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ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai


Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

QUESTION BANK
OML751 - TESTING OF MATERIALS

UNIT-I INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL TESTING


PART-A
1. Classify material testings
Materials testing breaks down into five major categories: mechanical testing; testing
for thermal properties; testing for electrical properties; testing for resistance to corrosion,
radiation, and biological deterioration; and nondestructive testing.

2. State the different types of materials used in Engineering applications


 Metals and alloys.
 Ferrous metals.
 Non ferrous metals.
 Non metals.
 Ceramics.
 Polymers.
 Composites.
 Semi conductors.

3. What is the need of testings in materials


The quality of a material going into a manufactured product is as important as the
reliability of the production process. Materials testing helps us to understand and
quantify whether a specific material or treatment is suitable for a particular application.

4. On what criteria the materials were selected for suitable applications


 Availability. One of the baseline requirements for any material is consistently
reliable availability
 Design flexibility
 Cost per unit
 Performance properties
 Regulatory compliance
 Biocompatibility
 Aesthetics and usability
 Manufacturing efficiency
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

5. List the different types of mechanical testings


 Mechanical properties
 Tensile testing
 Impact of strength
 Hardness testing
 Corrosion resistance

6. State some material testing organizations


 american Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE)
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
 ASTM International.

7. Why standards are required for conducting test in materials


The quality of a material going into a manufactured product is as important as the
reliability of the production process. Materials testing helps us to understand and quantify
whether a specific material or treatment is suitable for a particular application.

8. List out some standards for conducing tensile test in ferrous materials
 Standard. ASTM E8 / E8M is one of the most common test method for determining the
tensile properties of metallic materials, with the other being ASTM A370.
 IS 1608 (2005): Mechanical testing of metals - Tensile Testing
 ISO 7500-1 :1986, Metallic materials - Verification of static uniaxial testing machines
-
9. List out some standards for conducing tensile test in polymer materials
 Ash Content ASTM D5630, D2584, ISO 3451
 Barcol Hardness ASTM D2583
 Brittleness Temperature ASTM D746 ISO 974
 Brookfield Viscosity (Relative Viscosity of Polyamides) ASTM D789, D4878
 Capillary Rheometry Shear Sweep ASTM D3835, ISO 11443
 Capillary Rheometry Thermal Stability ASTM D3835, ISO 11443
 Carbon Black Content ASTM D1603
 Charpy Impact ISO 179
 Chemical Compatibility ASTM D543
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

10. List out some standards for conducing impact test in materials
ASTM A370
EN 10045-1
ISO 148
MPIF Standard 40

PART-B
1. Explain the different types of material testings in details
Materials testing, measurement of the characteristics and behaviour of such substances
as metals, ceramics, or plastics under various conditions. The data thus obtained can be used
in specifying the suitability of materials for various applications
e.g., building or aircraft construction, machinery, or packaging. A full- or small-scale
model of a proposed machine or structure may be tested. Alternatively, investigators may
construct mathematical models that utilize known material characteristics and behaviour to
predict capabilities of the structure.
Materials testing breaks down into five major categories: mechanical testing; testing
for thermal properties; testing for electrical properties; testing for resistance to corrosion,
radiation, and biological deterioration; and nondestructive testing. Standard test methods have
been established by such national and international bodies as the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO), with headquarters in Geneva, and the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM), Philadelphia.
Mechanical testing
Structures and machines, or their components, fail because of fracture or excessive
deformation. In attempting to prevent such failure, the designer estimates how much stress
(load per unit area) can be anticipated, and specifies materials that can withstand expected
stresses. A stress analysis, accomplished either experimentally or by means of a mathematical
model, indicates expected areas of high stress in a machine or structure. Mechanical property
tests, carried out experimentally, indicate which materials may safely be employed

Testing of materials
1. Destructive Testing
2. Non-Destructive Testing.
Destructive testing
 The destructive test is meant to test the material strength.
 The specimen which is under destructive test subjected to the fracture.
 The destructive test intended to study the behaviour of the metal under different
loading conditions.
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Non-Destructive testing
 The Non-destructive tests are employed for the finished products.
 The finished product which is under Non-destructive test will not be subjected to the
fracture.
 The Non-destructive test intended to know the internal defects of the finished product.
Material Testing Methods
Classification of Destructive Testing
1. Static Testing
2. Impact Testing
3. Cyclic Testing
Static Testing:
Where the load is applied gradually in static testing. different material testing methods
available under static testing. they are listed below.
 Tension Test
 Compression Test
 Shear Test
 Hardness Test
 Creep Test
Impact (Dynamic) Testing
When the given specimen is subjected to shock loads then it is known as the impact load
testing or the dynamic load testing.
 Charpy Test
 Izoid Test
Cyclic Testing
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Classification of Non-Destructive Testing


1. Visual inspection
2. Penetrant test
3. Magnetic detection
4. Ultrasonic test
5. Radiography test

2. Explain the role of engineers for the selection of materials in engineering applications
Engineering design relates to the design of engineered artifacts formed by materials of
various types. Materials play an important role during the entire design process. At the early
design stage, materials may achieve some of the required functions. Hence, designers may
need to identify materials with specific functionalities in order to find feasible design
concepts. ‘Materials identification’ is used to refer to this materials-related design activity.
At the downstream design stages, when the physical structure for a design has been
determined, materials with specific properties should be selected from a set of candidates,
which is commonly referred to as ‘materials selection’.In this paper, an overview of recent
research in materials identification and materials selection is conducted, that provides
materials support for the early and downstream stages of engineering design respectively.
The purpose of this work is to provide a documentary of latest research efforts in this
area, to recognize the importance of materials identification and selection for engineering
design problem solving, as well as to propose prospects of future research, so that more effort
can be spent on those lacking materials-related research.
Facts to Consider When Selecting Materials
Engineering companies Perth-wide often come to us to gain our professional advice on
what materials to use for their specific projects. And, we are more than happy to help. When
it comes to metal and stainless-steel fabrication, Perth clients from various industries have
benefited from our professional opinions and technical expertise over the years.
The Right Material Selection Ensures Design Integrity
The actual integrity of a design is only ensured after an in-depth systemic material
selection is carried out. Otherwise, the result could be extremely susceptible to failures.
Throughout the entire selection process, materials are assessed in term of strength, fatigue
endurance and so on depending on the future application. This will make sure that the design
is more likely to succeed in the long term in addition to ensuring that the design is technically
fit for purpose
Ensuring Structural Integrity for a Lifetime in the Field
In terms of stainless-steel fabrication, Perth industries need their products to last. Our
climate here is particularly harsh and unforgiving so the right materials need to be used in all
applications. If you are in doubt with regards to what materials to use for your particular
project, just leave it in our capable hands. We fully understand that even the greatest design
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

may fail in its actual working environment. For example, it could be chemically damaged or
be subjected to a higher load than is usually expected. Bearing this in mind, the best materials
to maintain structural integrity in all conditions should be used.
Design Flexibility
Another aspect you need to consider is that material selection gives your designer more
flexibility when it comes to the design process. He could create various different designs so
that he can evaluate how each material performs.
Environmental impact
As he finds how each material acts, he can modify the process or design to make
adjustments and improvements. This is especially helpful to avoid any failures in the future.

3. Explain testing organizations and its committees in detail


Materials testing is used to assess product quality, functionality, safety, reliability and
toxicity of both materials and electronic devices. Some applications of materials testing
include defect detection, failure analysis, material development, basic materials science
research, and the verification of material properties for application trials. This is a list of
organizations and companies that publish materials testing standards or offer materials testing
laboratory services.
International organizations for materials testing:
 These organizations create materials testing standards or conduct active research in the
fields of materials analysis and reliability testing.
 American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE)
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
 ASTM International
 Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (German: Bundesanstalt für
Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM))
 Cooper Research Technology
 Electrostatic Discharge Association (ESDA)
 European Reference Materials
 Instron
 International Committee for Non Destructive Testing (ICNDT)
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 ISTFA
 MTS Systems Corporation
 Nadcap
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

 National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)


 Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
 XYZTEC
 Zwick Roell Group
Global research laboratories for materials testing:
These organizations provide materials testing laboratory services.
 Evans Analytical Group (EAG)
 FADI-AMT; Advanced Material Testing
 FEI Company
 ISTI
 Lucideon
 Metallurgical Services in Mumbai, India
 Micom Laboratories
 Razi Metallurgical Research Center (RMRC)
 Rocky Mountain Laboratories

4. State the advantages of testings in detail


The main advantage of materials testing is that it gives you an understanding of how
your product will behave whilst in use. You will understand the strength or pressure that your
sample can endure, therefore knowing its exact point of failure.
Materials testing reduces the risk of costly implications in the future, such as legal cases and
product recalls, both of which can be devasting for company reputations.
In its simplest form, material testing identifies the exact composition of a material
sample, assesses its strength, or discovers why the material (or product) failed whilst in use.
Materials, or samples, can be tested to certain UK or international standards to ensure they
meet the necessary quality and legal requirements.

