Taming Traffic

STRATEGIES TO REDUCE DRIVING AND PRIORITIZE

SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION IN CITIES
 CONTENTS
AUTHORS AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

AUTHOR
Dana Yanocha
FOREWORD 3

CONTRIBUTORS
Tara Eisenberg 1. INTRODUCTION
Jacob Mason
Fee-based and non-fee-based strategies 9
Heather Thompson
Designing equitable solutions 12
Background information, data, and internal
review was provided by ITDP regional office staff:
Etsa Amanda, ITDP Indonesia
2. MENU OF OPTIONS: TRAFFIC REDUCTION STRATEGIES
Carolynn Johnson, ITDP US Parking pricing 16
Christopher Kost, ITDP Africa
Clarisse Linke, ITDP Brazil Emissions pricing 22
Edgar Mejia, ITDP US Congestion pricing 27
Alphonse Nkurunziza, ITDP Africa
Gonzalo Peon Carballo, ITDP Mexico Reallocating road space for people 32
Vaishali Singh, ITDP India
Clara Vadillo, ITDP Mexico Limited traffic zones 38
Xianyuan Zhu, ITDP China

3. STRATEGY EVALUATION
ITDP would also like to acknowledge the
following experts who generously provided their 3.1 Ability to achieve traffic reduction targets
time for informational interviews during the
linked to livability 41
scoping phase and/or to review the draft report:
Daniel Firth, TransLink Vancouver 3.2 Ability to further sustainable transport goals 46
Kate Laing, C40
Shomik Mehndiratta, World Bank 3.3 Potential for effective implementation in
Carlos Pardo, NUMO limited capacity contexts 55
Michael Replogle
Carolina Tohá
Rachel Weinberger, Weinberger & Associates
Lloyd Wright, Asian Development Bank
4. KEY TAKEAWAYS 65

APPENDIX A
Design and Implementation Resources 69

APPENDIX B
Definitions of 3.3 Evaluation Criteria 71

cover photo:
Complete Street
Eje 3 Oriente,
Ing. Eduardo Molina,
Ciudad de México
source: Héctor Ríos,
ITDP México

2
 FOREWORD
Before the COVID-19 pandemic, congestion posed a
major challenge to cities large and small, contributing to
climate change, air and noise pollution as well as other
negative outcomes. To combat rising congestion levels,
cities have considered implementing aggressive traffic
reduction measures such as priced parking, congestion
charges, and low emission zones. While some of these
efforts have lost momentum or face an uncertain path
forward due to shifted priorities in response to the
pandemic, poor air quality, congestion, and constrained
municipal budgets now pose an even greater threat
to quality of life in cities, giving even more reason to
advance these measures.

As cities and countries moved to slow the spread of

the virus, previously jammed streets saw some of the
lowest traffic volumes in decades. Air pollution fell
sharply. During this time, many cities paused collection
of or reduced parking fees and suspended operation
of low emission and congestion charging zones to ease
burdens for those making essential trips. As cities
lessened restrictions on nonessential travel, however,
congestion on city streets returned—as expected. Travel
surveys show that in Chinese cities, private vehicle
owners are choosing to drive instead of returning to
public transit for commuting and other trips. Similar
trends have been observed in European cities—after
initial pandemic restrictions were lifted, congestion
levels have been higher than in previous years. These
outcomes demonstrate that now more than ever, cities
need to move forward with traffic reduction measures
instead of allowing them to stall. Indeed, some cities
are committing to more stringent actions to curb traffic:
Notably, London’s mayor announced plans to transition
central London into a car-free zone, citing the need
for physical distancing and the resiliency benefits of
enabling more trips by walking and cycling.

Successful traffic reduction is about more than reducing

congestion, though. It’s about redistributing funding,
priority, and space on the street to make cities more
livable for people. By prioritizing low-cost, widely
accessible modes like walking, cycling, and public
transport and disincentivizing modes that lead to
climate change and most harm society overall—and
vulnerable people in particular—we can create more
equitable transportation systems. A shift toward
cycling is already happening in many places, facilitated
by pop-up cycle lanes and slow and car-free streets
opposite page:
source: ITDP
implemented as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Indonesia Cities can further curb the return to private vehicles

2 3
 by better integrating personal and shared micromobility modes, including
bicycles and e-bikes, into the transport network. INTRODUCTION

1
And in some cases, traffic reduction strategies can create a reliable revenue
stream that further supports improvements to walking, cycling, and public Historically, underpricing road use has led to a disproportionate
transport infrastructure. Low ridership and expanded space and cleaning dependence on low-occupancy, private vehicle travel in cities around the
requirements have caused us to rethink how public transport is funded. globe. This has wrought congestion, pollution, and sprawl, resulting in
Revenue from traffic reduction strategies like congestion pricing could fill serious negative consequences for accessibility, the environment, and
in gaps, redistributing subsidies for driving to support more equitable and quality of life. These harmful outcomes have disproportionately affected
efficient transport. For vulnerable communities pushed to urban fringes, the most vulnerable populations, including the poor, older adults, children,
it is especially critical that disincentives to driving be coupled with strong and people with disabilities.
policies and investment in public transportation that serves longer-
distance trips. Vehicle ownership rates are increasing in cities in many low and lower
middle income countries1 (L/LMIC), though rates are still generally lower
Now is the time for cities to be proactive. Well-designed traffic reduction than in high income countries. 2 And though use of public transport,
strategies can be a winning solution to curb congestion, generate revenue, walking, and cycling tends to be higher in low income cities, infrastructure
and make walking, cycling, and public transport the easiest, fastest, and can be inefficient. Meanwhile, transport budgets often prioritize building
cheapest options for getting around. In this report, we introduce and and expanding roads as a solution to traffic congestion despite research
evaluate ways that cities can achieve these outcomes, such as pricing and experience that show this only fuels demand for driving and leads to
parking, pricing emissions, pricing congestion, and reallocating road space congestion. Unless governments step in, vehicle ownership, use, and traffic
for people. While these strategies are sometimes considered separate from in cities—especially rapidly urbanizing cities—will continue to grow.
one another, this report underscores the benefits of implementing multiple
strategies together to maximize impact and reduce potential challenges.  In places where rates of walking, cycling, and use of public transit are
high, such as in L/LMIC cities, there is an opportunity to leapfrog3 vehicle
ownership and directly link traffic reduction strategies with improvements
to public transit, pedestrian, and cycling infrastructure. This approach is a
more equitable alternative to what has occurred in higher income countries,
where income growth is connected to the ownership and use of private
vehicles, bringing more congestion and, simultaneously, challenges to
improving public transit, walking, and cycling.

In large, high income cities, decades-old constituencies of vehicle owners

and users present strong political opposition to policies that eliminate
subsidies or charge drivers for the negative outcomes they contribute to.
However, cities currently experiencing vehicle ownership growth have a
unique opportunity to adopt traffic reduction strategies before widespread
vehicle dependency. Momentum is building globally, as seen in efforts
like the C40 Green Healthy Streets initiative4—mayors from over 35 cities,
including Quito, Santiago, Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro, and Jakarta, have
committed to identifying a significant area of their city as “zero emission”
and electrifying public bus fleets. However, capacity, resource, and
technological constraints may prevent successful implementation of traffic
reduction strategies, so they will need to be designed to account for these
limitations. Any successful policy design for traffic reduction must ensure
that the needs of lower income and marginalized groups are recognized and
addressed, and that these groups do not bear a disproportionately higher
cost than wealthier groups as a result of the policy.

1 For the purposes of this paper, country income classifications are determined according to the World Bank—a city in a High-Income
Country is a High-Income City (HIC), etc.
2 Private Motorization in Worldwide Developing Countries’ Metropolitan Areas: Patterns in the Early 21st Century.
3 “Leapfrog” as defined in Final Report High-Volume Traffic: Urban Transport Theme 2: “The phenomenon of disruptive technologies
4 and innovations that provide latecomers opportunities to enter the market and to skip certain trial-and-error phases, thereby 5
accelerating their success” (p.147).
 Fortunately, cities have a number of options at their This can be done by prioritizing the safety and comfort of
disposal to significantly reduce motor vehicle traffic and pedestrians, cyclists, and public transport users and ensuring
address multiple issues. that road users understand and pay for the true costs of driving
and parking.

BOX 1 THE BIG PICTURE: TRAVEL DEMAND MANAGEMENT

Travel demand management (TDM) is a widely used catch-all term for or “pull” measures that make alternatives to driving more attractive
strategies that seek to reduce traffic and private vehicle use by curbing (see graphic below). However, implementing “push” measures without
demand for driving. In other words, TDM strategies seek to increase the adequate options to supplement driving tend to be rejected by the
efficiency of the transport system and achieve specific policy goals by public or, in some cases, lead to more travel, as was seen with some
changing how, when, and where trips happen. 5 license plate schemes.6 Similarly, “pull” incentives do not attract
enough drivers to meet policy goals if walking, cycling, and public
There is general agreement that TDM policies include deterrents or “push” transit options do not satisfy travelers who can afford to continue to
measures that discourage the use of private vehicles, as well as incentives drive.

PUSH PUSH & PULL PULL

PRICE DRIVING TO REFLECT IMPROVE SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT, OFF-PEAK TRIP

ITS TRUE COST SERVICE AND AFFORDABILITY PRIORITY/TRIP AVOIDANCE
• Congestion pricing • Reallocate road space for people • Improve public transit • Flexible working hours
• Low emission zones • Limited traffic zones frequency, reliability • Work from home
• On-and off-street parking pricing • Transit-oriented development • Improve walking and cycling • Teleservices (grocery
• Parking maximums • Traffic bans (e.g.: odd/even license facilities delivery, telemedicine)
• Fuel taxes plate schemes) • Shared micromobility • Off-peak transit fare discount
• Vehicle registration fees/quotas • Carshare
• Toll roads • Multimodal integration OPTIMIZE STREET NETWORKS
• Transit-only lanes OR VEHICLE OCCUPANCY
• Commuter benefits • High occupancy toll (HOT) lanes
for transit, cycling • High occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes
& walking • Carpool/vanpool/employer shuttles
• Rideshare/shared taxi
• Intelligent transportation systems
(ITS), rerouting tools

4 Our Commitment to Green and Healthy Streets.

5 Parking Management Best Practices; Practical Guidebook: Parking and Travel Demand Management Policies in Latin America;
6 Transportation Demand Management: Training Document. 7
6 Practical Guidebook: Parking and Travel Demand Management Policies in Latin America.
 What is often less clear is to what extent traffic reduction strategies link
to broader outcomes that cities have committed to, such as improving air Traffic reduction has been a key issue for ITDP: We have conducted
quality, mode shift away from single-occupancy vehicles, reducing vehicle extensive work in the area of on- and off-street parking reform, compact
kilometers traveled (VKT), or encouraging a cleaner vehicle fleet, and, more transit-oriented development, and prioritizing space and resources
narrowly, their role in sustainable transportation networks. Furthermore, for walking, cycling, and public transit over private vehicles. And we
there is a conspicuous lack of understanding about the potential for many know that by encouraging a shift to these sustainable transportation
of these strategies to successfully reduce traffic and demand for driving modes, cities can reduce air pollution and emissions that contribute to
in cities with few resources and limited capacity, such as small cities and climate change, improve road safety, and provide more livable urban
those in low- and middle-income countries. environments.

This paper helps decision makers understand five key strategies to

reduce traffic and select the measures that align best with their goals and TRAFFIC REDUCTION STRATEGY TYPES:
resources. We do this by evaluating traffic reduction strategies based on FEE-BASED AND NON-FEE-BASED
1) their ability to reduce traffic and improve well-being, 2) their ability to
advance sustainable transport goals, and 3) the level of capacity required to Introducing a fee for use (also referred to as “pricing”) is a demand
implement them. Based on this evaluation, we find that: management tool used in the context of transport to make some of the true
cost—including social and environmental externalities—of unsustainable
transport choices more transparent to users of those modes. In short,
Implementing multiple traffic reduction strategies transport pricing seeks to disincentivize use of private vehicles by imposing
1 together maximizes impact and reduces potential a fee on drivers that accounts for external costs.
challenges related to political will and equity.

Reallocating road space for people over cars should INTERNAL COSTS INDIVIDUAL PAYS
2 be considered as part of a comprehensive traffic reduction
strategy, especially in limited capacity cities.

