle test. The casting which is undergoing magnetic inspection, if it is coated with
fluorescence, then it has to be viewed in an ultraviolet light only.
PART-B
1. Differentiate between destructive and non-destructive testing.
Non Destructive Testing (NDT):
NDT is industrial method for analyzing the characteristics of material or finding the
discontinuities in the material & Weld joints, without damaging the material.
NDT is otherwise called as, Non Destructive Evaluation –NDE. Non Destructive Inspection
(NDI) and it a quantitative analysis method.
Destructive Testing :
Destructive Testing is a Qualitative analysis method, to find the quality of the material
such as Tensile strength, Elongation property, hardness value, Impact toughness, etc.
The above mentioned qualitative properties cannot be found using NDT methods. Because in
order to find the mechanical properties, it is required to apply load on the material. The load
deforms the material making them not usable.
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2. Explain the working principle and types of visual inspection technique with suitable
sketch.
Visual Inspection (VI), or visual testing (VT), is the oldest and most basic method
of inspection. In its simplest form, visual inspection is the process of examining a component
or piece of equipment using one’s naked eye to look for flaws. Optical aids such as
illuminators, mirrors, borescopes, etc. can be used to enhance one’s capability of visually
inspecting equipment. Cameras, computer systems, and digital image analyzers can also be
used to further the capabilities and benefits of visual inspection.
Visual inspection is routinely used for internal and external surface inspection of a
variety of equipment types including storage tanks, pressure vessels, piping, and other
equipment.
Visual inspection is simple and less technologically advanced compared to other
methods. Despite this, it still has several advantages over more high-tech methods. Compared
to other methods, it is far more cost effective because there is often no equipment required;
just the eyes of a knowledgeable inspector. For similar reasons, it is also one of the easiest
inspection techniques to perform.
Direct visual inspection:
In the case of direct visual inspection, the component to be inspected is tested by an
inspector. Testing, analysis and assessment are carried out by one person. The direct visual
inspection can be carried out with tools such as borescopes.
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3. Describe the following: (i) Application of visual inspection. (ii) Advantages and
disadvantages of visual inspection.
Applications of Visual Inspection:
It is used to inspect whether there is a misalignment of parts in the equipment
It checks for corrosion, rosion, cracks and deformities of machine components
It inspect the plant components for any leakage or abnormal operation
It is used to identify the defects in weldments
Advantages:
Reduction in repair costs because of constant monitoring at every step of fabrication;
Understanding of different degradation phenomena;
Documentation of the observations using measurement tools;
Very cost efficient and quick QC/QA technique.
Non-destructive testing with simple technical equipment
Mobile use
Ideal for sampling
Digitalization enables image optimization for better defect evaluation
Secure 100 % controls
Defects can be documented
Better analysis possible
Tracking of documented defects for process optimization
Disadvantages
No comparable test results, since no documentation
Depends on the experience / the ability of an individual to judge
Acquisition costs higher than with direct visual inspection
More space required than with direct visual inspection
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4. Discuss about the physical principles of liquid penetrant testing with neat sketch. Also
bring out the advantages and limitations of the liquid penetrant testing.
Liquid penetrant inspection is a nondestructive test method which does not harm the
samples or parts being inspected. The test is very effective in detecting porosity, cracks,
fractures, laps, seams and other flaws that are open to the surface of the test piece and may be
caused by fatigue, impact, quenching, machining, grinding, forging, bursts, shrinkage or
overload. As a result, it is often used on lots of machined parts, as well as weldments,
manufactured products, castings, forgings and other items that will be placed into service.
Liquid penetrant inspection can be used successfully on nonporous and fairly smooth
materials such as metals, glass, plastics and fired ceramics.
The Process:
The testing process can be broken down into the following distinct steps:
1. Pre-cleaning
2. Penetrant application
3. Penetrant dwell time
4. Penetrant removal
5. Developer application
6. Developer dwell time
7. Inspection
8. Post-cleaning
Pre-cleaning. The very first step is a thorough surface cleaning to be sure the test piece
is free of oil, grease, water, heat-treat scale, paint, plating and other contaminants that
may prevent liquid penetrant from entering flaws.
Penetrant application. Both the visible and fluorescent dye penetrants can be applied to
the test sample by spraying, brushing or immersing the part in a penetrant bath.
Penetrant dwell time. The liquid penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to
allow the liquid to seep into any surface openings or defects. The total time that this
liquid is in contact with the surface of the sample is called the penetrant dwell time.
Dwell time varies for different types of penetrants and is generally dictated by
the test specifications called out for the testing. The surface finish, temperature and
type of the material also will affect dwell requirements.
Penetrant removal. After the dwell time has elapsed, the excess liquid penetrant is
carefully removed from the surface to avoid removing any of the captured penetrant
from the flaw or defect. When working with a visible dye, excess penetrant is usually
removed with a solvent.