5. Explain in detail the different types of standards used for material testing
Material Testing Standards provide a unified reference for test methods, equipment,
and industry-specific usage scenarios and specifications for a wide array of materials and test
environments. Ranging from medical devices that are implanted within a patient's body, to
key mechanical components relied upon by planes and automobiles, these standards provide
vital information and instructions on how to attain it for many different industries.
Metallic Material Testing Standards:
Metallic Material Testing Standards focus on hardness, tensile, and fatigue testing,
approaching the issues from multiple angles to provide a range of information. In addition,
metallic material testing standards cover corrosion testing, weld testing, and other areas of
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

interest. Together, standardized testing provides valuable information to determine the


reliability of metallic materials and the products and structures using them.
Medical Material Testing Standards:
Medical Materials Testing addresses the testing and materials and products that are
designed to be compatible with the human body, including dental materials, joint prostheses,
and other medical devices that will contact blood or other tissues. Given the vital nature of
medical devices, testing procedures for both the devices and their components is critical for
their safety and ongoing reliability.
Flammable Material Testing Standards:
Fire related Material Testing Standards cover test procedures for a range of industries.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), aerospace, building construction materials, insulation,
and others all rely on strict material testing procedures. These material testing standards also
detail laboratory testing procedures to measure flammability, burning characteristics, heat
transfer, lower flammability limit (LFL), lower explosive limit (LEL), and other vital
characteristics.
Radiation Hardness Material Testing Standards:
Radiation-Hardness Standards provide guides and standard practices for testing the
effects of radiation on electronics, their components, and their systems. In addition to
electronics, some of these methods can be applied to other materials. These standards address
both the source of the radiation and the detector, as well as the test environment and
applicability of the results.
Material Test Methods:
Material Testing Standards are diverse in their focus, serving as integral parts of many
industries and providing the standard test methods for materials of every sort. Polymers,
paints, rubber, ceramics, glass, and other materials are covered here, as well as industry
specific tests such as those for the nuclear, shipping, or the aerospace industries.
Concrete Testing:
Concrete Testing Standards cover a wide variety of topics from strength requirements,
sampling procedure, and material requirements. Concrete is one of the most widely-used
building materials and has a variety of applications that are covered by testing standards.
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

UNIT-II MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING


PART-A
1. What is meant by mechanical properties of materials?
Mechanical properties are whose characteristics of material that describe its behavior
under the action of external forces.

2. Distinguish between elasticity and plasticity.


Elasticity is the property of the material by virtue of which it is able to retain its
original shape and size after the removal of load. Plasticity is the property of the material by
virtue of which a permanent deformation takes place whenever it is subjected to the action of
external forces.

3. What are the factors affecting mechanical properties?


(i) Grain size
(ii) Heat treatment
(iii) Atmospheric exposure
(iv) low and high temperature.

4. Define the terms Slip and Twinning.


Slip may be defined as the sliding of blocks of the crystal over one another along
definite crystallographic planes called Slip planes. is the process in which the atoms in a part
of a crystal subjected to stress, rearrange themselves so that one part of the crystal becomes a
mirror image of the other part.

5. Differentiate between ductility and malleability.


Ductility is the property of the material by virtue of which it can be drawn into wires
before rupture takes place. Malleability is the property of the material by virtue of which it
can withstand deformation under compression without rupture.

6. Define the terms brittleness and hardness.


Brittleness is the property of the material by virtue of which it can withstand
deformation under compression without rupture. Hardness is the property of the material by
virtue of which it is able to resist abrasive indentation, machining, scratching.

7. What do you mean by toughness and stiffness?


Toughness is the property of the material by virtue of which it can absorb maximum
energy before fracture takes place. Stiffness is the property of the material by virtue of which
it resists deformation.
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

8. List any four technological properties of metals.


 Machinability,
 Cast ability,
 Weldability,
 Formability or Workability.

9. What is meant by fracture?


Fracture is the mechanical failure of the material which will produce the separation or
fragmentation of a solid into two or more parts under the action of stresses.

10. List the different types of fracture in a material.


 Brittle Fracture,
 Ductile Fracture,
 Fatigue Fracture,
 Creep Fracture.

11. What are the factors affecting the creep?


 Grain,
 Thermal stability of the micro structure,
 Chemical reactions,
 Prior strain.

12. List some important destructive tests carried out on a material.


 Tensile test,
 Impact test,
 Fatigue test,
 Bend test,
 Torsion test,
 Creep test.

13. Define the term notch sensitivity.


The notch sensitivity refers to the tendency of some normal ductile material to behave
like brittle material in the presence of notches.

14. Define endurance limit in fatigue test.


Endurance limit is defined as the value of stress below which the material will not fail
even when it is loaded for infinite no. of cycles.
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

15. What are the properties are determined from tension testing of metallic products?
i. Limit of proportionality
ii. Yield strength
iii. Maximum tensile strength
iv. Breaking strength
v. Percentage elongation
vi. Modulus of elasticity
16. How will you express the deformation characteristics of a material through tension
test?
The deformation characteristics of a material through tension test expressed as the
stress strain curve. With the help of stress strain curve, the various tensile properties such as
elastic stress, strain yield strength, young’s modulus, etc are calculated.

17. Why are impact specimens notched?


The impact specimens are notched because the impact test also indicates the notch
sensitivity of a material. ii. The notch sensitivity refers to the tendency of some normal ductile
materials to behave the like a brittle material in the presence of notches.

18. What are slip bands?


Slip bands are made up of several slip planes. They indicate that the atomic planes
within the crystal have sheared with respect to each other.

19. What is creep?


The creep is defined as the property of material by virtue of which it deforms
continuously under a steady load.

20. What are the different types of loadings available for fatigue testing?
 Shock or impact load
 Static load
 Random load
 Repeated or reversed load.

PART-B
1. Explain the characteristic of ductile fracture and brittle fracture? Explain the testing
Fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the
action of stress. The fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain
displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops perpendicular
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

to the surface, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops
tangentially, it is called a shear crack, slip band or dislocation.
Brittle fractures occur with no apparent deformation before fracture. Ductile fractures
occur after visible deformation. Fracture strength, or breaking strength, is the stress when a
specimen fails or fractures. A detailed understanding of how fracture occurs in materials may
be assisted by the study of fracture mechanics.
Types:
1. Brittle:
In brittle fracture, no apparent plastic deformation takes place before fracture. Brittle
fracture typically involves little energy absorption and occurs at high speeds up to 2133.6 m/s
(7000 ft/s) in steel. In most cases brittle fracture will continue even when loading is
discontinued.
In brittle crystalline materials, fracture can occur by cleavage as the result of tensile
stress acting normal to crystallographic planes with low bonding (cleavage planes).
In amorphous solids, by contrast, the lack of a crystalline structure results in a conchoidal
fracture, with cracks proceeding normal to the applied tension.
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

2. Ductile:
In ductile fracture, extensive plastic deformation (necking) takes place before fracture.
The terms "rupture" and "ductile rupture" describe the ultimate failure of ductile materials
loaded in tension. The extensive plasticity causes the crack to propagate slowly due to the
absorption of a large amount of energy before fracture.
Because ductile rupture involves a high degree of plastic deformation, the fracture
behavior of a propagating crack as modeled above changes fundamentally. Some of the
energy from stress concentrations at the crack tips is dissipated by plastic deformation ahead
of the crack as it propagates.

The basic steps in ductile fracture are void formation, void coalescence (also known as
crack formation), crack propagation, and failure, often resulting in a cup-and-cone shaped
failure surface. Voids typically coalesce around precipitates, secondary phases, inclusions,
and at grain boundaries in the material. Ductile fracture is typically transgranular and
deformation due to dislocation slip can cause the shear lip characteristic of cup and cone
fracture.

2. Procedure for Vickers hardness testing


The Vickers hardness test is suitable for a wide range of applications, including micro
hardness testing. The Vickers hardness test is a versatile hardness test method, used for both
macro and micro hardness testing. It has a broad load range, and is suitable for a wide range
of applications and materials.
The Vickers hardness test is often regarded as easier to use than other hardness tests:
The process can be performed on a universal or micro hardness tester; the required
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

calculations are independent of the size of the indenter; and the same indenter (a pyramidal
diamond) can be used for all materials, irrespective of hardness.
The Vickers hardness test:
 Ideal for micro hardness testing
 Can be used for case hardness depth measurement, Jominy testing and hardness testing
of welds
 Standards: ASTM E384, ISO 6507 and JIS Z 2244
The Vickers Hardness calculation
The Vickers Hardness (HV) is calculated by optically measuring the diagonal lengths of
the impression left by the indenter. The measurements are converted to HV using a table or
formula.
 Load range: From 10 gf up to 100 kgf
Diagram:
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

How To Measure Vickers Hardness In 7 Steps:


 using a Duramin-40 hardness testing machine
1. Place your sample on the stage.
2. Click and drag the mouse to move the sample into position.
3. Scroll to focus.
4. Select the test method and load.
5. Choose an objective and job name.
6. Use the overview camera to position the indenter.
7. Start the test.