Vehicle purchase price

The presence of alternative transportation options +

3 is critical, particularly when most or all private vehicles are Fuel
restricted from a zone.
$ +
Maintenance
+
If capacity is limited, adoption of traffic reduction Taxes, registration, insurance
4 strategies could follow a progression, starting with
low-cost, low-technology options and working toward more
robust, complex strategies.
TRUE
COST OF EXTERNAL COSTS SOCIETY PAYS
DRIVING
These key takeaways are discussed in detail in section IV.
Environmental costs Societal costs

BACKGROUND Emissions Infrastructure maintenance

+ +
As part of the research for this paper, ITDP conducted an internal survey Climate change Road injuries/fatalities
and follow-up discussions with our staff about opportunities and + +
challenges related to traffic reduction in different regions. Interviews Noise pollution Traffic congestion/ lost time
were also conducted with external experts who have specific knowledge
+
and experience related to this topic.7 Information gleaned from both the
Land for roads/parking
internal and external discussions contributed to the overall structure
and approach of the paper and, in particular, informed the evaluation +
criteria used in section 3.3. Division of community/social
fabric

8 7 External interviews were conducted with Shomik Mehndiratta (World Bank); Kate Laing (C40); Lloyd Wright (Asian Development Bank); 9
and Daniel Firth (Translink, Vancouver).
 While fee-based strategies such as congestion charging or low emission Strategies that do not charge users directly do not generate revenue
zones tend to have high implementation and operating costs, their ability to and thus may present a net cost to the city to implement and maintain.
raise revenue helps establish a dedicated funding source to offset upfront However, these strategies can improve local economic vitality and present
costs and support ongoing operation as well as to improve, maintain, or indirect cost-savings from fewer traffic crashes resulting in injury or death,
create alternative transportation options that can accommodate those who and improved public health in the long-term. Non-fee-based strategies also
shift away from the priced mode.8 There is consensus within the academic typically carry lower operating costs as compared to fee-based strategies11,
literature that transport pricing has a strong impact on behavior change.9 and can be more politically palatable because they do not impose an
explicit fee on drivers. Many people have a strong negative reaction to
being charged for things they expect to be free.
REVENUE GENERATION

Given further strains on municipal budgets as a result of the COVID-19 KEY OPPORTUNITIES CHALLENGES
pandemic, revenue generation is top of mind for many cities.
We discuss the revenue generation potential of traffic reduction
Revenue generation High capital and
strategies in sections 3.1 and 3.2 of this report.
(offset cost to operating costs
implement, maintain)

FEE-BASED High potential for

Non-fee-based traffic reduction strategies, such as road space Strong impact on political challenges
behavior change
Typical highway traffic
reallocation, can also disincentivize the use of private vehicles by shifting
in Los Angeles. The space and prioritization on the street away from vehicles, making driving Potential equity
city government is less convenient. The antithesis of induced demand (where widening concerns (monetary)
seeking to manage
travel demand and building new roads increases travel demand and VKT), road space
through a new zero reallocation strategies reduce space for vehicles, thereby reducing travel
emission area.
source: Luke Jones
demand (a concept sometimes referred to as “reduced demand” or “traffic
(Flickr) degeneration”).10

Lower operating costs No revenue generation

(net cost to implement,
maintain)
NON-FEE-BASED
More politically
palatable
Potential equity
concerns (time)

Recognizing that there are opportunities and challenges with both types
of strategies, a few cities are starting to take a comprehensive approach,
implementing fee-based and non-fee-based strategies together to
maximize impacts, often alongside additional “pull” measures (see Box 1).
Over time, these strategies can work in tandem, creating space and
opportunity for the other to succeed. In other words, the sum of multiple
strategies working together is greater than what each strategy might
accomplish alone, as each additional measure makes the other measures
more effective. More coordination across strategies presents the potential
for more impacts. In Mexico City, the government is evaluating how a low
emission zone could operate with and enhance on-street parking reforms,
a model currently operating successfully in Madrid. Brussels implemented

8 Policy design should recognize the potential incentive that tying funding for sustainable transport to unsustainable transport can
create. In other words, if more revenue is generated by more people driving into a priced zone, there is an incentive to keep drivers
entering that zone despite the intention of reducing traffic and vehicle trips.
10 9 Transitions Towards Sustainable Mobility: New Solutions and Approaches for Sustainable Transport Systems. 11
10 Induced Demand and Rebound Effects in Road Transport. 11 Metro Vancouver Mobility Pricing Could Cost Up to $8 per Day per Family: Report.
 a citywide low emission zone and has focused heavily on provision of than the status quo of not being charged to drive. If improvements to public
and communication around non-car options. Los Angeles is working to transport, cycling, and walking are not prioritized as part of the design,
implement a zero emission area that could combine road space reallocation pricing travel in a designated area could push opportunities or destinations
with congestion or parking pricing, keeping a strong focus on equity. outside the priced zone and catalyze sprawl. Similarly, if these sustainable
modes are unreliable, unsafe, or unfeasible, access to destinations within a
priced zone could become inequitable for those who cannot afford to pay.
In countries like Brazil, where metropolitan areas are already sprawling,
with many low income residents living on the far outskirts of cities, walking
or cycling is not practical for a 15km commute. In these cases, policy design
may need to bolster multimodal integration efforts such as improving
public transport feeder routes or launching an extended-rental bikeshare
program, like Fortaleza’s Bicicleta Integrada. This program enables users to
keep a shared bicycle overnight in order to ride to and from bus terminals,
and it integrates payment with the city’s transit fare card. Alternatively,
pricing structures could include discounts for lower income drivers.

Notably, equity outcomes may differ from city to city depending on the mode
share of private vehicle trips—which groups own or rely on private vehicles
and who will be directly affected by vehicle use restrictions versus other
strategies like road space reallocation away from vehicles. For example,
streetscape and placemaking improvements that make certain areas more
Traffic reduction desirable for pedestrians could drive up property values and housing costs
strategies must not
exacerbate existing
along with them. At the same time, maintaining the status quo (e.g., taking no
inequities in the action) may be politically preferred but it likely still has equity implications
transportation due to historical and structural disadvantages for marginalized groups.
system. In Los
Angeles, households
without access to a
car are concentrated
in majority non-white
communities.
source: ITDP

Majority Non-White Areas

• = 100 No-car households LA City Boundary

Fortaleza’s Bicicleta
Integrada, one of four
public bikeshare
systems in the city, is
EQUITABLE TRAFFIC REDUCTION IS DESIGN DEPENDENT meant to bring
commuters to and
It is exceedingly important that traffic reduction strategies—those that from outer public
impose a fee and those that do not—are designed to ensure equitable transit terminals by
allowing users to keep
outcomes across socioeconomic groups. Harmful health and environmental bikeshare bicycles
outcomes from vehicle emissions disproportionately impact low income overnight.
source: City of
and marginalized groups because pollution hotspots are often located Fortaleza
near low income communities. No traffic or emissions reduction strategy
is inherently equitable; instead, equity will be achieved (or not) through
careful design decisions. For example, price instruments generate revenue
that can reduce costs and improve the quality of public transportation,
walking, and cycling if strictly allocated to that end. This is more equitable

12 13
 MENU OF OPTIONS:
TRAFFIC REDUCTION
STRATEGIES PRICE (AND REFORM) PARKING

2
In this paper, we examine five broad options for reducing traffic. Each Reduce or eliminate subsidies • On-street demand-based pricing
option includes one or more traffic reduction strategies, for which we for parking; disincentivize off-street and off-street parking maximums
parking to more accurately reflect
provide several brief case studies. In cases where post-implementation
the true cost of driving • Commercial parking tax
impact evaluation data is available, key traffic reduction outcomes and
related sustainability benefits are highlighted as part of the case studies.
While this paper does not describe the nuances of how to implement each
PRICE EMISSIONS
measure, design and implementation resources are included in Appendix A.
This paper focuses narrowly on strategies that can be implemented by
Charge a fee each time a vehicle enters • Low emission zones
city governments and have documented success. It does not include all a zone based on the vehicle’s emissions
strategies under the “push” umbrella of TDM. Thus, we do not evaluate level, making trips taken by the most • Clean air zones
strategies such as: polluting vehicles more expensive to
reflect their external costs
Fuel taxes (including cap and trade schemes and taxes on fuel suppliers),
corridor tolling, and increasing the cost of purchasing a private vehicle (e.g.,
PRICE CONGESTION
vehicle registration fees): These strategies are not typically implemented by
local or municipal governments and can, in some cases, be regressive. Require vehicles to pay a fee to enter • Cordon pricing
or drive within an area, more accurately
Traffic bans such as those proposed on two-wheelers in Jakarta, Kuala reflecting the true cost of driving • Distance-based pricing
Lumpur, and Hanoi: The link between bans and equitable, long-term traffic
reduction is unclear.

Odd-even license plate schemes. The link to traffic reduction has been REALLOCATE ROAD SPACE FOR PEOPLE
minimal, and in some cases schemes have led to increased traffic and
emissions. 12 13 Redesign streets so that the majority • Pedestrianization
of space is dedicated to pedestrians,
cyclists, and public transportation, so • Transit malls
Finally, it is worth noting that emissions-based charges are not typically
that these modes become faster, safer,
included in conversations around TDM and traffic reduction. The focus of
and more convenient than driving • Complete streets
these types of strategies is often primarily on transitioning to a cleaner
vehicle fleet to improve air quality. However, we include these approaches
in this paper because there has been growing interest in policies such as
LIMIT TRAFFIC IN SPECIFIC ZONES
low emission zones,14 and LEZs have resulted in traffic reduction in the
short-term as people shift modes or limit vehicle trips. Long-term traffic
Restrict most vehicles from a • Limited traffic zones
reduction will only occur if LEZs are designed to become more stringent designated area and impose a high fine
over time. We see an opportunity for cities to galvanize the political will on unauthorized vehicles that enter. • Zero emission areas
and public support that may be present for this type of strategy and to This includes strategies to ban vehicles
reimagine the goals of emissions-based pricing to include both cleaning up based on emission level.
vehicles and trip and VKT reduction (see Box 2).

12 Practical Guidebook: Parking and Travel Demand Management Policies in Latin America.
14 13 Getting Around a License-Plate Ban: Behavioral Responses to Mexico City’s Driving Restriction. 15
14 Spain to Introduce Low-Emission Zones Amid “Climate Emergency.”
 MEXICO CITY, MEXICO
PARKING PRICING
In 2012, Mexico City began piloting ecoParq, a paid on-street parking meter
1. ON-STREET DEMAND-BASED PRICING + program in its Polanco neighborhood. ecoParq priced 6,000 curbside spaces
OFF-STREET MAXIMUMS where parking had previously been free. Revenue from parking fees was
allocated to sidewalk and other pedestrian infrastructure improvements in
Demand-based on-street pricing enables parking managers to charge Polanco. The pilot resulted in reduced traffic and improved streetscapes,
a market-based price for parking to manage demand for vehicles and and it generated demand for similar pilots in nearby neighborhoods.
driving.15 While on-street parking meters in many cities charge one price
regardless of location or time of day, demand-based prices vary depending The success of the ecoParq program for on-street parking catalyzed
on the location, time of day, and other factors. Because parking is less momentum to reform off-street parking, which surpassed market demand
expensive at certain times (i.e., off-peak hours in the afternoon), drivers are and accounted for 40% of floor area18 in the city. In 2017, Mexico City passed
incentivized to make trips during those times. Demand-based pricing makes legislation establishing off-street parking maximums (as opposed to
drivers consider the price of parking, just as they might consider the price minimums) and a fund to collect impact fees from developers who build
of fuel or maintenance when deciding whether and when to drive. parking beyond the maximum.