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5. (i) Explain about various types of developers. (ii) List out various characteristics of
developers.
Developers
The role of the developer is to pull the trapped penetrant material out of defects and
spread it out on the surface of the part so it can be seen by an inspector. The
fine developer particles both reflect and refract the incident ultraviolet light, allowing more of
it to interact with the penetrant, causing more efficient fluorescence. The developer also
allows more light to be emitted through the same mechanism. This is why indications are
brighter than the penetrant itself under UV light. Another function that some developers
perform is to create a white background so there is a greater degree of contrast between
the indication and the surrounding background
.
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Developer Forms:
The AMS 2644 and Mil-I-25135 classify developers into six standard forms. These forms are
listed below:
Form a - Dry Powder
Form b - Water Soluble
Form c - Water Suspendable
Form d - Nonaqueous
Type 1 Fluorescent
(Solvent Based)
Form e - Nonaqueous
Type 2 Visible Dye (Solvent Based)
Form f - Special Applications
Dry Powder:
Dry powder developer is generally considered to be the least sensitive but it is
inexpensive to use and easy to apply. Dry developers are white, fluffy powders that can be
applied to a thoroughly dry surface in a number of ways. The developer can be applied by
dipping parts in a container of developer, or by using a puffer to dust parts with the developer.
Parts can also be placed in a dust cabinet where the developer is blown around and allowed
to settle on the part. Electrostatic powder spray guns are also available to apply the developer.
The goal is to allow the developer to come in contact with the whole inspection area. Unless
the part is electrostatically charged, the powder will only adhere to areas where
trapped penetrant has wet the surface of the part.
The penetrant will try to wet the surface of the penetrant particle and fill the voids
between the particles , which brings more penetrant to the surface of the part where it can be
seen. Since dry powder developers only stick to the area where penetrant is present, the dry
developer does not provide a uniform white background as the other forms of developers do.
Water Soluble:
Water soluble developers consist of a group of chemicals that are dissolved in water
and form a developer layer when the water is evaporated away. The best method for
applying water soluble developers is by spraying it on the part. The part can be wet or dry.
Dipping, pouring, or brushing the solution on to the surface is sometimes used but these
methods are less desirable. Aqueous developers contain wetting agents that cause the solution
to function much like dilute hydrophilic emulsifier and can lead to additional removal of
entrapped penetrant.
Drying is achieved by placing the wet but well drained part in a recirculating, warm air
dryer with the temperature held between 70 and 75°F. If the parts are not dried quickly, the
indications will will be blurred and indistinct. Properly developed parts will have an even,
pale white coating over the entire surface.
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Water Suspendable:
Water suspendable developers consist of insoluble developer particles suspended in
water. Water suspendable developers require frequent stirring or agitation to keep
the particles from settling out of suspension Water suspendable developers are applied to
parts in the same manner as water soluble developers. Parts coated with a water
suspendable developer must be forced dried just as parts coated with a water
soluble developer are forced dried. The surface of a part coated with a water
suspendable developer will have a slightly translucent white coating.
semiconductors. High resolution can be used to analyze the quality, shape, size and density of
quantum wells, wires and dots.
The TEM operates on the same basic principles as the light microscope but uses electrons
instead of light. Because the wavelength of electrons is much smaller than that of light, the
optimal resolution attainable for TEM images is many orders of magnitude better than that
from a light microscope.
PART B
1. What are the tools for material selection?
Materials selection process:
These problems can be avoided by adopting a rigorous approach to the materials selection
process, with an eye on selecting materials that optimize product performance reliability and
cost. The materials selection process for a component or joint between components involves
these steps:
1. Identify the design requirements
2. Identify the materials selection criteria.
3. Identify candidate materials.
4. Evaluate candidate materials.
5. Select materials.
While each step might seem obvious, there are many organizations that do not have the
structure in place to follow each step. Consequently, they end up selecting sub-optimum
materials. The remainder of this article gives a brief overview of each step of the materials
selection process. Future articles will provide more details about each step of the process.
Step 1: Identify the design requirements
The design requirements include the following items:
Performance requirements
Reliability requirements
Size, shape, and mass requirements
Cost requirements
Manufacturing and assembly requirements
Industry standards
Government regulations
Intellectual property requirements
Sustainability requirements
Identifying as many of the requirements as possible is critical for increasing the
likelihood of learning whether potential materials exist
Step 2: Identify materials selection criteria
The materials selection criteria are specific materials properties derived from the
requirements identified during Step 1. For example, for a component that must support a
specific load, the minimum yield stress that is required for the component’s material can be
determined. This will be one of the material selection criteria.
Step 3: Identify candidate materials
Use the materials selection criteria to rule out materials that will not satisfy all the
materials selection criteria. When evaluating whether a material might be appropriate for the
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application, be sure to consider the materials’ range of values for the properties of interest. Do
not rely upon nominal properties values.