3. What does impact test signify? Explain impact Izod test with neat sketches.
An impact test is a technique for determining the behavior of material subjected to
shock loading in:
 Bending
 Tension
 Torsion
This test is designed to determine how a specimen of a known material will respond to
a suddenly applied stress. The test ascertains whether the material is tough or brittle.
It is mostly used to test the toughness of metals, but similar tests are used for polymers,
ceramics and composites. Metal industry sectors that use the impact test include:
 Oil and gas
 Aerospace
 Power generation
 Automotive
 Nuclear
Impact testing is also known as ASTM E23.
Izod impact strength test:
The Izod impact strength test is an ASTM standard method of determining the impact
resistance of materials. A pivoting arm is raised to a specific height (constant potential
energy) and then released. The arm swings down hitting a notched sample, breaking the
specimen. The energy absorbed by the sample is calculated from the height the arm swings to
after hitting the sample. A notched sample is generally used to determine impact energy and
notch sensitivity.
The test is similar to the Charpy impact test but uses a different arrangement of the
specimen under test. The Izod impact test differs from the Charpy impact test in that the
sample is held in a cantilevered beam configuration as opposed to a three-point bending
configuration.
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

The need for Impact tests:


Impact, by definition, is a large force applied for a very short time, resulting in a
sudden transfer of momentum and energy, and its effect is different when the same amount of
energy is transferred more gradually. Everyday engineering structures are subjected to it and
may develop cracks that, over time, propagate to a point where catastrophic failure would
result.

Impact tests are used in comparing the shear fracture toughness of various materials


under the same test conditions, or of one material versus temperature to determine its ductile-
to-brittle transition temperature where a steep descent in impact strength with decreasing
temperature is observed.
A material's toughness is a factor of its ability to absorb energy during relatively slow
plastic deformation, though the rate at which strain occurs matters. Brittle materials have low
toughness as a result of the small amount of plastic deformation they can endure at any rate.
However, ductile materials may behave like brittle materials under high-energy impact, hence
the need for this kind of test.
The test conditions are governed by many variables, most importantly:
 the dimensions of the usually rectangular cross section of the sample below the notch;
 the height of the hammer at the start position, determining its velocity at impact;
 the mass of the hammer which together with the velocity determines its kinetic energy
at impact;
 the sharpness, or tip curvature, of the notch;
 the temperature of the sample.
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

4. What do you mean by engineering stresses and true stresses? Explain.


In engineering and materials science, stress–strain curve for a material gives the
relationship between stress and strain. That is obtained by gradually applying load to a test
coupon and measuring the deformation from tensile testing, which the stress and strain can be
determined. These curves reveal many of properties of materials, such as the Young’s
modulus, the yield strength, the ultimate tensile strength and so on.

Stress/Strain graph of a tension test experiment.


Stress-strain curve for material is plotted by elongating the sample and recording the stress
variation with strain until the sample fractures. The strain is set to horizontal axis and stress is
set to vertical axis. It is often assumed that the cross-section area of the material does not
change during the whole deformation process.
True stress is the applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional area (the changing area
with time) of material. Engineering stress is the applied load divided by the original cross-
sectional area of material. Also known as nominal stress.
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

 This shows the cross-section of the specimen has changed during the experiment
process.
 The cross-section does not remain constantly and will be different from the given value
of diameter. This stress is called True Stress. Applied force is divided by the area of
the section at that instant.
 Tensile Testing
 Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials science and
engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure.
Fracture Behavior:
 Fracture behavior is considered under two main material behaviours which are called
Ductile and Brittle materials.

Ductile material:
Significant plastic deformation and energy absorption (toughness) reveals before
fracture. Characteristic feature of ductile material is necking before material failure.
Brittle material:
Little plastic deformation or energy absorption reveals before fracture. Characteristic
feature of brittle materials is different compare to ductile materials. Brittle materials fracture
without any necking.
Engineering stress: 
Engineering stress is the applied load divided by the original cross-sectional area of a
material. Also known as nominal stress.
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True stress:
True stress is the applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional area (the changing
area with respect to time) of the specimen at that load.
Engineering strain:
Engineering strain is the amount that a material deforms per unit length in a tensile test.
Also known as nominal strain.
True strain:
True strain equals the natural log of the quotient of current length over the original
length.

5. Explain Brinell hardness test (HB)


The Brinell scale characterizes the indentation hardness of materials through the scale of
penetration of an indenter, loaded on a material test-piece. It is one of several definitions of
hardness in materials science.
Test details
The typical test uses a 10 mm (0.39 in) diameter steel ball as an indenter with a
3,000 kgf (29.42 kN; 6,614 lbf) force. For softer materials, a smaller force is used; for harder
materials, a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. The indentation is measured
and hardness calculated as:

where:
BHN = Brinell Hardness Number (kgf/mm2)
P = applied load in kilogram-force (kgf)
D = diameter of indenter (mm)
d = diameter of indentation (mm)
Brinell hardness is sometimes quoted in megapascals; the Brinell hardness number is
multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity, 9.80665 m/s2, to convert it to megapascals.
The BHN can be converted into the ultimate tensile strength (UTS), although the relationship
is dependent on the material, and therefore determined empirically. The relationship is based
on Meyer's index (n) from Meyer's law. If Meyer's index is less than 2.2 then the ratio of UTS
to BHN is 0.36. If Meyer's index is greater than 2.2, then the ratio increases.
BHN is designated by the most commonly used test standards (ASTM E10-14and ISO
6506–1:2005) as HBW (H from hardness, B from brinell and W from the material of the
indenter, tungsten (wolfram) carbide).
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HBW is calculated in both standards using the SI units as

where:
F = applied load (newtons)
D = diameter of indenter (mm)
d = diameter of indentation (mm)
Standards:
International (ISO) and European (CEN) Standard
 EN ISO 6506-1:2014: Metallic materials – Brinell hardness test – Part 1: test method
 EN ISO 6506-2:2017: Metallic materials – Brinell hardness test – Part 2: verification
and calibration of testing machine
 EN ISO 6506-3:2014: Metallic materials – Brinell hardness test – Part 3: calibration of
reference blocks
 EN ISO 6506-4:2014: Metallic materials – Brinell hardness test – Part 4: Table of
hardness values
 US standard (ASTM International)
 ASTM E10-14: Standard method for Brinell hardness of metallic materials
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UNIT-III NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING


Part-A
1. Narrate the importance of using NDT.
NDT plays a vital role in industries such as aerospace, pipelines, bridges, refineries
and oil platforms as well as power stations as it can help prevent failures that could have an
adverse impact on safety, reliability, and the environment. It is an important process that
underpins all of their operations. However, in order to utilize it effectively, a comprehensive
understanding of various methods available, their advantages and disadvantages and the
knowledge of different specifications and relevant standards is crucial.

2. List out the service conditions that leads to failure of a material.


The usual causes of material failure are incorrect materials selection, incorrect
processing, incorrect manufacturing procedures, inadequate design or incorrect use. Fracture
is the separation of a body into two or more pieces as a result of an imposed stress.

3. Visual testing is inherently part of all other NDT methods. Justify the Statement.
Visual Testing (VT) is based on the inspection for flaws that are visible to the
naked eye and is the most commonly used NDT method across all industries. It allows for
a feasible and fast control of quality at every step of the fabrication or maintenance process.
Visual Testing (VT) is used to detect visible flaws such as deformation, welding defects and
corrosion. Many tools can be used during the inspection such as a ruler, gauges, cameras, etc.

4. Discuss the objectives of non-destructive testing.


Many NDT techniques are capable of locating defects and determining the features of
the defects such as size, shape, and orientation. The purpose of NDT is to inspect a
component in a safe, reliable, and cost effective manner without causing damage to the
equipment or shutting down plant operations.

5. List any four unattractive features of non-destructive testing.


These techniques are:
 Radiography.
 Magnetic particle crack detection.
 Dye penetrant testing.
 Ultrasonic flaw detection.
 Eddy current and electromagnetic testing.
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6. Name two of the NDT techniques that can be used to detect internal defects.
Some of the different techniques for detecting internal defects are: Eddy Current
Testing (ET) but only near surface defects; • Magnetic Testing (MT) but only near surface
defects; • Radiographic Testing (RT); • Resonant Testing; • Thermographic Testing (only
near surface defects); • Ultrasonic Testing (UT).

7. Compare destructive testing and non-destructive testing.

6.

8. Examine the factors affecting mechanical properties of materials.


The mechanical properties of materials are affected by various factors
1. Grain size
2. Heat treatment
3. Atmospherics exposure
4. Low and high temperature

9. Express about visual inspection techniques.


Visual Inspection (VI), or visual testing (VT), is the oldest and most basic method of
inspection. In its simplest form, visual inspection is the process of examining a component or
piece of equipment using one's naked eye to look for flaws. Optical aids such as illuminators,
mirrors, borescopes, etc
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10. Define the principle of LPT.


The principle of liquid penetrant testing is that the liquid penetrant is drawn into the
surface-breaking crack by capillary action and excess surface penetrant is then removed; a
developer (typically a dry powder) is then applied to the surface, to draw out the penetrant in
the crack and produce a surface indication.