Implementing off-street parking reforms alongside on-street parking

pricing ensures that when the supply of off-street parking is reduced, key Reduced VKT from Increased parking space In its first year of
parking search (an turnover from 3.5 to operation, 30% of
demand is not simply transferred to on-street parking. Some cities, like outcomes estimated 2 kilometers approximately 5 vehicles revenues from ecoParq
Pune, India, require on- and off-street parking to be managed together at MEXICO CITY, per trip) yielded an per day. were reinvested in
the district level by a single private operator.16 Off-street parking reforms MEXICO annual reduction of sidewalk improvements
include several strategies for reducing the supply of long-term vehicle 18,000 tons of CO2. and other public space
renewal projects in
storage. One example is reducing or eliminating parking minimums, which
Polanco.
require developers to build a designated amount of parking to serve
residential and commercial uses. Parking minimums increase housing
costs and unnecessarily incentivize the use of personal vehicles.17 As a
complementary policy, adopting off-street-parking maximums enables
cities to set an upper limit for spaces provided by a particular building type.
Parking maximums discourage car trips (and, potentially, car ownership)
by decreasing parking supply and increasing prices. Some cities allow
developers to build parking beyond the maximum (up to a strict ceiling)
for an additional fee or tax, which can be allocated to public transport or
active transportation improvements. LEFT: A street in
Mexico City before
(top) and after
(bottom) the
implementation of the
ecoParq program.
Space previously
taken by cars for
illegal parking has
been reallocated to
pedestrians.
source: Google Maps/
Paul Buendía

RIGHT: Revenues from

the ecoParq program
support pedestrian
infrastructure
improvements in the
neighborhood.
source: Alejandro,
Flickr

15 Getting the Prices Right: An Evaluation of Pricing Parking by Demand in San Francisco.
16 16 Smart Pune’s Push Towards Sustainable Transportation. 17
17 How Much Does One Parking Spot Add to Rent? 18 “Floor area” is defined as the total horizontal area of buildings and above-grade covered parking.
 SAN FRANCISCO, USA SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL

San Francisco’s SFpark program, adopted in 2011, used sensors to monitor São Paulo reformed its on-street parking in 2016, replacing paper coupons
parking space availability on every block and parking meters that charge with a digital system known as Zona Azul Digital. The automated system
drivers based on the time of day. Prices are typically lower before noon sought to improve parking compliance by reducing fraud and reselling,
(compared to before SFpark was implemented), increase between noon and which was common with the paper coupon system. The Zona Azul Digital
3 p.m., and fall somewhere in between after 3 p.m. The city also adjusts platform also provides São Paulo the opportunity to implement demand-
parking prices periodically in response to observed occupancy rates. The based parking in the future.19 In addition, São Paulo eliminated off-street
Municipal Transportation Agency (SFMTA) set a target occupancy rate of 60% parking minimums for all land uses and adopted parking maximums for
to 80% per block: If average occupancy for a given block falls in this range, residential and commercial buildings along transit corridors.
the price will not change following the periodic review. San Francisco has
also been easing minimum off-street parking requirements along transit
corridors and in certain neighborhoods for decades. In early 2019, San key In the years following adoption of On-street parking revenues increased
parking maximums, developers by 60% after the first year of operation,
Francisco eliminated minimum off-street parking requirements citywide. outcomes reported being able to build public largely due to more efficient agent
SÃO PAULO housing closer to the city center inspections, enabled by digital parking
because they do not have to include space occupancy tracking. 20
parking in development costs.
key Improved parking Fewer instances Greenhouse gas Increased net
availability led to of double parking emissions fell parking revenues
outcomes an 8% reduction led to a 2% by 30% in SFpark by USD $1.9
SAN in traffic. increase in public areas compared million per year.
FRANCISCO transit speeds. to a 6% decrease
in control areas
during the
same period.

OFF-STREET
MULTILEVEL

OFF-STREET ON-STREET ON-STREET ON-STREET

SURFACE PRICED INFORMAL PROHIBITED

x4 x4

x10 x10

x4 x10 x10 x4

OFF-STREET OFF-STREET
PUBLIC RESIDENTIAL /
UNDERGROUND COMMERCIAL
UNDERGROUND

Meters for the

SFpark program. With goals to increase
source: Carlos turnover and limit
Felipe Pardo long-term parking in
commercial areas, São
Paulo analyzed and
reformed both on-
and off-street parking
policies.
source: ITDP Brazil

18 19 “São Paulo” in Parking: An International Perspective. Pp. 36–38. 19

20 “São Paulo” in Parking: An International Perspective. P. 56.
 2. COMMERCIAL PARKING TAX/FEE NOTTINGHAM, ENGLAND

Commercial parking taxes are levied either on revenues generated by In 2012, Nottingham began the Workplace Parking Levy program, which
commercial parking operators or based on the number of spaces or parking charges business owners with 11 or more parking spaces £387 (USD $488)
surface area. Notably, this does not necessarily need to function as a per space annually. 25 Employers with 10 or fewer spaces are exempt.
“tax” in the legal sense, and could just as easily be referred to as a fee if With this program, Nottingham raises about £9 million annually, of which
that is more politically palatable. Commercial lots that offer free parking £500,000 is used to operate the program. In addition, the city pursues
are required to pay the tax, which is typically remitted annually. While the match funding, and for each £1 raised from the program it receives an
commercial lot owner is responsible for collecting and remitting the tax additional £3 to £4. 26 The revenue is used for public transportation projects,
to the city, the tax itself is added to parking rates and ultimately paid by such as the redevelopment of the Nottingham rail station and the local
drivers. While the theory behind commercial parking taxes is to increase tram network.
the cost of parking and, thus, raise the cost of (and reduce demand for)
private vehicle trips, few impact evaluations have been conducted to draw
the connection between these policies and reductions in driving. The major
success of commercial parking taxes in practice has been raising revenue,
which is often reallocated to local transport-related projects, including
public transit facilities.

SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA

The city imposes an annual Parking Space Levy (PSL) of AU $2,490 (USD Revenues from the
workplace parking
$1,717) per commercial off-street parking space in the central business levy support upkeep
district (CBD) and North Sydney/Milsons Point district, and AU $880 per and redevelopment of
the Nottingham tram.
space in four other neighborhoods outside of the CBD. 21 Parking managers source:
are required to maintain records that show how often each space is used, Ed Webster / CC B
and facilities that are only used periodically (such as seasonal lots) pay a
prorated amount. The tax raises approximately AU $100 million annually,
SEATTLE, USA
and revenues are kept in a special fund for transportation-related projects.
PSL revenues have been used to finance transit station upgrades, secure Since 2010, a commercial parking tax of 12.5% has been in place for all
covered bicycle parking at transit stations, and build commuter park and commercial surface parking lots in Seattle. 27 The tax is collected by
ride lots. 22 23 commercial lot owners on top of the base price to park (free parking is also
subject to the tax, assessed at 12.5% of the market value of an off-street
parking space) and then paid to the government when filing taxes.28 The
tax yields upwards of $21 million annually, and funds are used to support
MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIA transportation infrastructure and redevelopment, such as the Mercer
Corridor project. 29 Despite attempts to raise the tax rate to generate more
Melbourne’s Long Stay Car Park Levy
funding for metro service in 2014, the commercial parking tax amount has
(AU $800/USD $550) applies to long-
not changed for the past decade. 30
stay and permanently leased park-
ing spaces in off-street commercial
car parks within the city’s CBD. The
levy was implemented to encour-
age parking managers to limit the
number of long-term parking spac- BELOW: Seattle's
es, thereby enabling more turnover commercial parking
and efficient use of space through tax has funded
infrastructure
short-term parking. Revenues are improvements, like
allocated to public transport im- protected cycle lanes
and pedestrian space
provements within the CBD. 24 In Melbourne, Australia, parking along Mercer Corridor.
revenues are redirected to public source:
transport, including the city’s tram Seattle Department of
system--the largest in the world. Transportation
source: Bernard Spragg
25 ”1: Nottingham Workplace Parking Levy” in Funding and Financing Inclusive Growth in Cities.
26 A Winning Policy: Nottingham’s Workplace Parking Levy.
21 Parking Space Levy 27 The Case for a Tax on Parking Lots.
22 Parking Taxes: Evaluating Options and Impacts. 28 Commercial Parking Tax.
20 23 Parking Space Levy. 29 Mercer Corridor Project. 21
24 Parking Price Policies: A Review of the Melbourne Congestion Levy. 30 The Case for a Tax on Parking Lots.
 EMISSIONS PRICING

Emissions pricing strategies charge high-polluting vehicles to enter a

designated zone. The primary goal is to encourage a shift to cleaner vehicles
in the short term; however, some cities, like Brussels, are starting to align
emissions pricing with broader traffic reduction goals as a strategy to
address climate change. Restrictions typically do not differentiate between BOX 2 THE EVOLUTION OF LOW EMISSION ZONES
fuel technologies (e.g., CNG) but instead focus on the performance of the
vehicle. Low emission zones (LEZ), clean air zones (CAZ), and similar policies
fall into this category.
The earliest low emission zones emerged in Europe LOW EMISSION ZONE 1.0
LOW EMISSION ZONES in the late 1990s and were focused primarily on
reducing pollution from heavy-duty trucks—the • Performance-based emission
A low emission zone (LEZ) or clean air zone (CAZ) requires vehicles to pay highest emitters on the road—in high density urban standards on heavy-duty vehicles
an entry fee based on the vehicle’s emission rating. An LEZ differs from areas. LEZ restrictions in Stockholm and other
congestion pricing because it sets a charge based on the emission level Swedish cities, London, Strasbourg, and Amsterdam
of the vehicle; a flat congestion charge applies to all vehicles entering the only applied to heavy-duty vehicles such as trucks
zone, regardless of their emission rate. and buses for the first few years of LEZ operation. 31

Depending on the design, LEZs can limit the use of vehicles—particularly

To further reduce emissions, similar performance- LOW EMISSION ZONE 2.0
those with the highest emission levels—by making the external costs of
based restrictions were extended to light-duty
those trips more apparent to drivers. High emitting vehicles may be charged vehicles. However, this has raised new equity • Performance-based emission
more, or low emission vehicles may receive a discount. Zero emission challenges that had not been a factor in the original standards on heavy-duty
vehicles (ZEVs) may be exempted from the charge altogether. At the time of LEZ model because fees or restrictions had been vehicles
writing, over 200 LEZs have been implemented throughout Europe. shouldered by private companies that own the
heavy-duty trucks or buses, not by individual • Performance-based emission
Outcomes for drivers. The efficacy of low emission zones that standards on light-duty vehicles
stricter LEZ schemes VEHICLES THAT MEET THE
EMISSIONS STANDARD include light-duty vehicles is limited by the relative
that completely
prohibit high- CAN ENTER THE ZONE. ease for middle- and high-income drivers to either
NON
polluting vehicles FEE-BASED pay the fee or purchase a more efficient vehicle to
(non-fee-based) can avoid fees or fines. It is often much more difficult
DESIGN
be quite different for low-income drivers to afford to replace their
from those of
fee-based LEZs,
VEHICLES THAT vehicle, and paying a fee to enter the LEZ represents
DO NOT MEET a larger share of their transportation budget
as shown in this THE EMISSIONS
graphic. The non- STANDARD ARE compared to higher-income drivers.
fee-based design BANNED. VIOLATORS
is discussed in ARE FINED.
this paper under LOW EMISSION ZONE 3.0
“limited traffic
Recognizing the equity implications and the lack of
In Madrid,
zones.” consensus on the long-term impacts of LEZs on air
non-compliant
quality, a few cities are transitioning into what we • Performance-based emission
vehicles cannot
enter the zone. refer to as the “3.0” version of low emission zones. standards on heavy- and light-duty
All violators are This approach builds on the performance-based vehicles
assessed a €90 aspect of a traditional low emission zone but uses
fine • Complementary policies operating
complementary measures (e.g., parking reforms,
FEE-BASED street redesigns, bus electrification) to meet within LEZ support emissions and
DESIGN defined outcomes and address equity concerns. traffic reduction outcomes

VEHICLES THAT In London, drivers of In Brussels, drivers of non-compliant • Focus on equity through
DO NOT MEET non-compliant vehicles can purchase vehicles can purchase a day pass for €35 redistributive pricing policies
THE EMISSIONS a day pass for about €14. Violators are to enter the zone (max 8/year). Violators
STANDARD CAN assessed a €176 fine are assessed a €350 fine
ENTER THE ZONE
IF THEY PAY A FEE.
VIOLATORS ARE LESS BURDENSOME MORE BURDENSOME
FINED. MORE VEHICLES ENTER THE ZONE FEWER VEHICLES ENTER THE ZONE

22 23
31 Low Emission Zones in Europe: Requirements, Enforcement, and Air Quality.
 MILAN, ITALY LONDON, ENGLAND

A low emission zone known as Ecopass was first implemented in Milan in In 2019, central London implemented an Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ)
2008. Located in the Cerchia dei Bastioni area of central Milan, the zone that requires private and commercial cars, motorcycles, and vans to pay
occupied 8.2 square kilometers. A tiered payment system was based on a £12.50 (USD $15.88) fee to enter the zone if their vehicles do not meet
vehicle emissions, with fees of €10 for Euro 0 diesel cars; €5 for Euro 0 the ULEZ emission standards (below Euro 4 gas engines and Euro 6 diesel
gasoline and Euro 1–4 diesel cars; and €2 for Euro 1 and 2 gasoline cars. engines). This fee is in addition to the daily congestion charge paid by
Electric and hybrid-electric light-duty vehicles were not charged. There nearly all vehicles entering Central London, but it replaces the city’s Low
was a 50% discount for residents and a 40% discount for multiple-entry Emission Zone and Toxicity (T) charge. Automatic number plate recognition
tickets. 32 Ecopass helped reduce traffic by 21% during its first year, as (ANPR) cameras are used to enforce the boundaries of the ULEZ. Drivers
many people switched to transit to avoid paying the fee. However, over must register their car and credit card online to pay the ULEZ charge if
time people replaced their vehicles with cleaner ones to avoid the Ecopass their vehicle does not meet the Euro 4/Euro 6 standards. Those who enter
charge, and the number of vehicles entering the area eventually increased. 33 the ULEZ without preregistering their vehicle are assessed a £160 penalty.
By 2012, congestion had returned to pre-Ecopass levels. Around the same Residents who live within or adjacent to the ULEZ are exempt from the
time, the city held a referendum on upgrading and expanding Ecopass, charge until late 2021, when the zone will be expanded.
which passed with nearly 80% support. The city ultimately upgraded the
Ecopass scheme to a congestion charge zone that uses increasingly strict
standards to ban high emitting vehicles year over year. The transition was key 13,500 fewer high-polluting vehicles Nitrogen dioxide levels fell by one
highly supported by the public. 34 entering the zone daily resulted in a 4% third, and particulate matter (PM) was
outcomes reduction in CO2 emissions. reduced by 13% within the zone during
LONDON ULEZ the first six months.

key Mode shift to After 4 years, The Ecopass zone

public transport traffic returned to saw slightly fewer
outcomes was only observed pre-Ecopass levels. traffic crashes
MILAN in the short term compared to
while residents outside of the
purchased cleaner zone.
vehicles.