Step 4: Evaluate candidate materials
There may be candidate materials for which there insufficient data available to indicate
whether the materials satisfy certain selection criteria. These materials will have to be
analyzed and tested to determine whether they do meet the selection criteria.
Want to learn more about metals engineering and component design? See our metallurgy
courses page for training options.
Step 5: Select materials
Select the materials that satisfy all the materials selection criteria at the lowest cost.
Remember, cost includes the cost of the material and the cost to fabricate a component or
form a joint between components.
In order to analyze a sample for its atomic constituents, it has to be atomized. The
atomizers most commonly used nowadays are flames and electrothermal (graphite tube)
atomizers. The atoms should then be irradiated by optical radiation, and the radiation source
could be an element-specific line radiation source or a continuum radiation source. The
radiation then passes through a monochromator in order to separate the element-specific
radiation from any other radiation emitted by the radiation source, which is finally measured
by a detector.
Atomizers:
The atomizers most commonly used nowadays are (spectroscopic) flames and
electrothermal (graphite tube) atomizers. Other atomizers, such as glow-discharge
atomization, hydride atomization, or cold-vapor atomization, might be used for special
purposes.
Flame atomizers:
The oldest and most commonly used atomizers in AAS are flames, principally the air-
acetylene flame with a temperature of about 2300 °C and the nitrous oxide[3] system (N2O)-
acetylene flame with a temperature of about 2700 °C. The latter flame, in addition, offers a
more reducing environment, being ideally suited for analytes with high affinity to oxygen.
Electrothermal atomizers:
The graphite tubes are heated via their ohmic resistance using a low-voltage high-
current power supply; the temperature in the individual stages can be controlled very closely,
and temperature ramps between the individual stages facilitate separation of sample
components.
By fixing the slit and rotating the dispersive element, the direction of the dispersed
light is turned so that the colour of the resulting monochromatic light changes: as you can see
in Figure 1 in the upper panel, the position of the dispersive element causes orange-red light
to exit the slit, while in the lower panel the dispersive element rotates so that the light exiting
the slit is cyan.
The Different Types Of Monochromators:
Monochromators can be divided into different types depending on the type of
dispersive element used and the optical arrangement of the system:
Prism monochromators:
The dispersive element in prism monochromators is a prism. Prisms have a high light
utilization efficiency and do not produce higher order light and very little stray light.
However, dispersion is dependent on wavelength (high for UV, low for IR) and temperature.
Grating monochromators:
The dispersive element in grating monochromators is a reflecting diffraction grating. It
provides a constant dispersion for all wavelengths and a low dependence on temperature.
However, they produce relatively large amounts of scattered light and require the use of filters
to block higher order light. Due to their superior dispersion properties, diffraction gratings
are often used in modern instruments.
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Monochromator Applications
Monochromators are commonly used in measurement devices such as spectrometers or
microplate readers. They are a popular device for wavelength selection in a range of detection
technologies, such as absorption and fluorescence intensity.
The electron gun generates electrons. Two sets of condenser lenses focus the electron
beam on the specimen and then into a thin tight beam.
To move electrons down the column, an accelerating voltage (mostly between 100 kV-
1000 kV) is applied between the tungsten filament and anode.
The specimen to be examined is made extremely thin, at least 200 times thinner than
those used in the optical microscope. Ultra-thin sections of 20-100 nm are cut which is
already placed on the specimen holder.
The electronic beam passes through the specimen and electrons are scattered
depending upon the thickness or refractive index of different parts of the specimen.
Types of Electron microscope
There are two types of electron microscopes, with different operating styles:
1. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
The transmission electron microscope is used to view thin specimens through which
electrons can pass generating a projection image.
The TEM is analogous in many ways to the conventional (compound) light
microscope.
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TEM is used, among other things, to image the interior of cells (in thin sections), the
structure of protein molecules (contrasted by metal shadowing), the organization of
molecules in viruses and cytoskeletal filaments (prepared by the negative staining
technique), and the arrangement of protein molecules in cell membranes (by freeze-
fracture).
2. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
2. Define spectrum.
A spectrum is a condition that is not limited to a specific set of values but can vary,
without gaps, across a continuum. The word was first used scientifically in optics to describe
the rainbow of colors in visible light after passing through a prism
measurements (which are repeated under the same conditions). Measurements can be both
accurate and precise, accurate but not precise, precise but not accurate, or neither.
9. Define scalar.
A scalar quantity is described completely by magnitude or numbers alone. Examples of
scalar quantities are length, mass, distance, energy, volume, etc.
PART B
Applications
Differential scanning calorimetry can be used to measure a number of characteristic
properties of a sample.
Glass transitions may occur as the temperature of an amorphous solid is increased.
These transitions appear as a step in the baseline of the recorded DSC signal.