11. Name the list of optical aids used for visual inspection.
Optical aids include low-power magnifiers, microscopes, telescopes and also specialised
devices such as boroscopes, endoscopes and other fibre-optic devices for the inspection of
restricted access areas. These devices can also be used with television camera systems.

12. Generalize the advantages and disadvantages of visual inspection.


Advantages of Visual Inspection Techniques:
 Inexpensive
 Little to no equipment needed
 Easy to train
 Portable
 Minimum Part Preparation
Disadvantages of Visual Inspection Techniques:
 Surface indications only
 Generally only able to detect large flaws
 Possible misinterpretation of flaws

13. What is liquid penetrant testing?


Liquid penetrant testing is a nondestructive material examination procedure used to
check for deficiencies such as cracks by spreading a thin liquid dye onto the material's
surface, followed by the application of a developer. It is a common method used to check for
deficiencies in welds, pipes, bars and other materials.

14. List the types of Liquid Penetrant Testing.


Liquid penetrant testing developer consists of 5 different types as following:
 Dry powder (fine powder form)
 water soluble (used for liquid dip tanks application)
 water suspensible (used for liquid dip tanks application)
 nonaqueous - for fluorescent (aerosol spray can)
 nonaqueous - for Visible (aerosol spray can)
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15. Discuss various methods of cleaning used for surface preparation in Liquid
Penetrant Testing.
The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil, grease or any loose scale that
could either keep penetrant out of a defect or cause irrelevant or false indications. Cleaning
methods may include solvents, alkaline cleaning steps, vapour degreasing, or media blasting.

16. Define the terms "Dwell time and Developing time".


The penetrant is allowed "dwell time" to soak into any flaws (generally 5 to 30
minutes). The dwell time mainly depends upon the penetrant being used, the material being
tested and the size of flaws sought. As expected, smaller flaws require a longer penetration
time.
The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a period of time sufficient to
permit the extraction of the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This development time
is usually a minimum of 10 minutes.  Significantly longer times may be necessary for tight
cracks.

17. Magnetic particle inspection cannot be used to detect internal defects. Why?
Magnetic powder techniques cannot be recommended for the detection of internal
defects because the possibility of a defect indication rapidly decreases when the defect is
more than 0.2 mm below the surface. In spite of optimum magnetization, cases can occur
where it is difficult to generate the force required for a positive defect indication.

18. List the essential characteristics of magnetic particles


 size
 shape
 density
 composition and synthesis methods (polymer-based, non-polymeric)
 surface properties (exposed iron oxide, hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity,)
 functional properpties and coatings available
 autofluorescence and background signal in chemiluminescence-based assays

19. What is the size range of dry particle powder?


Dry particle powder is basically applied in the form of a spray or a cloud. This powder
is designed to be seen in white light. The particle size of dry particle powder is 5 to 170
micrometers.

20. Magnetic particles with fluorescent coating are seen under which light?
In magnetic particle testing, only ferrous materials can be tested using a magnetic
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particle test. The casting which is undergoing magnetic inspection, if it is coated with
fluorescence, then it has to be viewed in an ultraviolet light only.

21. Why is NDT important?


All equipment, products and materials have a standard design requirement and
projected life. However, sometimes due to the defects which may go undetected during the
production, fabrication or service delivery, they may need to be replaced or undergo extensive
repair, otherwise unsafe conditions or catastrophic failures might be the consequence of
neglecting their unfit conditions for service. The resulting cost, due to project shut down, can
be large in such cases.

22. What are the disadvantages of NDT?


 Some of the tests can only be used on materials that are conductive
 To carry out some tests, such as magnetic testing or penetrant testing, the components
need to be cleaned before and after the test
 Electricity supply is required for some tests and this can be a limitation when operating
in remote areas
 Sometime the coating of the component or the finish of the surface area under
inspection can have a negative impact on the accuracy of the test result

23. When can NDT be used?


Non-destructive testing can be used in all stages of production, fabrication and service
in almost all industries, including engineering, aerospace, automotive, rail, construction and
power, including for the construction of a power plant, refinery, an offshore platform or in the
production line of a jet engine turbine or railway. Various methods of NDT, from the
conventional methods of visual testing, penetrant testing, magnetic particle
testing, radiographic Inspection and eddy current testing (ET) to advanced methods
of ultrasonic testing such as phased array ultrasonic testing and time of flight diffraction , are
utilised to ensure the safety, security and reliability of items throughout their life.

24. What are the advantages of NDT?


 Safety assurance
 Failure prevention
 Quality assurance and asset reliability
 Cost efficiency
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PART-B
1. Differentiate between destructive and non-destructive testing.
Non Destructive Testing  (NDT):
NDT is industrial method for analyzing the characteristics of material or finding the
discontinuities in the material & Weld joints, without damaging the material.
NDT is otherwise called as, Non Destructive Evaluation –NDE. Non Destructive Inspection
(NDI) and it a quantitative analysis method.
Destructive Testing :
Destructive Testing is a Qualitative analysis method, to find the quality of the material
such as Tensile strength, Elongation property, hardness value, Impact toughness, etc.
The above mentioned qualitative properties cannot be found using NDT methods. Because in
order to find the mechanical properties, it is required to apply load on the material. The load
deforms the material making them not usable.
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2. Explain the working principle and types of visual inspection technique with suitable
sketch.
Visual Inspection (VI), or visual testing (VT), is the oldest and most basic method
of inspection. In its simplest form, visual inspection is the process of examining a component
or piece of equipment using one’s naked eye to look for flaws. Optical aids such as
illuminators, mirrors, borescopes, etc. can be used to enhance one’s capability of visually
inspecting equipment. Cameras, computer systems, and digital image analyzers can also be
used to further the capabilities and benefits of visual inspection.
Visual inspection is routinely used for internal and external surface inspection of a
variety of equipment types including storage tanks, pressure vessels, piping, and other
equipment.
Visual inspection is simple and less technologically advanced compared to other
methods. Despite this, it still has several advantages over more high-tech methods. Compared
to other methods, it is far more cost effective because there is often no equipment required;
just the eyes of a knowledgeable inspector. For similar reasons, it is also one of the easiest
inspection techniques to perform.
Direct visual inspection:
In the case of direct visual inspection, the component to be inspected is tested by an
inspector. Testing, analysis and assessment are carried out by one person. The direct visual
inspection can be carried out with tools such as borescopes.
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Advantages of direct visual inspection with borescopes


 Non-destructive testing with simple technical equipment
 Mobile use
 Ideal for sampling
Disadvantages
 No comparable test results, since no documentation
 Depends on the experience / the ability of an individual to judge
Indirect visual inspection:
In indirect visual inspection, the area to be inspected is captured by a camera and
displayed on a monitor. The test image can be subjected to further work steps. For example,
the image can be enlarged, details can be visually highlighted for analysis reasons or the
image can be saved for documentation purposes. By displaying on a screen, several people
can judge.
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Advantages of indirect visual inspection


 Digitalization enables image optimization for better defect evaluation
 Secure 100 % controls
 Defects can be documented
 Better analysis possible
 Tracking of documented defects for process optimization
Disadvantages
 Acquisition costs higher than with direct visual inspection
 More space required than with direct visual inspection

3. Describe the following: (i) Application of visual inspection. (ii) Advantages and
disadvantages of visual inspection.
Applications of Visual Inspection:
 It is used to inspect whether there is a misalignment of parts in the equipment
 It checks for corrosion, rosion, cracks and deformities of machine components
 It inspect the plant components for any leakage or abnormal operation
 It is used to identify the defects in weldments
Advantages:
 Reduction in repair costs because of constant monitoring at every step of fabrication;
 Understanding of different degradation phenomena;
 Documentation of the observations using measurement tools;
 Very cost efficient and quick QC/QA technique.
 Non-destructive testing with simple technical equipment
 Mobile use
 Ideal for sampling
 Digitalization enables image optimization for better defect evaluation
 Secure 100 % controls
 Defects can be documented
 Better analysis possible
 Tracking of documented defects for process optimization
Disadvantages
 No comparable test results, since no documentation
 Depends on the experience / the ability of an individual to judge
 Acquisition costs higher than with direct visual inspection
 More space required than with direct visual inspection
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4. Discuss about the physical principles of liquid penetrant testing with neat sketch. Also
bring out the advantages and limitations of the liquid penetrant testing.
Liquid penetrant inspection is a nondestructive test method which does not harm the
samples or parts being inspected. The test is very effective in detecting porosity, cracks,
fractures, laps, seams and other flaws that are open to the surface of the test piece and may be
caused by fatigue, impact, quenching, machining, grinding, forging, bursts, shrinkage or
overload. As a result, it is often used on lots of machined parts, as well as weldments,
manufactured products, castings, forgings and other items that will be placed into service.
Liquid penetrant inspection can be used successfully on nonporous and fairly smooth
materials such as metals, glass, plastics and fired ceramics.
The Process:
The testing process can be broken down into the following distinct steps:
1. Pre-cleaning
2. Penetrant application
3. Penetrant dwell time
4. Penetrant removal
5. Developer application
6. Developer dwell time
7. Inspection
8. Post-cleaning