London’s ULEZ and

congestion charge
operate together on
weekdays.
source: David
Hawgood,
CC BY-SA 2.0,

Yellow and green

signage and cameras
alert drivers of the
Area C congestion
pricing zone in Milan,
Italy.
source: wikicommons
32 An Economic, Environmental and Transport Evaluation of the Ecopass Scheme in Milan: Three Years Later.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249322950_An_economic_environmental_and_transport_evaluation_of_the_Ecopass_
scheme_in_Milan_three_years_later
24 33 Cede l’effetto-Diga, 7 Mila Auto in Più. 25
34 Milan: Area C: Fewer Cars, More Public Spaces, Better Life for All.
 BRUSSELS, BELGIUM
CONGESTION PRICING
The Brussels LEZ covers the entire Brussels-Capital region, which includes
19 municipalities, and was implemented in January 2019. As of January 2020, A congestion charge is a fee levied on drivers to enter a designated area
vehicles that do not meet the Euro 2 standard for gasoline or the Euro that is highly congested. A congestion charge aims to price the additional
4 standard for diesel are not permitted to enter the LEZ. Noncompliant time each driver imposes on other drivers and to make drivers more aware
vehicles can purchase a day pass for €35, but drivers are restricted to of congestion and related negative outcomes when making decisions about
a maximum of eight passes per year. Noncompliant vehicles that enter travel (e.g., mode, trip time, route, or destination). Raising travel costs for
the LEZ without a pass are assessed a €350 fine. While the LEZ was private vehicles leads to lower traffic volumes and related co-benefits, such
implemented to combat harmful air pollution, reducing VKT and promoting as improved air quality, reduced emissions, less noise, and faster travel
mode shift away from vehicles are also stated goals of the scheme, which times for public transit vehicles. Studies suggest that congestion charging
aligns with the Brussels-Capital regional mobility plan. 35 To this end, is optimal in areas with limited road capacity, large shares of long-distance
the city has also implemented supportive “pull” policies to encourage commute trips, and alternate travel modes already available. 38 39 Congestion
and maintain a shift away from personal vehicle use and toward public pricing must be accompanied by improvements in public transport, walking,
transport, walking and cycling, and shared modes. Residents are given free and cycling to support the shift away from private vehicle use.
access to public transit and carshare if they scrap an older vehicle that is
not compliant with the city’s LEZ standards. Brussels also provides free 1. CORDON PRICING
“mobility visits,” which allow people to test out transport services like
bikeshare as alternatives to driving. 36 Model estimates anticipate the LEZ Cordon pricing is the primary congestion charging strategy currently used
will contribute to a two-thirds decline in NOX emissions across the Brussels- in cities: An area is cordoned and a fee is charged for vehicles to enter or
Capital region by 2025. 37 travel within the cordon. The first city to implement cordon pricing was
Singapore in 1998, and it has served as a model for other cities’ program
designs (see Singapore case study below). Cordon pricing has been
key A 4.7% reduction in NOX and a 6% A 71% reduction of NOX and a 67%
reduction in PM were observed during reduction of PM emissions from Euro primarily implemented as a flat fee to enter, regardless of congestion
outcomes the first six months of LEZ operation. 0 and Euro 1 diesel vehicles were level. In other words, entering the zone during peak commuting hours is
BRUSSELS observed during the first six months. the same price as entering during the middle of the day. Cordon pricing
can, however, more directly target peak-hour congestion by charging more
during peak times. Cordon pricing requires nearly all vehicles to pay a fee
to enter, so travelers must choose an alternative to driving to avoid paying
the fee (or share a ride with others to reduce the cost). For this reason,
cordon pricing schemes need to be accompanied by high-quality, affordable
public transportation as well as safe and comfortable walking and cycling
infrastructure.

In Brussels, efforts to
encourage a shift to
sustainable transport
modes, not just a A portion of revenues
reduction in private from congestion
car use, contribute to charging in London
more vibrant, are funding the
people-focused expansion of the city’s
streets. cycling network and
Source: Eo Naya, other sustainable
Shutterstock transport modes.
source: European
Cyclists' Federation,
Flickr

35 Expected Effects From the Low Emissions Zone on Car Fleet and Air Quality in the Brussels Region.
26 36 ”Prrimes” in Quelles Sont les Offres de Mobilité Alternatives Proposées par la Région Bruxelloise? 38 The Welfare Effects of Cordon Pricing and Area Pricing: Simulation with a Multi-Regional General Equilibrium Model. 27
37 Expected Effects From the Low Emissions Zone on Car Fleet and Air Quality in the Brussels Region. 39 “Appendix B19: Cordon Congestion Tolls” in Moving Los Angeles: Short-Term Policy Options for Improving Transportation.
 LONDON, ENGLAND STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN

In 2003, London implemented a congestion charge to reduce trip times Stockholm was one of the first cities to implement a low emission zone
within the CBD, improve bus service on-time rates, and encourage a shift (LEZ) to reduce pollution from heavy-duty vehicles. However, in 2007, after
to public transport. The charging zone covers 21 square kilometers of a decade in operation, congestion was still increasing and ran the risk of
Central London, and drivers are required to pay a flat fee (£15 in 2020, up negating other positive benefits of the LEZ, like pollution reduction. At
from £11.50 in 2019 and £5 when the scheme launched) to enter between that time the idea of implementing a congestion charge was politically
7 a.m. and 10 p.m. every day. Previously, the charge ended at 6 p.m. to contested, with only 36% of the public supporting the idea.44 As a result,
lessen the burden on evening shift workers in the theater and restaurant the city’s coalition government introduced a six-month pilot that would be
sectors. People living within the charging zone were given a 90% discount, followed by a referendum. During the pilot period, congestion fell by over
though the zone includes relatively few residential properties. People with 20% and many commuters shifted to public transit. Many drivers liked that
disabilities, emergency vehicles, and motorcycles are exempt from the their trip times were more reliable and that revenues helped support not
charge. “Ultra low emission” vehicles, which include electric vehicles and just public transport but also some road improvements. After the pilot
cars and vans that meet the Euro 5 standard, are exempt until 2021, when period ended, public approval for congestion pricing increased to over 50%,
the exemption will be tightened to Euro 6.40 Private hire vehicles, including and a permanent plan was implemented.45 Over time, public support has
ridehail, were initially exempt; however, the number of vehicles operated grown even further. The Stockholm program also adopted a fiscal incentive
by companies like Uber has grown significantly in recent years—nearly 10% to ease public resistance: Congestion charge fees paid for commuting can
between 2015 and 2016.41 Thus, citing air quality concerns, London removed be deducted from income taxes.46 The congestion charge zone covers a
the exemption for private hire vehicles in mid-2019.42 Taxis, however, are still smaller area than the LEZ (30 km2) and applies to all vehicles except buses
exempt from the charge. and foreign-registered cars. Monitoring of the congestion zone perimeter is
done via automatic license plate recognition. Drivers are charged each time
From the start, the city was committed to providing high-quality they pass the entrance cordon, but this is capped daily for each individual
transportation alternatives, and it added 300 buses and new routes to vehicle. Fees vary throughout the day, and failure to pay the fee triggers a
the network the day the congestion charge went into effect. Investments penalty of SEK 500 (€48). A congestion charge fee increase was implemented
in cycling and walking infrastructure projects have also been prioritized in 2016, raising the peak price by 75% from €2 to €3.5 and the off-peak
to support modal shift. Transport for London capitalized on the lower price from €1 to €1.1. Traffic volumes fell by 5% following the price increase
traffic volumes that resulted from the charge, claiming space for new bus compared to the previous year, and the program generated €140 million in
and cycle lanes. Revenues from the charge are legally allocated to public revenue.47
transit, cycling, and walking improvements—a critical move to secure public
support and to maintain quality and reliability for driving alternatives.43
key Trip times in Compared to 2005 Generates
central Stockholm traffic levels, approximately
outcomes declined; queuing traffic reductions USD $155 million
key After one year, After three years, Revenues of Despite mode STOCKHOLM times were reduced between 18% and in annual revenue,
29,000 more congestion had at least £100 share increases by about 33% 22% were observed which supports
outcomes bus passengers been reduced million (USD $129 for cyclists and during morning annually between public transport
LONDON entered the zone by 30%, and by million) have pedestrians, a peak hours and by 2006 and 2013. and road
during morning 2014, 39% fewer been generated 17% decrease in 50% during evening improvements.
peak hours private vehicles annually since traffic crashes peak times.
compared to the were entering the 2008; revenues with cyclists and
previous year, and congestion charge surpassed £150 a 15% decrease
peak-period bus zone. million (USD $194 in crashes with
delays dropped by million) each year pedestrians
50%. between 2014 and during
2018. congestion
charge hours
There was a 15% were observed.
reduction in VKT
within the charging
zone after one
year of operation;
an additional 11% Revenues from
VKT reduction congestion pricing in
Stockholm, Sweden
was observed
support public
after the Western transportation
Extension zone was improvements.
implemented. source: Iulianna Est,
Shutterstock

40 How Road Pricing Is Transforming London–and What Your City Can Learn. 44 Toward Car-Free Cities: Stockholm Shows the Sometimes-Bumpy Road to Congestion Charges.
41 London Congestion Charge Has Been a Huge Success. It’s Time to Change It. 45 Study on International Practices for Low-Emissions Zone and Congestion Charging.
28 42 PHVs and the Congestion Charge. 46 The Potential of Road-Pricing Schemes to Reduce Carbon Emissions. 29
43 How Road Pricing Is Transforming London—and What Your City Can Learn. 47 Long-Term Effects of the Swedish Congestion Charges: Discussion Paper.
 MILAN, ITALY (AREA C) 2. DISTANCE-BASED PRICING
Replacing Milan’s Ecopass emissions pricing program in 2012, the Area C
program established a €5 congestion charge for most vehicles entering the Unlike cordon pricing, which charges drivers a flat fee to enter a zone,
previously established Ecopass area on weekdays from 7:30 a.m. to 7:30 distance-based pricing charges a variable fee based on time spent and/or
p.m. Electric vehicles, motorcycles, taxis, and public transit vehicles are distance traveled within a zone. The dynamic fee can increase during peak
exempt from the charge. Highly polluting diesel (below Euro 4 engines) and congestion periods, which aligns more closely to the economic principle
gasoline cars (below Euro 0 engines) are not permitted to enter the zone at underlying congestion pricing than does a one-time flat fee. 51
all. Violators are assessed a €87 fine. In 2019, Milan implemented Area B, a Thus, unlike a flat fee charged through cordon pricing, distance-based
limited traffic zone that surrounds Area C and covers most of the city. Area pricing links the amount of driving an individual does (and, relatedly,
B carries additional emissions-based vehicle restrictions. the amount of congestion, air pollution, and other negative externalities
they are responsible for) to the amount they pay. Academic models show
that distance-based congestion pricing and cordon pricing both reduce
congestion; however, distance-based pricing more effectively reduces
key After three years, The program Having fewer cars
CO2 levels within generated €30 in the city center delays and can do so with lower fees. 52 Though Singapore announced
outcomes the zone had million in revenues enabled Milan plans to implement a “next generation” distance-based congestion charge
MILAN decreased 33% in 2017, with about to repurpose sometime in 2020, there are no examples of distance-based central area
AREA C compared to 2010 €4 million covering 15,000m2 along
levels.48 program operating the front of the congestion pricing schemes in current operation. 53
CONGESTION
costs and the rest Castello Sforzesco
CHARGE funding public into a pedestrian Vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fee pilots in Oregon and California in the
transit frequency area and to United States are a type of distance-based pricing as they charge drivers
improvements and replace on-street
other sustainable parking spaces
based on the distance they travel, though these are not congestion-based.
transport with bikeshare and High-occupancy toll lanes or dynamically priced express lanes in San Diego,
projects.49 carshare stations Orange and Riverside Counties in California, Houston, Denver, Maryland,
throughout the northern Virginia, and a few other regions in the United States charge
city. 50
time-of-day and distance-based tolls using special express lanes, with
fees adjusted to keep traffic flowing. Some of these facilities are free or
discounted for high-occupancy vehicles, and some dedicate a portion of toll
revenue to support bus service or to allow free or discounted passage for
buses. These are not located in central urban areas, however, and primarily
serve to distribute traffic among parallel uncharged routes.