As the temperature increases, an amorphous solid will become less viscous. At some
point the molecules may obtain enough freedom of motion to spontaneously arrange
themselves into a crystalline form.
Differential scanning calorimetry can also be used to obtain valuable thermodynamics
information about proteins. The thermodynamics analysis of proteins can reveal
important information about the global structure of proteins, and protein/ligand
interaction.
Description of DTA
The sample and the reference are placed symmetrically in the furnace. The furnace is
controlled under a temperature program and the temperature of the sample and the reference
are changed. During this process, a differential thermocouple is set up to detect the
temperature difference between the sample and the reference. Also, the sample temperature is
detected from the thermocouple on the sample side.
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Graph (a) shows the temperature change of the furnace, the reference and the sample
against time.Graph (b) shows the change in temperature difference (ΔT) against time detected
with the differential thermocouple.ΔT signal is referred to as the DTA signal. Matters that do
not change in the measurement temperature range (usually α-alumina) are used as reference.
When the furnace heating begins, the reference and the sample begin heating with a slight
delay depending on their respective heat capacity, and eventually heat up in according to the
furnace temperature.
ΔT changes until a static state is reached after the heating begins, and after achieving
stability, reaches a set amount compliant with the difference in heat capacity between the
sample and the reference. The signal at the static state is known as the baseline.
When the temperature rises and melting occurs in the sample, for example, the
temperature rise stops as shown in graph (a) and the ΔT increases. When the melting ends, the
temperature curve rapidly reverts to the baseline.
At this point, the ΔT signal reaches the peak, as shown in graph (b).
From this, we can detect the samplefs transition temperature and the reaction temperature
from the ΔT signal (In graph (b), the temperature difference due to the samplefs endothermic
change is shown as a negative direction and the temperature difference due to the samplefs
exothermic change is shown as a positive direction.
Applications
A DTA curve can be used only as a finger print for identification purposes but usually
the applications of this method are the determination of phase diagrams, heat change
measurements and decomposition in various atmospheres.
DTA is widely used in the pharmaceutical and food industries.
DTA may be used in cement chemistry, mineralogical research and in environmental
studies.
DTA curves may also be used to date bone remainsor to study archaeological
materials. Using DTA one can obtain liquidus & solidus lines of phase diagrams.
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There are several types of the probe for TMA. The choice is dependent on the
measurement purpose.
(a) Expansion/Compression Probe:
It is used for the measurement of the deformation by the thermal expansion and the
transition of the sample under the compressed force is applied.
(b) Penetration Probe:
It is used for the measurement of the softening temperature.
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The materials of probes are quartz glass, alumina, and metals. The choice is dependent
on thetemperature range and/or the measurement purpose. In case of the TMA which enables
the dynamic force control on top of the static force control, the measurement of the Stress-
Strain, the Creep, the stress relaxation, and the DMA measurements can be performed.
DMA is used for measurement of various types of polymer materials using different
deformation modes. There are tension, compression, dual cantilever bending, 3-point bending
and shear modes, and the most suitable type should be selected depending on the sample
shape, modulus and measurement purpose.
Viscoelastic properties such as:
-Storage modulus: E', G' (purely elastic component)
-Loss modulus: E", G" (purely viscous component)
-Loss tangent: tanδ (=E"/E'),
can be measured by DMA, and their dependence on temperature and frequency can be
analyzed.
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Abbrev TA Measurement
Property Unit
. Technique
Differential
DSC Scanning Enthalpy W = J/sec
Calorimetry
Thermomechanical
TMA Deformation meter
Analysis
Dynamic
DMA Mechanical Elasticity Pa = N/m2
Analysis
The main application areas of DSC concern the determination of the melting, the glass
transition, the crystallization, the chemical reactions, the thermal history, and the specific heat
capacity. Though the sublimation, the evaporation, and the thermal decomposition can also be
measured, this technique is not usually used because of the mass change by the
decomposition and the corrosion of the sensor by the decomposed gas.
TG measures the mass changes by the evaporation, the dehydration, the
decomposition, and the oxidation reaction. By the simultaneous measurement by TG
connected with DTA, the exothermic and the endothermic phenomena can be measured from
DTA.
Thermocouple electromotive force. ⚪:
Measurement Object Δ:
Some compatible —:
Not measured
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Technique
Phenomenon/Property
DSC TG TMA DMA
Melting ⚪ — Δ Δ
Glass transition ⚪ — ⚪ ⚪
Crystallization ⚪ — Δ ⚪
Reaction (Curing /
⚪ Δ ⚪ ⚪
Polymerization)
Sublimation /
Evaporation / Δ ⚪ — —
Dehydration
Thermal decomposition Δ ⚪ — —
Thermal expansion /
— — ⚪ —
Thermal shrinkage
Thermal history ⚪ — ⚪ ⚪