 Pre-cleaning. The very first step is a thorough surface cleaning to be sure the test piece
is free of oil, grease, water, heat-treat scale, paint, plating and other contaminants that
may prevent liquid penetrant from entering flaws.
 Penetrant application. Both the visible and fluorescent dye penetrants can be applied to
the test sample by spraying, brushing or immersing the part in a penetrant bath.
 Penetrant dwell time. The liquid penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to
allow the liquid to seep into any surface openings or defects. The total time that this
liquid is in contact with the surface of the sample is called the penetrant dwell time.
Dwell time varies for different types of penetrants and is generally dictated by
the test specifications called out for the testing. The surface finish, temperature and
type of the material also will affect dwell requirements.
 Penetrant removal. After the dwell time has elapsed, the excess liquid penetrant is
carefully removed from the surface to avoid removing any of the captured penetrant
from the flaw or defect. When working with a visible dye, excess penetrant is usually
removed with a solvent.
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 Developer application. A thin layer of developer is applied to the part to assist in


drawing penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible as
indications.
 Developer dwell time. The developer remains on the sample piece for the required
amount of time stated in the test specification to allow indications to develop prior to
inspection.
 Inspection. The inspection process is performed by trained and certified inspectors
using a visual examination. When working with fluorescent penetrants, indications
must be viewed under darkened conditions with a high-intensity UV lamp or black
light.
 Post-cleaning. The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the surface of the
sample to remove any penetrant testing residues.
Advantages and Limitations
 Liquid penetrant inspection is a relatively fast, easy and inexpensive means of surface
inspection. Large quantities of parts or materials can be inspected quickly. Parts of
almost any shape and size can be inspected, although the capacity of equipment and
the facility used for testing can create limitations. This type of testing can be
performed on most materials that are not extremely rough or porous. This process is
nondestructive so the test samples are not damaged during testing. LPI is highly
sensitive to small surface discontinuities. Indications are produced directly on the
surface of the part and provide a visual representation of the flaw.
 One of the major limitations of a penetrant inspection is that flaws must be open to the
surface. Also, surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity. Pre-
cleaning of parts is critical since contaminants can mask defects, and post-cleaning is
required to remove residues.

5. (i) Explain about various types of developers. (ii) List out various characteristics of
developers.
Developers
The role of the developer is to pull the trapped penetrant  material out of defects and
spread it out on the surface of the part so it can be seen by an inspector. The
fine developer particles both reflect and refract the incident ultraviolet light, allowing more of
it to interact with the penetrant, causing more efficient fluorescence. The developer also
allows more light to be emitted through the same mechanism. This is why indications are
brighter than the penetrant itself under UV light. Another function that some developers
perform is to create a white background so there is a greater degree of contrast between
the indication and the surrounding background
.
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Developer Forms:
The AMS 2644 and Mil-I-25135 classify developers into six standard forms. These forms are
listed below:
 Form a - Dry Powder
 Form b - Water Soluble
 Form c - Water Suspendable
 Form d - Nonaqueous
 Type 1 Fluorescent
 (Solvent Based)
 Form e - Nonaqueous
 Type 2 Visible Dye (Solvent Based)
 Form f - Special Applications
Dry Powder:
Dry powder developer is generally considered to be the least sensitive but it is
inexpensive to use and easy to apply. Dry developers are white, fluffy powders that can be
applied to a thoroughly dry surface in a number of ways. The developer can be applied by
dipping parts in a container of developer, or by using a puffer to dust parts with the developer.
Parts can also be placed in a dust cabinet where the developer  is blown around and allowed
to settle on the part. Electrostatic powder spray guns are also available to apply the developer.
The goal is to allow the developer to come in contact with the whole inspection area. Unless
the part is electrostatically charged, the powder will only adhere to areas where
trapped penetrant  has wet the surface of the part.
The penetrant will try to wet the surface of the penetrant  particle and fill the voids
between the particles , which brings more penetrant to the surface of the part where it can be
seen. Since dry powder developers only stick to the area where penetrant is present, the dry
developer does not provide a uniform white background  as the other forms of developers do.
Water Soluble:
Water soluble  developers consist of a group of chemicals that are dissolved in water
and form a developer layer when the water is evaporated away. The best method for
applying water soluble developers is by spraying it on the part. The part can be wet or dry.
Dipping, pouring, or brushing the solution on to the surface is sometimes used but these
methods are less desirable. Aqueous developers contain wetting agents that cause the solution
to function much like dilute hydrophilic emulsifier and can lead to additional removal of
entrapped penetrant.
Drying is achieved by placing the wet but well drained part in a recirculating, warm air
dryer with the temperature held between 70 and 75°F. If the parts are not dried quickly, the
indications will will be blurred and indistinct. Properly developed parts will have an even,
pale white coating over the entire surface.
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Water Suspendable:
Water suspendable developers consist of insoluble developer  particles suspended in
water. Water suspendable developers require frequent stirring or agitation to keep
the particles from settling out of suspension Water suspendable developers are applied to
parts in the same manner as water soluble  developers. Parts coated with a water
suspendable developer must be forced dried just as parts coated with a water
soluble developer are forced dried. The surface of a part coated with a water
suspendable developer will have a slightly translucent white coating.

UNIT 4 MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION AND TESTING


Part A
1. What is the need for material characterization?
Materials characterization forms the basis for understanding the composition of a
medical device material and its potential for an adverse biological effect when the device is
put into use. Comprehensive material characterization of polymers should provide sufficient
information to allow evaluation of the potential success of a plastic medical device, at least
with regard to its chemical and mechanical properties. It can also serve as a means to ensure
standardization of materials from one lot of devices to the next

2. List the different analytical techniques in material characterization.
 Mechanical testing, including tensile, compressive, torsional, creep, fatigue, toughness
and hardness testing
 Differential thermal analysis (DTA)
 Dielectric thermal analysis (DEA, DETA)
 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
 Impulse excitation technique (IET)
 Ultrasound techniques, including resonant ultrasound spectroscopy and time
domain ultrasonic testing methods[8]

3. How the material is classified for the characterization?


 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
 Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS)
 Focused Ion Beam (FIB)
 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
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4. What is SEM analysis? Where it is preferred?


Scanning electron microscope (SEM) is one of the most widely used instrumental
methods for the examination and analysis of micro- and nanoparticle imaging characterization
of solid objects. One of the reasons that SEM is preferred for particle size analysis is due to
its resolution of 10 nm, that is, 100 Å.

5. Write down the principle of SEM analysis.


The Scanning electron microscope works on the principle of applying kinetic energy to
produce signals on the interaction of the electrons. These electrons are secondary electrons,
backscattered electrons, and diffracted backscattered electrons which are used to view
crystallized elements and photons. Secondary and backscattered electrons are used to produce
an image.
The secondary electrons are emitted from the specimen play the primary role of
detecting the morphology and topography of the specimen while the backscattered electrons
show contrast in the composition of the elements of the specimen.

6. List the advantages of SEM analysis.


1. Resolution.
This test provides digital image resolution as low as 15 nanometers, providing
instructive data for characterizing microstructures such as fracture, corrosion, grains,
and grain boundaries. 
2. Traceable standard for magnification.
Because all imaging is calibrated to a traceable standard, it’s easy to apply analysis—
such coating thicknesses, grain size determinations, and particle sizing—to saved
images. 
3. Chemical analysis.

7. What is TEM analysis? Where it is preferred?


Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) is a technique that uses an electron beam to
image a nanoparticle sample, providing much higher resolution than is possible with light-
based imaging techniques. TEM is the preferred method to directly measure nanoparticle size,
grain size, size distribution, and morphology.

8. Write down the principle of TEM analysis.


The transmission electron microscope is a very powerful tool for material science. A high
energy beam of electrons is shone through a very thin sample, and the interactions between
the electrons and the atoms can be used to observe features such as the crystal structure and
features in the structure like dislocations and grain boundaries. Chemical analysis can also be
performed. TEM can be used to study the growth of layers, their composition and defects in
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semiconductors. High resolution can be used to analyze the quality, shape, size and density of
quantum wells, wires and dots.
The TEM operates on the same basic principles as the light microscope but uses electrons
instead of light. Because the wavelength of electrons is much smaller than that of light, the
optimal resolution attainable for TEM images is many orders of magnitude better than that
from a light microscope.

9. List the advantages of TEM analysis.


 High-quality images can be obtained with TEMs.
 TEMs have various applications at high spatial resolutions in different fields such as
scientific, educational and industrial fields.
 TEMs in combination with EDS and EELS provide elemental and atomic-bonding
information.
 TEMs provide the highest magnification in microscope field.
 TEMs can provide information about surface features, shape, size and structure.

10. What are the limitations of Optical emission spectoscory?


The main limitations of ICP-OES are continuum background emission, higher
detection limits than ICP-MS, spectral overlaps, and matrix effects. 

11. What is spectral overlap?


Spectral overlap refers to the phenomenon when a fluorochromes exhibits fluorescence
that “spills over” into a detector channel where it is not expected to show up. This occurs
because most fluorochromes have very broad emission spectra. ... Now we see that the spectra
for FFA and FFB are overlapping.