Area B SINGAPORE
In 1998, Singapore became the first city in the world to use electronic
road pricing (ERP)—namely, gantries and in-vehicle readers—to operate a
Milan city boundary congestion charging zone, replacing the area licensing program that had
been operating since 1976. Singapore’s ERP is the most sophisticated road-
Area C user charging scheme globally, with prices adjusted as frequently as every
few minutes at more than 75 charging points across the network. Prices are
set with a goal of keeping the roads free-flowing at least 85% of the time.
Citing increases in operating and maintenance costs of its now decades-
old ERP system, Singapore’s Ministry of Transport announced in 2014 that
it would begin to transition to a distance-based ERP in 2020. Vehicles will
Milan's Area B, a be tracked using GPS and charged based on distance traveled. The new
limited traffic zone
In Singapore, the
system will replace existing in-vehicle ERP readers with on-board units
that covers almost the
entire city, requires
congestion charge (OBUs) that provide real-time information about road prices, traffic, and
zone is delineated by on-street parking availability. Existing ERP gantries will also be phased out.
vehicles to meet
overhead gantries
emissions-based Heavy road users such as taxis and other private-hire vehicles expect high
which show the
criteria to enter. Area
C, the congestion
current price to enter charges, which could be passed to consumers. 54 Additional concerns have
the zone.
charge zone that
source: Tim Adams
been raised about privacy and unlawful surveillance generated from the
covers the city center,
requires vehicles to
(Flickr) presence of GPS-enabled OBUs in every vehicle. 55
pay to enter.
source: wikicommons 51 Congestion is understood as a “commons” problem in that a good that is held in common will be overused—no single entity is
incentivized or authorized to protect it, so it is overused to the detriment of all. Congestion pricing, a Pigouvian tax, is meant to
internalize to the user the externality of economic harm caused by the use of the common, thus ensuring appropriate use.
52 Distance-Dependent Congestion Pricing for Downtown Zones.
48 The Potential of Road Pricing Schemes to Reduce Carbon Emissions. 53 Ministry of Transport: ERP.
30 49 https://www.transport.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/Report/DArtagnan-appendices-to-be-released.pdf 54 Shift to New ERP System Starts Next Year with Free in-Vehicle Unit Swap. 31
50 Charging Scheme in City Center (Area C) and Other Strategies in Milan. 55 Singapore Losing Sight of Privacy in Next-Gen Tech Ambitions.
 KIGALI, RWANDA (KN 4 AVENUE/IMBUGA CITY WALK)
REALLOCATING ROAD SPACE FOR PEOPLE
Kigali began prioritizing pedestrianization of streets in its 2013 Master
Reallocating road space and priority away from private vehicles improves Plan, highlighting the need to provide green, livable spaces that facilitate
safety and comfort for pedestrians, cyclists, and public transit users. Road economic vitality and social equity. In August 2015, the city introduced
space reallocation strategies can range from pedestrian-priority streets, a plan to pedestrianize KN 4 Avenue located in Kigali’s central business
where all vehicle traffic is banned, to complete streets, where vehicles are district. A master plan to improve pedestrian conditions along the car-
permitted but space is clearly prioritized for people and public transit. free corridor, branded the Imbuga City Walk, was developed in 2017 and is
Limiting vehicle access through street design incentivizes drivers to seek awaiting implementation. 57 In the meantime, the corridor is used for bi-
alternative routes and encourages people to shift away from driving as monthly car-free days in Kigali and serves as the gathering and starting
walking, cycling, and public transit become the fastest, safest options. This point for walking and cycling. This has led to use of the corridor for other
allows for some traffic diversion to higher capacity streets without the need types of gatherings where vehicles are restricted—it’s a downtown open
to establish or enforce a designated zone. market for local producers and a preferred place for events such as art
exhibitions, concerts, and fitness clinics.
It is worth noting that these strategies, perhaps more so than the others
evaluated in this paper, can pose significant challenges to urban freight GUANGZHOU, CHINA (LIUYUN XIAOQU)
logistics. Streets with cycle lanes and high pedestrian volumes can create
new curbside access challenges for commercial vehicles, which can in turn Just a short walk from BRT and metro transit stations,
lead to commercial vehicles blocking cyclist or pedestrian infrastructure Liuyun Xiaoqu is an accessible commercial area and
and creating unsafe conditions for these groups. Strong curb management center for public life in Guangzhou. The neighborhood
(see Parking Pricing, above) and freight movement strategies are needed to was designed in the 1980s and prioritizes pedestrians
reduce these interactions. by creating a continuous walking network made up of
125 safe, accessible walkways and streets shared with
1. PEDESTRIAN-PRIORITY STREETS bicycles. In contrast to similar neighborhoods in China
that are gated, Liuyun Xiaoqu’s paths are accessible
Pedestrian-priority streets ban or heavily restrict vehicle access (e.g., off- throughout the day, encouraging diverse users and
Streets in the Liuyun
peak delivery or emergency vehicles only) and prioritize space and safety Xiaoqu neighborhood walkway connectivity throughout the area. By removing parking and
for pedestrians and cyclists. Access and travel within pedestrian-priority in Guangzhou are making alleys public, this development has become a center for commerce,
designed for people
streets is easiest for pedestrians and cyclists, which can help encourage instead of cars.
recreation, and enjoyment. However, property values within Liuyun Xiaoqu
a shift away from driving and toward these modes. This design treatment source: ITDP have increased at a faster rate compared to the surrounding Tianhe District,
is typically implemented on streets with lots of commercial activity that which, on the one hand, demonstrates the social value of and demand for
generates demand for many types of uses, such as shopping, dining, this type of design, but has also resulted in reduced affordability. 58
gathering, and vending. Integrating placemaking elements, seating, and
programming throughout can elevate a pedestrian-priority street to a
CURITIBA, BRAZIL (RUA XV DE NOVEMBRO)
destination in and of itself in addition to its ability to provide a comfortable
connection to other places.
Originally known as Rua das Flores, Rua XV de
Novembro was the first major pedestrian street in
Brazil and started restricting access to vehicles in
1972. The pedestrianization effort was unpopular at
first, as the transformation had not been previously
announced. Planners realized that they had not
garnered sufficient input from local stakeholders.
Eventually they designed alternate traffic patterns that
reduced the need to drive on Rua XV de Novembro,
Rua XV de Novembro
and they consulted shop owners along the street about their preferences in
in Curitiba, Brazil has
become a social regards to streetscape redevelopment. Having no loud or dangerous vehicle
Renderings of the gathering place since traffic has led to tangible livability improvements—Rua XV de Novembro
anticipated Imbuga it closed to cars in
City Walk car-free 1972. is now a gathering place and commercial destination for both tourists and
corridor in Kigali, source: Shutterstock residents. 59 Cultural and social events are common throughout the space,
Rwanda.
source: set against a backdrop of traditional architecture, flower boxes, and street
Kigali Master Plan furniture.
2050

57 Car-free Zone Redevelopment to Commence Early Next Year.

32 58 TOD Best Practical Case: A Mixed-Mode Open Court. 33
56 Freight in a Bicycle-Friendly City: Exploratory Analysis with New York City Open Data. 59 Jaime Lerner on Making Curitiba’s First Pedestrian Street.
 2. TRANSIT MALLS JERUSALEM, ISRAEL (JAFFA ROAD)

Jaffa Road is one of the oldest streets in Jerusalem and connects the
Transit malls are typically made up of a corridor or multiple streets where city’s east and west sides. Once a major artery for vehicles, Jaffa Road was
vehicle traffic is banned or heavily restricted and public transit vehicles, redeveloped decades ago to only allow public buses and taxis as part of
cyclists, and pedestrians are prioritized. Transit malls reduce traffic by a broader effort to revitalize downtown Jerusalem and attract businesses
restricting access to most vehicles during the day, creating a safer, quieter, and residents back to the city center. However, due to the high number
less polluted environment for people walking, cycling, and visiting public of old diesel buses traveling through the corridor, travel speeds were
spaces. Transit malls may be located at “transport hubs” where multiple relatively low and noise and air pollution were major concerns.62 Since 2011,
public transit systems come together, facilitating easier transfers between the Jerusalem Light Rail’s red line has replaced the chaotic and congested
systems and modes. Jaffa Road in network of buses as the sole public transit offering along the Jaffa Road
Jerusalem features a
corridor. The street now supports dense numbers of pedestrians and
wide, safe pedestrian
footpath cyclists, commercial activity, and gathering spaces.
SEOUL, SOUTH KOREA (YONSEI-RO) source: commons.
wikimedia.org
Seoul’s first transit mall opened in 2014 along Yonsei-ro in the Sinchon
neighborhood, which also includes Yonsei University. Once a heavily NEW YORK CITY, USA (14TH STREET BUSWAY)
congested four-lane road, Yonsei-ro is now car-free from the University In October 2019, 14th Street between 3rd and 9th Avenues in Manhattan
to the Sinchon metro station. Buses (and taxis from midnight to 4 a.m. was closed to through traffic as part of a pilot, creating an exclusive
when public transit is not operating) are the only vehicles permitted in the thoroughfare for public buses and commercial and emergency vehicles.
corridor.60 Intersection improvements and detour routes were implemented Cars are able to enter the corridor to pick up or drop off, but signage
on surrounding roads to support traffic diversion off Yonsei-ro and mitigate directs them to turn off 14th Street at each intersection. Drivers who stay
spillover congestion. On Yonsei-ro, one traffic lane in each direction was on the corridor for longer are subject to a fine of USD $50; a graduated fine
removed and the sidewalks on both sides of the street were widened structure for subsequent violations is meant to encourage compliance.
significantly. Permanent vending stalls were installed to limit vendors’ Enforcement is facilitated by cameras mounted to buses.63 Some area
use of carts, which previously had blocked the pedestrian right-of-way on residents were strongly opposed to the 14th Street Busway plan, mounting
sidewalks.61 legal challenges to the project that cited concerns about spillover
traffic onto side streets surrounding the corridor. The busway was made
permanent in June 2020, with plans to expand it further east.
key Surveys showed Commercial Traffic crashes
an 11% increase businesses along were reduced by
outcomes in bus commuters the corridor saw 34% compared to
YONSEI-RO along the an 11% increase in before the project key Bus trip speeds Trip times using A 17% increase in
increased by up to side streets Citi Bike ridership
TRANSIT MALL corridor following revenue-generating was implemented, outcomes 47%, and ridership increased slightly, on 14th Street and
implementation. transactions and a and pedestrians
4% increase in total reported feeling NEW YORK on certain bus between 0 and 3 nearby streets,
revenues. safer walking CITY 14TH routes along the minutes; vehicle compared to the
through the STREET corridor increased volume on previous year,
corridor. an average of 24% parallel streets was observed,
BUSWAY during morning saw little change which outpaced
peak hours. (12th Street) or bikeshare-usage
decreased (13th growth in the rest
Street). of the city.64

The 14th Street

Busway in New York
Once crammed with City prioritizes buses
traffic, Yonsei-ro has and commercial
been converted into a vehicles along a
bus-only transit mall six-block corridor, and
where pedestrians resulted in increased
enjoy wide sidewalks, bus speeds and
seating, and a ridership.
low-stress walking source: Metropolitan
environment. Transportation
source: Google Maps Authority (Flickr)

62 From Mule Tracks to Light-Rail Transit Tracks: Integrating Modern Infrastructure into an Ancient City—Jerusalem, Israel.
34 60 Road Diet for a More Active Street. 63 14th Street Select Bus Service with Transit & Truck Priority Pilot Project. 35
61 Yonsei-ro, Seoul’s First Transit Mall. 64 14th Street Transit + Truck Priority Pilot Project Quarterly Report, Winter 2020.
 3. COMPLETE STREETS AND OTHER PEOPLE-FIRST account for 10% of downtown trips.68 Nearly two
STREET DESIGNS out of every three households in Buenos Aires and
its surrounding areas do not own a car. In the past
Complete streets are designed to meet the needs of all road users, which decade, the city has installed over 100 blocks of
means all ages and abilities of pedestrians, cyclists, public transit riders, pedestrian streets downtown—some are completely
and drivers. Instead of prioritizing vehicle speeds, complete streets car-free, others include widened protected spaces for
incorporate elements that make travel by non-car modes easier, safer, pedestrians and cyclists, with one lane for vehicles
BELOW: Pedestrians and more comfortable. These elements can include bicycle lanes, transit- restricted to a maximum of 10km/h.69 Improved
enjoy vibrant areas only lanes, wider sidewalks, raised crosswalks, median islands, accessible lighting, trees and planters, and new cycle lanes further
meant for social
interactions along the transit stops, seating, and shade. Complete streets also provide continuous increased comfort and safety along these streets.
renovated JM road in facilities for walking, cycling, and public transport. Vehicles are not banned
Pune.
source: ITDP India
from complete streets; instead, some of the space dedicated to cars is
reallocated to sustainable transport modes and improved public spaces. BARCELONA, SPAIN (SUPERBLOCKS)

Perhaps one of the most recognized examples of the complete streets

approach is Barcelona’s Superblocks. The city has been committed to
PUNE, INDIA (JANGALI MAHARAJ OR “JM” ROAD) pedestrianization since the 1980s, starting with pedestrianizing the old
Since 2009, Pune has been improving its network quarter and other plazas throughout the city. Barcelona’s Urban Mobility
of sidewalks and cycle tracks to support safe, Plan for 2013–2018 introduced the Superblock model, an approximately
convenient walking and cycling. The success of early 400-by-400-meter area made up of 150-by-150-meter blocks.70 On streets
projects encouraged city officials to develop the Pune within the Superblock, vehicles are restricted to 20km/h and through-
Streets Program, a plan to build out 100 kilometers access is limited by right-turn-only streets. Parking and intersection
of Complete Streets.65 The first phase began in 2018 space is reclaimed for walking and cycling facilities and public gathering
with a commercial section of Jangali Maharaj or “JM” areas. Alongside the implementation of Superblocks, Barcelona has
Road. Regulating what was once haphazard vehicle also committed to building out its network of cycling infrastructure and
parking freed up space to add a cycle track and widen introducing a new orthogonal bus network designed to increase access and
sidewalks, as well as green spaces acting as buffers reliability.71 Three Superblocks have been implemented and six more are
between pedestrians and cyclists. Seating, play spaces in progress. These have been found to generate positive health outcomes,
for children, and improved lighting and signage further including reducing air and noise pollution and improving activity levels and
activate the street.66 access to green space.72

FORTALEZA, BRAZIL (AV. CENTRAL, CIDADE 2000) key Traffic volumes on internal streets The Sant Antoni Superblock has
Avenida Central is a 100-meter street that runs within the Gràcia Superblock have been reclaimed more than 25,000 square
outcomes reduced by 40%, and volumes are 26% meters of public space from vehicles.74
through the center of the Cidade 2000 neighborhood
BARCELONA lower across the superblock.73
of Fortaleza, Brazil. Previously a space almost
SUPER-
exclusively for vehicle travel, the street was
BLOCKS
redeveloped in 2017 under Fortaleza’s City for People
ABOVE: Av. Central, project, which aims to improve safety and enhance public spaces for
Cidade 2000.
Fortaleza, Brazil
people. A low-speed zone—the first phase of the project—was implemented
source: City of in just two days using flexible, inexpensive materials like paint, planters,
Fortaleza and movable furniture. One lane for vehicle traffic was preserved, but the
NEXT PAGE: Lavalle majority of the street space was reclaimed for pedestrians. Following the
street in Microcentro, intervention, survey respondents reported feeling much safer walking on
Buenos Aires is fully
pedestrianized, with a
the street than they had previously, and pedestrian volumes increased by Before and after the
wide footpath that 350%. Vehicle counts conducted in the neighborhood showed no change in superblock
implementation at
facilitates a lively throughput as a result of the changes.67 Carrer de Sancho de
pedestrian zone.
source: ITDP Ávila in Barcelona.
Trees, benches, and a
play area for children
BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA (ÁREA MICROCENTRO) replaced car parking
With the implementation of its Sustainable Mobility plan in 2009, Buenos and wide traffic lanes.
Aires has sought to use pedestrian and cyclist prioritization as a way to source: Google Maps

“democratize the street,” allocating space away from vehicles that only 69 Walk This Way: In Buenos Aires Pedestrian Streets Are the Way of the Future.
70 Mobility and Transport: Urban Mobility Plan. https://www.barcelona.cat/mobilitat/en/about-us/urban-mobility-plan
71 Barcelona's New Bus Network. https://bcnroc.ajuntament.barcelona.cat/jspui/bitstream/11703/115929/5/NovaXarxaBus_20-09-2019_
65 Complete Streets Best Practices | Complete Streets Toolkit: Volume VII. eng.pdf
66 In India, the City of Pune Is Making Space for Transit and People. 72 Changing the Urban Design of Cities for Health: The Superblock Model.
36 67 Reshape Streets, Reconnect Communities: Reclaiming Streets in Fortaleza, Brazil. 73 Spain’s Plan to Create Car-Free “Superblocks” Is Facing Protests. 37
68 El Plan de Movilidad Sustentable para la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. 74 The new Sant Antoni superblock regains 5,000 square meters for use by local residents.
 LIMITED TRAFFIC ZONES & ZEAS

Limited traffic zones (LTZs) restrict access into the zone for most vehicles
and charge a high penalty to unauthorized vehicles that enter the zone.
Residents, public transit, emergency vehicles, and often taxis are typically Tehran has two
exempt and able to enter the zone without restriction. Delivery vehicles simultaneous traffic TEHRAN
are typically restricted to enter the zone only during overnight or off-peak reduction strategies:
an odd-even zone
hours. Permitted vehicles are given a sticker or decal or are able to lower which restricts which
bollards installed around the perimeter of the zone to enter. No other days certain vehicles
can drive, and a
vehicles are permitted. Limited traffic zones have been particularly popular restricted traffic zone
in cities with historic centers, such as Rome and Tehran, which were not which, on top of the
built to handle heavy vehicle congestion. Limited traffic zones can quickly odd-even license
plate restrictions,
reduce vehicle volume, freeing up space for streetscape redesigns that only allows permitted
prioritize walking and cycling. vehicles to drive into
downtown on Odd-Even Zone
weekdays.
Although none are yet in operation, proposed zero emission areas (ZEAs) source: Adapted from
would function in a similar way to limited traffic zones, at least in the short Salarvandian et al., Restricted Traffic Zone
2017.
term, until enough people shift to electric cars to cause traffic to rebound. https://doi.
A ZEA is designed to be more stringent compared to a low emission zone, org/10.5198/
jtlu.2017.1087
allowing only zero emission vehicles and other authorized vehicles to
enter. While this stringent design may result in less driving (i.e., fewer
trips and VKT) than a traditional fee-based low emission zone that allows
noncompliant drivers to pay to enter the zone, equity concerns may still
arise and will need to be addressed by the design. For example, low income
groups are most likely to own older, less fuel-efficient vehicles, which would
prevent them from driving into the zone. Therefore, as in the case of limited ROME, ITALY
traffic zones, ZEAs must prioritize alternatives to driving such as public In Italy, restricted traffic zones are known as “zonas a traffico limitato”
transport, walking, and cycling. (ZTLs). In many Italian cities, like Rome, these zones encircle historic centers
that predate vehicle traffic. Thus, street capacity cannot support typical
traffic volumes. Furthermore, in Rome in particular, city officials were
TEHRAN, IRAN
concerned about the impact of vehicle emissions on ancient landmarks like
Tehran’s Restricted Traffic Zone (RTZ) has been operating in some form the Coliseum. The city’s first ZTL perimeter, established in 1989, was marked
since 1979. In its current form, the RTZ restricts car access within a 32km2 with signs, which proved difficult to enforce. Signs were replaced in 1994
zone in downtown Tehran on weekdays. Drivers may enter this zone only if with gates staffed by police officers tasked with fining violating vehicles.
they have a daily, weekly, or annual pass, and only certain types of drivers, Starting in 1999, the city installed an Automatic number plate recognition
including government and medical staff and people with disabilities, (ANPR) system to monitor zone entrances. As of 2015, Rome has seven ZTLs,
qualify for passes. Unauthorized vehicles that enter the zone are assessed each with slightly different restrictions and operating hours. Exemptions to
a penalty of up to USD $230. Unlike most other limited traffic zones, Rome’s ZTLs are made for residents, taxis, buses, and emergency vehicles,
authorized vehicles are still required to pay a fee, similar to cordon pricing, as well as motorcycles and vehicles transporting people with disabilities.76
to enter the zone. The RTZ perimeter is monitored electronically with
cameras. Tehran’s RTZ is surrounded by a larger Odd-Even Zone (OEZ), which
only allows access to drivers with license plates ending in an odd number key A 13% reduction Public transport Ownership rates
in traffic (2004 trips increased of motorcycles
on odd days of the week and an even number on even days of the week. outcomes evaluation) by nearly 4% and and motor
ROME ZTL was observed pedestrian/cycling scooters, which
compared to before trips increased by are exempt from
key Car use has Car use in the RTZ Travel times in the
ANPR cameras 1.5%. the ZTL restriction,
decreased in is much lower RTZ and OEZ have
outcomes both restricted than use of public increased, possibly were installed, and increased by 50%.
TEHRAN zones, compared transit and walking due to limited an additional 5%
to the rest of the compared to in the and low-quality reduction in car
RESTRICTED
city where no OEZ.75 infrastructure for trips was reported
TRAFFIC ZONE as part of a 2014
restrictions are in non-car modes.
place. evaluation.

38 39
75 Impact of Traffic Zones on Mobility Behavior in Tehran, Iran. 76 The Most Widespread Traffic Control Strategy You've Never Heard of: Traffic Restricted Zones in Italy.
 STRATEGY
EVALUATION

3
In this section we introduce three criteria for evaluating the strategies
outlined in Section II.

3.1 Ability to reduce traffic and improve well-being

City elected officials often tout the link between traffic reduction and
improved livability. We evaluate how each strategy contributes to
targets that many cities have identified as resulting in a more livable
urban environment, such as reducing vehicle access to certain areas,
reducing vehicle kilometers traveled, and raising revenue for street
improvements that benefit all users.
In Madrid, road
markings alert drivers 3.2 Ability to further sustainable transport goals
to streets that are
We explore how well traffic reduction strategies meet the sustainable
part of Madrid
Central, the city's transport goals of a) improving access, b) reducing harm to the
limited traffic zone. environment and human health, c) improving safety, and d) using
source: Thomas
Holbach, resources efficiently. These may be more theoretical and complicated to
wikicommons measure (given confounding factors) compared to the traffic reduction
outcomes described in 3.1.

MADRID, SPAIN 3.3 Capacity required for effective implementation

The capacity required to implement traffic reduction policies may have a
Known as Madrid Central, the city’s limited traffic zone covers nearly five significant impact on the decision to adopt certain policies over others.
square kilometers of the city center and integrates parking with emissions- For example, the large majority of fee-based traffic reduction policies
based restrictions. Residents, people with disabilities, and zero-emission, have been implemented in large cities in high income countries. Road
emergency, and public transit vehicles are permitted to enter the zone space reallocations and other non-fee-based strategies have been suc-
without restriction. All other vehicles are subject to entering and parking cessfully implemented in large, medium, and small cities of all income
restrictions within the zone depending on their emissions level, and levels. By assessing the capacity needed to implement a policy, govern-
they are assessed a €90 fine for violating these rules. Vehicles with an ments can more effectively select policies suited to their situations.
ECO sticker (hybrid vehicles) can enter and park within the zone up to a
maximum of two hours. Vehicles with a C or B sticker (petrol cars and light- The evaluations in 3.1 and 3.2 combine to produce an overall link
duty vans manufactured after 2000, and diesel cars and light-duty vans (low, medium, or high) to traffic reduction for each strategy, whereas
manufactured after 2014) are permitted to park in a public lot or garage but 3.3 evaluates the capacity required to implement each strategy. The
cannot park on the street.77 Older vehicles may not enter the zone. Initially impacts of traffic reduction strategies can be complicated to measure,
launched in November 2018, these restrictions are set to tighten over time, which makes it difficult to evaluate their success. It can be particularly
and by 2025, non-stickered vehicles will not be permitted to enter Madrid challenging to identify the extent to which confounding factors, such as
Central at all. weather patterns (in the case of emissions) or complementary policies,
contribute to observed impacts.80 While the evaluations in this section
do not involve sophisticated quantitative modeling techniques, they
key Early evidence showed traffic volumes Reductions in through traffic and the follow findings from literature related to these topics and ITDP’s field
fell between 5% and 32%, depending on number of high-polluting vehicles experiences to provide a framework for comparison and outcome-
outcomes the corridor.78 driving into the zone resulted in
oriented decision making (see Our Approach).
MADRID reduced nitrogen dioxide levels
CENTRAL at nearly all monitoring stations
Public bus speeds increased by 14%. throughout the entire city and a 20%
reduction within Madrid Central one 3.1 ABILITY TO REDUCE TRAFFIC AND IMPROVE WELL-BEING
year after implementation.79