12. Sketch the Light path through a Czerny-Turner monochromator.


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13. What is Electrothermal vaporization?


Electrothermal vaporization (ETV) coupled with inductively coupled plasma optical
emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) or inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-
MS) is a powerful technique for rapid, direct determination of trace and ultra-trace levels of
analytes in broad range of samples directly with no or minimal sample preparation.

14. What is polychromator?


A polychromator is an optical device that is used to disperse light into different
directions to isolate parts of the spectrum of the light. A prism or diffraction grating can be
used to disperse the light. Unlike a monochromator, it outputs multiple beams over a range of
wavelengths simultaneously.

15. What is spark source spectrometry?


Spark source mass spectrometry (SSMS) is an analytical technique used for determining the
concentration of elements in a wide range of solid samples, including metals, semiconductors,
ceramics, geological and biological materials, and air and water pollution samples

16. Define Dry Spike Isotope Dilution


isotope dilution, radiochemical method of analysis for measuring the mass and quantity of an
element in a substance. The procedure involves adding to a substance a known quantity of a
radioisotope of the element to be measured and mixing it with the stable isotope of the
element.

17. List the various electrical techniques for material testing.


 High Voltage Test (Dielectric Voltage-withstand Test)
 Insulation Resistance Test.
 Earth Continuity Test.
 Leakage Current Test (Line Leakage Test)
 Electrical Installation Condition Report.

18. List the various magnetic techniques for material testing.


MPT is a fairly simple process with two variations: Wet Magnetic Particle Testing
(WMPT) and Dry Magnetic Particle Testing (DMPT).

19. What is X-ray diffraction?


X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) is a technique used in materials science to determine
the crystallographic structure of a material. XRD works by irradiating a material with incident
X-rays and then measuring the intensities and scattering angles of the X-rays that leave the
material 
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PART B
1. What are the tools for material selection?
Materials selection process:
These problems can be avoided by adopting a rigorous approach to the materials selection
process, with an eye on selecting materials that optimize product performance reliability and
cost. The materials selection process for a component or joint between components involves
these steps:
1. Identify the design requirements
2. Identify the materials selection criteria.
3. Identify candidate materials.
4. Evaluate candidate materials.
5. Select materials.
While each step might seem obvious, there are many organizations that do not have the
structure in place to follow each step. Consequently, they end up selecting sub-optimum
materials. The remainder of this article gives a brief overview of each step of the materials
selection process. Future articles will provide more details about each step of the process.
Step 1: Identify the design requirements
The design requirements include the following items:
 Performance requirements
 Reliability requirements
 Size, shape, and mass requirements
 Cost requirements
 Manufacturing and assembly requirements
 Industry standards
 Government regulations
 Intellectual property requirements
 Sustainability requirements
Identifying as many of the requirements as possible is critical for increasing the
likelihood of learning whether potential materials exist
Step 2: Identify materials selection criteria
The materials selection criteria are specific materials properties derived from the
requirements identified during Step 1. For example, for a component that must support a
specific load, the minimum yield stress that is required for the component’s material can be
determined. This will be one of the material selection criteria.
Step 3: Identify candidate materials
Use the materials selection criteria to rule out materials that will not satisfy all the
materials selection criteria. When evaluating whether a material might be appropriate for the
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application, be sure to consider the materials’ range of values for the properties of interest. Do
not rely upon nominal properties values.
Step 4: Evaluate candidate materials
There may be candidate materials for which there insufficient data available to indicate
whether the materials satisfy certain selection criteria. These materials will have to be
analyzed and tested to determine whether they do meet the selection criteria.
Want to learn more about metals engineering and component design? See our metallurgy
courses page for training options.
Step 5: Select materials
Select the materials that satisfy all the materials selection criteria at the lowest cost.
Remember, cost includes the cost of the material and the cost to fabricate a component or
form a joint between components.

2. Explain Atomic absorption spectroscopy


Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is a
spectroanalytical procedure for the quantitative determination of chemical elements using the
absorption of optical radiation (light) by free atoms in the gaseous state. Atomic absorption
spectroscopy is based on absorption of light by free metallic ions.
Atomic absorption spectrometry has many uses in different areas of chemistry such as
clinical analysis of metals in biological fluids and tissues such as whole blood, plasma, urine,
saliva, brain tissue, liver, hair, muscle tissue. Atomic absorption spectrometry can be used in
qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Principles
The technique makes use of the atomic absorption spectrum of a sample in order to
assess the concentration of specific analytes within it. It requires standards with known
analyte content to establish the relation between the measured absorbance and the analyte
concentration and relies therefore on the Beer–Lambert law.
Block Diagram
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In order to analyze a sample for its atomic constituents, it has to be atomized. The
atomizers most commonly used nowadays are flames and electrothermal (graphite tube)
atomizers. The atoms should then be irradiated by optical radiation, and the radiation source
could be an element-specific line radiation source or a continuum radiation source. The
radiation then passes through a monochromator in order to separate the element-specific
radiation from any other radiation emitted by the radiation source, which is finally measured
by a detector.
Atomizers:
The atomizers most commonly used nowadays are (spectroscopic) flames and
electrothermal (graphite tube) atomizers. Other atomizers, such as glow-discharge
atomization, hydride atomization, or cold-vapor atomization, might be used for special
purposes.
Flame atomizers:
The oldest and most commonly used atomizers in AAS are flames, principally the air-
acetylene flame with a temperature of about 2300 °C and the nitrous oxide[3] system (N2O)-
acetylene flame with a temperature of about 2700 °C. The latter flame, in addition, offers a
more reducing environment, being ideally suited for analytes with high affinity to oxygen.
Electrothermal atomizers:
The graphite tubes are heated via their ohmic resistance using a low-voltage high-
current power supply; the temperature in the individual stages can be controlled very closely,
and temperature ramps between the individual stages facilitate separation of sample
components.

3. Describe about monochromator.


A monochromator is an optical device that separates polychromatic light (such as
sunlight or light coming from a lamp) into a range of individual wavelengths (monochromatic
light) and allows a narrow band of these individual wavelengths to be selected. The light of
the desired wavelength band is then directed onto a sample, a detector or other components of
the optical system.
Principle of A Monochromator
The separation of light into its individual wavelength components is called dispersion.
An element with this property is called a dispersive element. In order to select a narrow band
of these wavelengths, a slit can be used to block the unwanted wavelengths. The narrower the
slit, the narrower the wavelength band. In general, a monochromator consists of a dispersive
element, an entrance slit, mirrors to produce a parallel beam similar to sunlight, an exit slit,
and mirrors to extract the monochromatic light.
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By fixing the slit and rotating the dispersive element, the direction of the dispersed
light is turned so that the colour of the resulting monochromatic light changes: as you can see
in Figure 1 in the upper panel, the position of the dispersive element causes orange-red light
to exit the slit, while in the lower panel the dispersive element rotates so that the light exiting
the slit is cyan.
The Different Types Of Monochromators:
Monochromators can be divided into different types depending on the type of
dispersive element used and the optical arrangement of the system:
Prism monochromators:
The dispersive element in prism monochromators is a prism. Prisms have a high light
utilization efficiency and do not produce higher order light and very little stray light.
However, dispersion is dependent on wavelength (high for UV, low for IR) and temperature.
Grating monochromators:
The dispersive element in grating monochromators is a reflecting diffraction grating. It
provides a constant dispersion for all wavelengths and a low dependence on temperature.
However, they produce relatively large amounts of scattered light and require the use of filters
to block higher order light.  Due to their superior dispersion properties, diffraction gratings
are often used in modern instruments.
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Monochromator Applications
Monochromators are commonly used in measurement devices such as spectrometers or
microplate readers. They are a popular device for wavelength selection in a range of detection
technologies, such as absorption and fluorescence intensity.

4. Brief the application of spark source mass spectrometry.


Mass spectrometry applications
Mass spectrometry is applicable across diverse fields, including forensic toxicology,
metabolomics, proteomics, pharma/biopharma, and clinical research. Specific applications of
mass spectrometry include drug testing and discovery, food contamination detection,
pesticide residue analysis, isotope ratio determination, protein identification, and carbon
dating.
Applications of mass spectrometry in proteomics - Characterization of proteins and
protein complexes, sequencing of peptides, and identification of posttranslational
modifications.
Applications of mass spectrometry in metabolomics - Cancer screening and
diagnosis, global metabolic fingerprinting analysis, biomarker discovery and profiling,
biofuels generation and use, lipidomics studies, and metabolic disorder profiling.
Applications of mass spectrometry in environmental analysis - Drinking water
testing, pesticide screening and quantitation, soil contamination assessment, carbon dioxide
and pollution monitoring, and trace elemental analysis of heavy metals leaching.
Applications of mass spectrometry in pharmaceutical analysis - Drug discovery
and absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination (ADME) studies, pharmacokinetic
and pharmacodynamic analyses, metabolite screening, and preclinical development.
Applications of mass spectrometry in forensic analysis - Analysis of trace evidence
(e.g., fibers in carpet, polymers in paint), arson investigation (e.g., fire accelerant),
confirmation of drug abuse, and identification of explosive residues (bombing investigation).