First, we evaluate whether and how the policies introduced in Section II

achieve livability and well-being goals, which may already be identified by
cities. For example, if a city is trying to reduce overall vehicle kilometers

77 Madrid Central. Información General.

40 78 El Centro de Gestión de la Movilidad de Madrid: “Parece que los Coches han Desaparecido.” 41
79 Madrid Central Reduces Pollution by 20% in Its First Year. 80 Review of the Efficacy of Low Emission Zones to Improve Urban Air Quality in European Cities.
 traveled (VKT), implementing a commercial parking tax or low emission REVENUE GENERATION
zone alone will not yield that outcome long-term. Or, an emissions pricing
scheme that requires high-emitting vehicles to pay a fee might successfully While all fee-based strategies inherently generate revenue, revenues are,
satisfy a pollution reduction goal, but it may not reduce the number in many cases, largely used to operate and maintain the system itself.
of vehicles on the road. Certain strategies, such as parking reform, can However, some strategies generate significant revenue beyond what is
help achieve multiple outcomes. Of course, the specific policy design will needed to manage the program. Congestion charging schemes produce
significantly impact the extent to which these outcomes are achieved substantial revenues over a relatively short time. London’s congestion
(or not). In addition, it is important not to let a specific “solution” or charge has consistently generated over £100 million (USD $129 million)
technology define the problem or outcomes. annually since 2008, surpassing £150 million (USD $194 million) each year
between 2014 and 2018.81 Stockholm’s congestion charge, in operation since
2007, costs nearly USD $12 million per year to operate, but it generates an
Revenue Fewer cars Cleaner Fewer More trips by annual revenue of approximately USD $155 million.82 Revenues are often
generation in specified cars VKT sustainable used to support public transport, cycling, or pedestrian infrastructure
areas transport improvements. These investments strengthen the scheme, providing safe,
affordable, reliable alternatives to driving. In some cases, a portion of
revenue is used to help people transition to a more sustainable mode (such
as free or reduced public transport fares).83
DEMAND-BASED
design
PARKING X dependent Pricing on-street parking also generates revenue. In its first year of
operation, ecoParq in the Polanco neighborhood of Mexico City generated
57.7 million pesos (USD $4.49 million) in revenue. Much of that was used
to cover program expenses, but 17.3 million (USD $1.35 million) went
OFF-STREET towards public space renewal projects, like sidewalk improvements in
PARKING X X X Polanco where ecoParq first operated.84 San Francisco’s demand-based
REFORMS
parking program, SFpark, increased net parking revenues by USD $1.9
million per year.85 Commercial parking taxes have also proved successful
COMMERCIAL in raising significant revenues. Sydney’s commercial parking tax generates
PARKING TAX X X X X approximately AU $100 million (USD $65.5 million) annually, and Seattle’s
brought in approximately USD $21 million in 2010, which is on par with
municipal parking meter revenues of $28.6 million the same year.86

EMISSIONS- FEWER CARS IN SPECIFIED AREAS

design
BASED PRICING X X dependent
X
(LEZ/CAZ) Cities can restrict vehicle access to certain areas (like central business
districts) using fee-based and non-fee-based strategies. Both cordon
(in practice) and distance-based (in theory) congestion charges require
CONGESTION drivers to shoulder more of the social and environmental costs of driving,
PRICING X and therefore fewer cars will enter the charge zone as people shift to
cheaper alternatives. Indeed, bus ridership and use of bicycles increased
during morning peak commute hours following the introduction of Central
London’s congestion charge.87 Fewer cars entering downtown may not,
REALLOCATING
ROAD SPACE N/A X however, result in reduced congestion if space previously used by cars
FOR PEOPLE (e.g., parking, travel lanes) is repurposed for other modes, as was done in
Milan and London. Thus, congestion reduction may not be a sufficient proxy
for reducing car use. Parking reforms, particularly introducing off-street
LIMITED parking maximums, can also result in fewer cars by restricting the space
TRAFFIC N/A X X X available for longer-term vehicle storage. Off-street parking restrictions
ZONES (ZEA) may also discourage people from owning more than one vehicle.88

81 London Congestion Charge: What Worked, What Didn't, What Next.

82 Why It’s Time for Congestion Pricing in New York City.
X No evidence found Link supported by evidence Link strongly supported by evidence 83
84
Primes” in Quelles Sont les Offres de Mobilité Alternatives Proposées par la Région Bruxelloise?
Impacts of the EcoParq Program on Polanco.
85 SFpark Pilot Project Evaluation Summary.
86 Evaluating Seattle Parking Tax Options.
87 London Congestion Charge: What Worked, What Didn’t, What Next.
42 88 Residential Off-Street Parking Impacts on Car Ownership, Vehicle Miles Traveled, and Related Carbon Emissions: New York City Case 43
Study.
 FEWER VEHICLE KILOMETERS TRAVELED (VKT)

Shorter (and fewer) car trips reduce overall vehicle kilometers traveled
(VKT), which is linked to harmful emissions that degrade air quality, water
sources, and wildlife habitats, contribute to climate change, and threaten
human health. Declining VKT is also linked to improved road safety and
related economic and social cost savings.94 Cordon-based congestion
pricing in Central London yielded a 15% reduction in VKT within the charging
zone after one year of operation; an additional 11% VKT reduction was
observed after the Western Extension zone was implemented.95 Distance-
based congestion pricing could result in more significant VKT reduction
because drivers would be charged based on the distance of their trip
(longer trips are more expensive). However, there are no distance-based
congestion pricing schemes in place, so their VKT impacts are speculative.

Demand-based parking programs have been adopted in a number of cities

in recent years, but few studies evaluate their impact on VKT. An evaluation
of San Francisco’s SFpark pilot showed the program had decreased daily
VKT by 30% within SFpark areas from 2011 to 2013 compared to a 6% VKT
decrease outside of SFpark areas.96 For other cities, assumptions about
VKT outcomes can be made based on available data. For example, in
Washington, DC, officials found that the city’s demand-based parking
pilot reduced parking search times by seven minutes.97 Assuming a 12km/h
“cruising speed,” this time savings equates to approximately 1.4 fewer
Pedestrians and Cities can also achieve the goal of fewer cars through pedestrianization,
cyclists enjoy streets kilometers driven per trip.98 After demand-based parking was implemented
closed to vehicles prioritizing street space for public transit, or limited traffic zones. Tehran’s
in the Polanco neighborhood of Mexico City, parking search times dropped
during Ciclovía in restricted traffic zone (RTZ) sees lower car usage than its surrounding odd-
Bogotá, Colombia. by over 10 minutes, reducing VKT by an estimated two kilometers per
even zone (OEZ) and significantly lower car usage than the rest of the city,
source: Saul Ortega trip. Evidence shows that the availability of off-street parking is linked
(Flickr) which has no car restrictions.89 Similarly, Rome’s Zone a Traffico Limitato
to increased likelihood of using a vehicle for commute and noncommute
(ZTL) successfully reduced the number of cars entering the zone daily.90
trips, even when trips are well-served by transit. Therefore, reducing off-
street parking availability (by instituting parking maximums, for instance)
CLEANER CARS can reduce the propensity to drive.99 Notably, increasing the cost of off-
street parking through a commercial parking tax can make non-commercial
Emissions-based pricing has been shown to incentivize the purchase of parking subsidies (such as from employers or bundled into housing costs)
cleaner vehicles because drivers of high-polluting vehicles must pay a fee more valuable to drivers, because commercial lots become less affordable
to drive within the zone (or, in a non-fee-based scheme, are barred from which can lead to increased vehicle travel.100
accessing the zone altogether), while cleaner vehicles have unrestricted
access. For example, in London, nearly two out of every five drivers of Shorter, less convenient trips for vehicles can also be achieved by street
vehicles that did not conform with the city’s original low emission zone design improvements aimed at restricting vehicle through-access.
purchased a new vehicle to meet the updated ULEZ standard and avoid Prioritizing street space for pedestrians, cyclists, and transit vehicles,
paying the charge.91 Indeed, over time, the retail market for higher-polluting with personal vehicles at the bottom of the hierarchy, makes driving for
vehicles in cities with emissions-based pricing is reduced, an important short trips less convenient and direct. Barcelona’s Superblock plan, which
market signal for auto manufacturers.92 In some cases, these vehicles may restricts interior neighborhood streets to one-way and right-turn-only for
be exported to locations without emissions-based vehicle restrictions, as vehicles and limits vehicle speeds, makes driving less convenient. Traffic
has been observed in cities with proposed diesel bans.93 The benefits from levels on some internal Superblock streets have fallen by 40%.101
a cleaner vehicle fleet in one city may be offset if high-polluting vehicles are
simply being displaced to other locations. This is particularly concerning if
dirty vehicles are being relocated and sold in cities in low and lower middle
income countries—another rationale for L/LMIC cities to adopt emissions-
based restrictions. Government-sponsored vehicle buy-back programs
could help to limit this, however. 94 Cutting Greenhouse Gas Emissions Is Only the Beginning: A Literature Review of the Co-Benefits of Reducing Vehicle Miles Traveled.
95 Synthesis of Congestion-Pricing-Related Environmental Impact Analyse: Final Report.
96 SFpark Pilot Project Evaluation Summary.
89 Impact of Traffic Zones on Mobility Behavior in Tehran, Iran. 97 parkDC: Penn Quarter/ Chinatown Parking Pricing Pilot.
90 ITE Journal 2016-2017: Looking Back and Moving Forward. 98 Impacts of the ecoParq Program on Polanco: Preliminary Overview of the Parking Meter System After One Year Running.
91 Central London Ultra Low Emission Zone: Six-Month Report. 99 Death by a Thousand Curb Cuts: Evidence on the Effect of Minimum Parking Requirements on the Choice to Drive.
44 92 Reality Check: What Should Owners of Old Diesels Do? 100 Evaluating Seattle Parking Tax Options. 45
93 How to Get Rid of Dirty Diesels on City Roads. 101 Changing the Urban Design of Cities for Health: The Superblock Model.
 MORE TRIPS BY SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT

Road space reallocation, which repurposes street space as high-quality

walking, cycling, and public transit facilities, yields more safe spaces for Improves Maintains Protects Efficient use
access safety environment of revenue +
people. This makes sustainable transport a more attractive option than it
+ health space
may have been previously. Indeed, road space reallocation has been shown
to shift travelers away from private vehicles and to sustainable modes
more than any other traffic reduction strategy.102 For example, extensive
efforts in Bogotá to establish car-free public spaces—particularly the
DEMAND-BASED
city’s commitment to Ciclovia, which closes over 100 kilometers of streets PARKING
to vehicles every Sunday—yielded an increase in cycling mode share from
0.8% in 1995 to 3.2% in 2003. Since then, the city has implemented 540
kilometers of bicycle lanes, and cycling mode share has increased to 9%. A
similar effect occurred in Seville, Spain, where 80 kilometers of protected OFF-STREET
bicycle lanes were implemented in 2008, increasing cycling mode share PARKING X X
from 0.5% to 9% of all trips by 2014.103 In some cases, on-street parking REFORMS
spaces were converted into bicycle lanes. By managing demand for parking,
demand-based on-street pricing can enable the replacement of parking
spaces with higher-value uses like cycle lanes or bikeshare stations. COMMERCIAL
PARKING TAX X X X
Complete street designs within Barcelona’s Superblocks have yielded a 10%
increase in walking trips and 30% increase in cycling trips surrounding the
interventions. Similarly, after Yonsei-ro in Seoul was converted to a transit
mall with improved pedestrian spaces, the area saw an 11% increase in bus
EMISSIONS-
commuters.104 BASED PRICING X
(LEZ/CAZ)
Additionally, congestion pricing has been shown to shift travelers away
from driving and toward public transit, cycling, and walking, especially
when cities commit to improving the quality of those modes. London, which CONGESTION
heavily invested in transit as an alternative to driving, saw 37% more bus PRICING
commuters after the first year of its congestion charge compared to the
previous year, and bus service reliability improved as excess wait times due
to traffic congestion fell.105
REALLOCATING
ROAD SPACE
FOR PEOPLE
3.2 ABILITY TO FURTHER SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT GOALS

Successful traffic reduction strategies reduce demand for driving— LIMITED

particularly of single-occupancy, high-polluting vehicles during peak TRAFFIC X X
times—and generate a shift toward sustainable, equitable transportation ZONES (ZEA)
modes. In this section we map the strategies introduced above against
the sustainable transport goals (see summary table on next page). It is
important to note the presence of confounding factors in many cases, which
can make it difficult to attribute outcomes such as emissions reductions or
vehicle-related crash reductions directly to the implementation of a traffic X No evidence found Link supported by evidence Link strongly supported by evidence
reduction strategy.106 Where possible, comparisons to control areas are
noted.