5.Expalin the working of Electron Microscope


An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a
source of illumination. It is a special type of microscope having a high resolution of images,
able to magnify objects in nanometres, which are formed by controlled use of electrons in a
vacuum captured on a phosphorescent screen. Ernst Ruska (1906-1988), a German engineer
and academic professor, built the first Electron Microscope in 1931, and the same principles
behind his prototype still govern modern EMs.
Working Principle of Electron microscope
1. Electron microscopes use signals arising from the interaction of an electron
beam with the sample to obtain information about structure, morphology, and
composition.
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 The electron gun generates electrons. Two sets of condenser lenses focus the electron
beam on the specimen and then into a thin tight beam.
 To move electrons down the column, an accelerating voltage (mostly between 100 kV-
1000 kV) is applied between the tungsten filament and anode.
 The specimen to be examined is made extremely thin, at least 200 times thinner than
those used in the optical microscope. Ultra-thin sections of 20-100 nm are cut which is
already placed on the specimen holder.
 The electronic beam passes through the specimen and electrons are scattered
depending upon the thickness or refractive index of different parts of the specimen.
Types of Electron microscope
There are two types of electron microscopes, with different operating styles:
1. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

 The transmission electron microscope is used to view thin specimens through which
electrons can pass generating a projection image.  
 The TEM is analogous in many ways to the conventional (compound) light
microscope. 
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 TEM is used, among other things, to image the interior of cells (in thin sections), the
structure of protein molecules (contrasted by metal shadowing), the organization of
molecules in viruses and cytoskeletal filaments (prepared by the negative staining
technique), and the arrangement of protein molecules in cell membranes (by freeze-
fracture).
2. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

 Conventional scanning electron microscopy depends on the emission of secondary


electrons from the surface of a specimen. 
 Because of its great depth of focus, a scanning electron microscope is the EM analog
of a stereo light microscope.
 It provides detailed images of the surfaces of cells and whole organisms that are not
possible by TEM. It can also be used for particle counting and size determination, and for
process control. 
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 It is termed a scanning electron microscope because the image is formed by scanning a


focused electron beam onto the surface of the specimen in a raster pattern. 
Parts of Electron Microscope:
Electron Microscope is in the form of a tall vacuum column that is vertically mounted.
It has the following components:
1. Electron gun
The electron gun is a heated tungsten filament, which generates electrons.
2. Electromagnetic lenses
The condenser lens focuses the electron beam on the specimen. A second condenser
lens forms the electrons into a thin tight beam.The electron beam coming out of the specimen
passes down the second of magnetic coils called the objective lens, which has high power and
forms the intermediate magnified image.
The third set of magnetic lenses called projector (ocular) lenses produce the final further
magnified image.Each of these lenses acts as an image magnifier all the while maintaining an
incredible level of detail and resolution.
3. Specimen Holder
The specimen holder is an extremely thin film of carbon or collodion held by a metal
grid.
4. Image viewing and Recording System
The final image is projected on a fluorescent screen.
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UNIT 5 OTHER TESTING


PART A
1. What are advantages of diffraction analysis?
 The main advantages of x-ray diffraction are:
 It is a rapid and powerful technique for identifying unknown minerals and materials
 It only requires preparation of a minimal sample for analysis
 Interpreting the resulting data is relatively straightforward
 XRD measurement instruments are widely available

2. Define spectrum.
A spectrum is a condition that is not limited to a specific set of values but can vary,
without gaps, across a continuum. The word was first used scientifically in optics to describe
the rainbow of colors in visible light after passing through a prism

3. Define wavelength dispersion.


Dispersion is defined as the spreading of white light into its full spectrum of wavelengths.
More technically, dispersion occurs whenever there is a process that changes the direction of
light in a manner that depends on wavelength.

4. What is fluorescence analysis?


 Fluorescence spectroscopy analyzes fluorescence from a molecule based on its
fluorescent properties.
 Fluorescence is a type of luminescence caused by photons exciting a molecule, raising
it to an electronic excited state.
 Fluorescence spectroscopy uses a beam of light that excites the electrons in molecules
of certain compounds, and causes them to emit light. That light is directed towards a
filter and onto a detector for measurement and identification of the molecule or
changes in the molecule.

5. What is electron excitation?


Electron excitation is the transfer of a bound electron to a more energetic, but still
bound state. This can be done by photoexcitation (PE), where the electron absorbs a photon
and gains all its energy or by electrical excitation (EE), where the electron receives energy
from another, energetic electron.

6. What is precision and accuracy in chemical analysis


Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the correct value for that measurement. The
precision of a measurement system is refers to how close the agreement is between repeated
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measurements (which are repeated under the same conditions). Measurements can be both
accurate and precise, accurate but not precise, precise but not accurate, or neither.

7. What elements are present in this small region of the sample?


The smallest particle of an element that cannot be divided or broken up by chemical
means. It consists of a central core (or nucleus), containing protons and neutrons, with
electrons revolving in orbits in the region surrounding the nucleus.

8. State the principle of Fundamental –parameter method.


The FP method is a first-principles calculation method of chemical element
concentration from the measured XRF spectra using the FPs such as the X-ray absorption
coefficients, fluorescence yields, jump ratios, branching ratios, and the incident spectrum
from the X-ray tube.

9. Define scalar.
A scalar quantity is described completely by magnitude or numbers alone. Examples of
scalar quantities are length, mass, distance, energy, volume, etc. 

10. What is Debye-Scherrer specimen?


A method of X-ray diffraction in which a beam of X-rays is diffracted by material in
the form of powder. Since the powder consists of very small crystals of the material in all
possible orientations, the diffraction pattern is a series of concentric circles.

11. Mention the fey features of Automatic diffractometers.


A diffractometer is a measuring instrument for analyzing the structure of a material
from the scattering pattern produced when a beam of radiation or particles (such as X-
rays or neutrons) interacts with it.
Because it is relatively easy to use electrons or neutrons having wavelengths smaller
than a nanometer, electrons and neutrons may be used to study crystal structure in a manner
very similar to X-ray diffraction.

12. What is X-ray optics?


X-ray optics is the branch of optics that manipulates X-rays instead of visible light. ...
Since X-rays and visible light are both electromagnetic waves they propagate in space in the
same way, but because of the much higher frequency and photon energy of X-rays they
interact with matter very differently.
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13. How do you use a Debye-Scherrer?


Scherrer formula is used to calculate the average size in vertical direction of
crystal. D=Kλ/(β cos θ). For cubic crystal structure, K =0.94, λ is wavelength of X-ray. d =
the full width at half maximum intensity of the peak (in Rad) – you can calculate it using
Origin software.

14. Define Dynamic Mechanical Analysis 


A technique in which the sample's kinetic properties are analyzed by measuring the
strain or stress that is generated as a result of strain or stress, varies (oscillate) with time,
applied to the sample.
Static Visco elasticity Measurement
A technique in which the change in stress or strain is measured under uniform stress or
strain that remains constant across time.

15. Define Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)


Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA) is used to characterize physical properties of
materials when force is applied at specified temperatures and time periods. TMA is useful for
investigating properties of viscoelastic materials, such as organic polymers. These materials
exhibit both viscous and elastic properties that affect their response to mechanical stresses.
For example, under conditions of ramping temperature under a fixed load, the viscoelastic
material can exhibit changes in volume that correlate with changes in properties such as
shrinkage, expansion, swelling and softening.

16. What is the Ideal Uses of TMA


 Measuring glass transition temperature (Tg) of polymers
 Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of polymers, composites or inorganics
 Differences in CTE below and above Tg
 Differences in softening temperature before and after processing or physical aging
 Effect of post-curing on the glass transition temperature
 Dimensional stability of parts at operating temperature and loading
 Shrinkage of oriented films

17. Which elements Cannot be detected by XRF?


XRF not effective for lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, or
phosphorus: The XRF cannot detect common elements that are considered to be “light”
elements, such as lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, and
phosphorus.
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18. Limitations of TMA


 Bulk sample size range:
 0.5 mm up to 26 mm (z-axis, i.e. height or thickness)
 Parallel faces for expansion
 Reasonably flat for penetration
 5 mm up to 10 mm (x -and y-dimension, i.e. width and length)
 Film/Fibers size range
 Maximum sample thickness (uniform) = 1 mm

PART B

1. Explain the Differential scanning calorimetry


Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a thermoanalytical technique in which the
difference in the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a sample and
reference is measured as a function of temperature. Both the sample and reference are
maintained at nearly the same temperature throughout the experiment. Generally, the
temperature program for a DSC analysis is designed such that the sample holder temperature
increases linearly as a function of time. The reference sample should have a well-defined heat
capacity over the range of temperatures to be scanned.
Types of DSC
1. Heat-flux DSC
With Heat-flux DSC, the changes in heat flow are calculated by integrating the ΔT ref-
curve. For this kind of experiment, a sample and a reference crucible are placed on a sample
holder with integrated temperature sensors for temperature measurement of the crucibles.
2. Power differential DSC
For this kind of setup, also known as Power compensating DSC, the sample and
reference crucible are placed in thermally insulated furnaces and not next to each other in the
same furnace like in Heat-flux-DSC experiments.
3. Fast-scan DSC
The 2000s have witnessed the rapid development of Fast-scan DSC (FSC), [7] a novel
calorimetric technique that employs micromachined sensors. The key advances of this
technique are the ultrahigh scanning rate, which can be as high as 106 K/s, and the ultrahigh
sensitivity, with a heat capacity resolution typically better than 1 nJ/K.
[8]
 Nanocalorimetry [9] has attracted much attention in materials science,
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Applications
 Differential scanning calorimetry can be used to measure a number of characteristic
properties of a sample.
 Glass transitions may occur as the temperature of an amorphous solid is increased.
These transitions appear as a step in the baseline of the recorded DSC signal.
 As the temperature increases, an amorphous solid will become less viscous. At some
point the molecules may obtain enough freedom of motion to spontaneously arrange
themselves into a crystalline form.
 Differential scanning calorimetry can also be used to obtain valuable thermodynamics
information about proteins. The thermodynamics analysis of proteins can reveal
important information about the global structure of proteins, and protein/ligand
interaction.

2. Explain Differential Thermal Analysis


A technique in which the difference in temperature between the sample and a reference
material is monitored against time or temperature while the temperature of the sample, in a
specified atmosphere, is programmed.

Description of DTA
The sample and the reference are placed symmetrically in the furnace. The furnace is
controlled under a temperature program and the temperature of the sample and the reference
are changed. During this process, a differential thermocouple is set up to detect the
temperature difference between the sample and the reference. Also, the sample temperature is
detected from the thermocouple on the sample side.
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Graph (a) shows the temperature change of the furnace, the reference and the sample
against time.Graph (b) shows the change in temperature difference (ΔT) against time detected
with the differential thermocouple.ΔT signal is referred to as the DTA signal. Matters that do
not change in the measurement temperature range (usually α-alumina) are used as reference.
When the furnace heating begins, the reference and the sample begin heating with a slight
delay depending on their respective heat capacity, and eventually heat up in according to the
furnace temperature.
ΔT changes until a static state is reached after the heating begins, and after achieving
stability, reaches a set amount compliant with the difference in heat capacity between the
sample and the reference. The signal at the static state is known as the baseline.
When the temperature rises and melting occurs in the sample, for example, the
temperature rise stops as shown in graph (a) and the ΔT increases. When the melting ends, the
temperature curve rapidly reverts to the baseline.
At this point, the ΔT signal reaches the peak, as shown in graph (b).
From this, we can detect the samplefs transition temperature and the reaction temperature
from the ΔT signal (In graph (b), the temperature difference due to the samplefs endothermic
change is shown as a negative direction and the temperature difference due to the samplefs
exothermic change is shown as a positive direction.
Applications
 A DTA curve can be used only as a finger print for identification purposes but usually
the applications of this method are the determination of phase diagrams, heat change
measurements and decomposition in various atmospheres.
 DTA is widely used in the pharmaceutical and food industries.
 DTA may be used in cement chemistry, mineralogical research and in environmental
studies.
 DTA curves may also be used to date bone remainsor to study archaeological
materials. Using DTA one can obtain liquidus & solidus lines of phase diagrams.
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3. How does thermal mechanical analysis work?


A technique in which a deformation of the sample under non-oscillating stress is
monitored against time or temperature while the temperature of the sample, in a specified
atmosphere, is programmed. The stress may be compression, tension, flexure or torsion.
Description of TMA
The sample is inserted into the furnace and is touched by the probe which is connected
with the Length Detector and the Force Generator. The thermocouple for temperature
measurement is located near the sample. The sample temperature is changed in the furnace by
applying the force onto the sample from the Force Generator via probe.
The sample deformation such as Thermal Expansion and Softening with changing
temperature is measured as the probe displacement by the Length Detector. Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT) is used for Length Detection sensor.

There are several types of the probe for TMA. The choice is dependent on the
measurement purpose.
(a) Expansion/Compression Probe:
It is used for the measurement of the deformation by the thermal expansion and the
transition of the sample under the compressed force is applied.
(b) Penetration Probe:
It is used for the measurement of the softening temperature.
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(c) Tension Probe:


It is used for the measurement of the thermal expansion and the thermal shrinkage of
the sample such as the film and the fiber.

The materials of probes are quartz glass, alumina, and metals. The choice is dependent
on thetemperature range and/or the measurement purpose. In case of the TMA which enables
the dynamic force control on top of the static force control, the measurement of the Stress-
Strain, the Creep, the stress relaxation, and the DMA measurements can be performed.

4. Explain Dynamic Mechanical Analysis


A technique in which the sample's kinetic properties are analyzed by measuring the
strain or stress that is generated as a result of strain or stress, varies (oscillate) with time,
applied to the sample.
Static Viscoelasticity Measurement
A technique in which the change in stress or strain is measured under uniform stress or
strain that remains constant across time.
Description of DMA
The sample is clamped in the measurement head of the DMA instrument. During
measurement, sinusoidal force is applied to the sample via the probe. Deformation caused by
the sinusoidal force is detected and the relation between the deformation and the applied force
is measured. Properties such as elasticity and viscosity are calculated from the applied stress
and strain plotted as a function of temperature or time.
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

DMA is used for measurement of various types of polymer materials using different
deformation modes. There are tension, compression, dual cantilever bending, 3-point bending
and shear modes, and the most suitable type should be selected depending on the sample
shape, modulus and measurement purpose.
Viscoelastic properties such as:
-Storage modulus: E', G' (purely elastic component)
-Loss modulus: E", G" (purely viscous component)
-Loss tangent: tanδ (=E"/E'),
can be measured by DMA, and their dependence on temperature and frequency can be
analyzed.
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Analysis of the glass transition temperature and temperature dependence of the


modulus can be measured by the temperature dispersion measurement. By performing
simultaneous measurement of temperature dispersion and frequency dispersion, relaxation
phenomena such as glass transition, side-chain relaxation and local mode relaxation can be
observed. This approach allow us to obtain information about molecular structure and
molecular motion of polymers.

5. Explain about thermal analysis


A group of techniques in which a property of the sample is monitored against time or
temperature while the temperature of the sample, in a specified atmosphere, is programmed.
It is stated in gFor Better Thermal Analysis and Calorimetryh, 3rd Edition, published in 1991
by ICTAC (International Confederation for Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry).
This defines Thermal Analysis includes all the methods of measuring the sample
properties while the sample temperature is program-controlled.

Thermal Analysis instrument includes the followings:


 Detection Unit: Furnace, sample and reference holder, and sensor, heat and cool the
sample in the furnace, and detects the sample temperature and property.
 Temperature Control Unit: Controls the furnace temperature.
 Data Recording Unit: Records the signals of sensor and sample temperature, and
analyzes them.
 Temperature control, data recording and analysis are all computer-controlled. The
combination of the furnace and sensor enables the various types of the measurement
techniques. This computer can be connected to the several instruments which has the
other types of measurement techniques, enables the simultaneous measurement and
analysis.
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Table shows the measurement techniques for each property. Each


technique is called DTA, DSC, TG, TMA and DMA.

Abbrev TA Measurement
Property Unit
. Technique

Differential Thermal Difference


DTA °C or µV*
Analysis temperature

Differential
DSC Scanning Enthalpy W = J/sec
Calorimetry

TG Thermogravimerty Mass gram

Thermomechanical
TMA Deformation meter
Analysis

Dynamic
DMA Mechanical Elasticity Pa = N/m2
Analysis

The main application areas of DSC concern the determination of the melting, the glass
transition, the crystallization, the chemical reactions, the thermal history, and the specific heat
capacity. Though the sublimation, the evaporation, and the thermal decomposition can also be
measured, this technique is not usually used because of the mass change by the
decomposition and the corrosion of the sensor by the decomposed gas.
TG measures the mass changes by the evaporation, the dehydration, the
decomposition, and the oxidation reaction. By the simultaneous measurement by TG
connected with DTA, the exothermic and the endothermic phenomena can be measured from
DTA.
Thermocouple electromotive force. ⚪:
Measurement Object Δ:
Some compatible —:
Not measured
ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE- New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Thamaraikulam- Negamam Road, COIMBATORE -642120
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Table shows which effects and properties found in various


materials are measured in each technique.

Technique
Phenomenon/Property
DSC TG TMA DMA

Melting ⚪ — Δ Δ

Glass transition ⚪ — ⚪ ⚪

Crystallization ⚪ — Δ ⚪

Reaction (Curing /
⚪ Δ ⚪ ⚪
Polymerization)

Sublimation /
Evaporation / Δ ⚪ — —
Dehydration

Thermal decomposition Δ ⚪ — —

Thermal expansion /
— — ⚪ —
Thermal shrinkage

Thermal history ⚪ — ⚪ ⚪

Specific heat capacity ⚪ — — —

TMA measures the phenomena caused by deformation including the thermal


expansion, the thermal shrinkage, the glass transition, and the curing reaction.
DMA measures the changes in the molecular motion and the molecular structures such
as the relaxation, the crystallization, and the curing reaction. It also measures the melting at
the early stage until the melt flow occurs.

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