102 Benefits of Pedestrianization and Warrants to Pedestrianize an Area.

103 How Seville Transformed Itself into the Cycling Capital of Southern Europe.
104 Road Diet for a More Active Street.
105 Synthesis of Congestion Pricing–Related Environmental Impact Analyses—Project Summaries.
46 106 Review of the Efficacy of Low Emission Zones to Improve Urban Air Quality in European Cities. 47
 IMPROVES ACCESS By design, congestion pricing makes driving into the CBD more expensive,
particularly for those who cannot realistically shift to a different mode or
Access to jobs and economic development travel outside the charge hours. Aside from increasing per-trip costs for
While traffic reduction strategies can make driving more expensive and drivers of nonconforming vehicles, emission-based pricing incentivizes
less convenient, many have been shown to ultimately improve access to purchasing a new vehicle that meets the emissions standard. Scrappage
jobs and other services by improving the reliability of public transit and the schemes, like the one available to commercial van owners to upgrade to a
comfort of walking and cycling. For example, parking reforms like Mexico cleaner vehicle in London, can help offset this burden.116
City’s ecoParq demand-based parking program increase vehicle turnover
in on-street spaces.107 This helps ensure that more people can access and
patronize commercial areas. Demand-based parking programs have also
helped to improve speeds and reduce excess wait times for public transit
vehicles along corridors where double parking had caused unpredictable
delays.108 Congestion pricing and limited traffic zones have shown similar
effects. Congestion pricing reduced trip times across modes in Stockholm,
and it reduced peak-period bus delays by 50% in London.109 Rome’s limited
traffic zone resulted in a 5% increase in travel speeds for public buses.110

It is widely held that wider sidewalks, bicycle lanes, and designated transit
lanes increase street capacity, thereby increasing access by reducing trip
times and lowering stress for users of these spaces.111 Increased comfort
and accessibility for pedestrians and cyclists in particular has been linked
to economic benefits, including higher local business activity and property
values.112 In fact, commercial businesses located along Seoul’s Yonsei-ro saw
an 11% increase in revenue-generating transactions and a 4% increase in Protected cycle lanes
in Seville, Spain
total revenues after the street was converted to a transit mall.113
increase street
capacity and access
Impact on transportation and housing costs for more people who
do not have access to
Both fee-based and non-fee-based traffic reduction strategies can impact a vehicle.
the cost of transportation and, relatedly, housing for certain groups. source: adrimcm
(Flickr)
Strategy design can often anticipate and minimize negative cost burdens,
particularly for lower income people and other more vulnerable people. In
São Paulo, off-street parking maximums have enabled developers to build
public housing closer to the city center by removing expensive parking IMPROVES SAFETY
requirements.114 Similarly, commercial parking taxes make low-value land
uses (like parking lots) more expensive to maintain, which could encourage Well-designed traffic reduction strategies can improve safety by reducing
owners to convert that land to higher-value uses like housing, thereby the frequency and severity of traffic crashes and improving the comfort
increasing housing supply and lowering costs. and perceptions of safety for vulnerable road users like pedestrians
and cyclists. In San Francisco and Washington, DC, on-street demand-
Certain traffic reduction strategies may increase housing costs, although based parking programs resulted in reduced incidents of double parking
it can be difficult to separate the impact of a traffic reduction policy from and unsafe commercial loading, improving safety for both drivers and
other economic factors, such as interest rates. In Guangzhou, property nondrivers.117 Similarly, reduced VKT from searching for parking has been
values in the heavily pedestrianized Liuyun Xiaoqu neighborhood have linked to fewer crashes caused by distracted driving.118
increased at a faster rate than in surrounding districts, resulting in reduced
affordability.115 Measures such as rent control or stabilization, housing Zone-based traffic reduction strategies, like LEZs and congestion pricing,
subsidies, social housing, etc., should be considered as a means of reducing have shown lower rates of crashes inside those zones compared to
the impact of pedestrianization projects on housing costs. outside. Milan’s LEZ and London’s congestion charge zone saw fewer
crashes between vehicles and pedestrians and cyclists despite mode
share increases for both walking and cycling.119 120 We were not able to
find evidence of a link between limited traffic zones and vehicle crashes;
however, we expect to see similar results given similar restrictions on
107 Impacts of the ecoParq Program on Polanco: Preliminary Overview of the Parking Meter System After One Year Running.
108 SFpark: Pilot Project Evaluation. vehicles entering the zone.
109 Impact of Traffic Zones on Mobility Behavior in Tehran, Iran.
110 Road User Charging.
111 Smart Congestion Relief: Comprehensive Analysis of Traffic Congestion Costs and Congestion Reduction Strategies. 116 Mayor Accelerates Bold Action to Remove Dirty Vehicles from London.
112 Pedestrian-Only Streets. 117 parkDC: Penn Quarter/Chinatown Parking Pricing Pilot.
113 Road Diet for a More Active Street. 118 SFpark: Pilot Project Evaluation.
48 114 Learning from Parking Reforms in Other Cities. 119 Urban Road Pricing: A Comparative Study on the Experiences of London, Stockholm and Milan. 49
115 TOD Best Practical Case: A Mixed-Mode Open Court. 120 Appendix B19: Cordon Congestion Tolls in Moving Los Angeles: Short-Term Policy Options for Improving Transportation.
 Reallocating road space for people is strongly linked to reduced crash rates, Impact on air quality and health
severity, and injury risk for pedestrians and cyclists.121 The likelihood that Traffic reduction strategies are often pursued as a way to improve urban
a pedestrian or cyclist will be involved in a vehicle crash decreases as the air quality and related health outcomes. Tailpipe emissions, including
number of pedestrians and cyclists on the street increases, a phenomenon particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are dangerous to
often referred to as “safety in numbers.”122 With vehicle speed reductions human health and can lead to a number of respiratory complications. In
resulting from vehicle lane narrowing or removal, for every five km/h speed fact, annually more deaths around the world are linked to air pollution
decline, crash frequencies decrease by 15%.123 In Seoul, the Yonsei-ro than to traffic crashes.129 Noise pollution, which has been linked to sleep
transit mall saw a 34% decrease in traffic crashes compared to before the disturbance and stress in the short term and learning and productivity
project was implemented, and survey respondents reported feeling safer challenges, hearing loss, and heart disease in the long term, is also cited as
walking through the corridor.124 a negative health outcome of high traffic volumes.130

Fewer kilometers driven searching for parking as a result of demand-based

PROTECTS HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT parking programs may reduce tailpipe emissions, but the link between
these programs and overall air quality has not been evaluated extensively.
Impact on mode shift from single-occupancy vehicles As mentioned previously, confounding factors, such as weather, can make
The ability for traffic reduction strategies to effectively “push” people to it difficult to establish a direct link between an intervention like demand-
public transit, cycling, and walking for most trips is a critical criteria for based parking and changes in air quality. Low emission zones have had
long-term success. This shift yields co-benefits such as the reallocation varied impacts on air quality based on their stringency: For example,
of space for vehicle travel and storage to more productive uses. It can be London’s original LEZ had no significant impact on PM or NOX , but the
challenging to link reduced vehicle volumes to congestion charging, limited stricter ultra low emission zone (ULEZ) has reduced PM by 13% and NOX
traffic zones, or even reallocating road space to mode shift, as some of by 31%. Madrid’s LEZ yielded a 38% reduction in NOX and a 32% reduction
those trips could still be taken by a vehicle outside of charged hours (in in NO2 compared to 2018, the lowest levels the city has seen since 2012.131
the case of congestion pricing) or along an alternative route (in the case of LEZs in Berlin and other German cities, some of which only apply to heavy-
limited traffic zones and road space reallocation). Still, fewer vehicle trips duty vehicles, have had more modest effects on nitrogen oxide levels (12%
and increased walking, cycling, and public transit use have been reported reduction in Berlin and 4% at most across 17 German cities.)132 133 Congestion
after these three strategies were implemented. Public bus commutes pricing has shown similar air quality impacts: London’s congestion charge
increased by 37% after London’s congestion charge was implemented, and has generated an 18% reduction in NOX and a 22% reduction in PM. Few air
bus commutes increased by 11% after Yonsei-ro in Seoul was converted quality assessments have been conducted before and after road space
from a four-lane street to a transit mall.125 Similarly, Rome saw a nearly 4% reallocation projects, though reduced tailpipe emissions can be inferred
increase in public transit and a 1.5% increase in cycling and walking trips in from reductions in the volume of vehicles. For example, interior streets
its limited traffic zone after implementation.126 within the Gracia Superblock in Barcelona have seen a 40% reduction in
traffic volumes compared to a 26% reduction observed in the surrounding
Emissions-based pricing schemes have also generated mode shifts area.134 Furthermore, a recent study found that if the entire Superblock plan
away from vehicles; however, these shifts are temporary, as those with is implemented, 700 premature deaths from air and noise pollution could be
nonconforming vehicles eventually purchase cleaner ones that meet the avoided each year.135
emissions standard and continue to drive. This was the case in Milan, where
a more stringent congestion charge eventually replaced the city’s LEZ, in Emissions-based pricing and congestion pricing schemes have not been
part to facilitate a more sustained mode shift.127 found to reduce noise pollution—Stockholm and London’s programs have
had no observable traffic noise reductions. Some evidence suggests that
Studies show that compact neighborhoods generate fewer vehicle trips limited traffic zones may reduce noise pollution if they restrict freight
(“trip degeneration”) and see lower vehicle ownership and parking demand and other heavy-duty vehicles. In Naples, surveys and interviews showed
compared to more sprawling areas with ample space for vehicle storage.128 residents noticed reduced noise levels following the city’s limited traffic
This indicates that limited off-street parking availability and priced on- zone implementation, but noise returned to pre-implementation levels
street parking, common characteristics of compact development, can result after the city permitted freight vehicles to enter the zone.136
in modal shift away from vehicles, and lower rates of vehicle ownership may
extend this trend in the long-term. Impact on climate change
Traffic-reduction strategies may also help to lessen the impacts of climate
change if they reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, namely carbon

129 A Beginner's Guide to NOX NO, and NO2 as Air Pollutants.

130 Environmental Noise Pollution in the United States: Developing an Effective Public Health Response.
122 Safety in Numbers: More Walkers and Bicyclists, Safer Walking and Bicycling. 131 Madrid Could Become First European City to Scrap Low-Emissions Zone.
123 Effects of Different Urban Traffic Mitigation Actions on Cities’ Noise Levels. 132 People Power and Courts Fight First-Ever Attempt to Scrap Low-Emissions Zone.
124 Road Diet for a More Active Street. 133 Effectiveness of Low Emission Zones: Large-Scale Analysis of Changes in Environmental NO2, NO, and NOX Concentrations in 17 German
125 Road Diet for a More Active Street. Cities.
126 Piano Generale del Traffico Urbano di Roma Capitale. 134 Spain’s Plan to Create Car-Free “Superblocks” Is Facing Protests.
50 127 Milan: Area C: Fewer Cars, More Public Spaces, Better Life for All 135 Changing the Urban Design of Cities for Health: The Superblock Model. 51
128 Trip and Parking Generation Rates for Different Housing Types: Effects of Compact Development. 136 Effects of Different Urban Traffic Mitigation Actions on Cities’ Noise Levels.
 dioxide (CO₂), nitric oxide (NO), and methane. On-street parking reforms in EFFICIENT USE OF REVENUE AND SPACE
San Francisco and Mexico City have yielded significant decreases in GHGs
within demand-based parking zones compared to other parts of the city. Efficient use of revenues
San Francisco’s SFpark program yielded a 30% decrease in GHG emissions In the context of traffic reduction strategy design, using revenues
from traffic compared to a 6% decrease in control areas, and in Mexico City efficiently largely refers to the potential to rebalance implicit subsidies
reduced VKT from avoided searching for parking was calculated to yield a for driving by applying revenues to improve public transit, cycling, and
reduction of 18,000 tons of CO₂ annually, or the equivalent of taking more walking facilities. Demand-based on-street parking pricing has been
than 3,500 passenger vehicles off the road. shown to generate significant revenues (see above, Ability to Achieve
Traffic Reduction Outcomes: Revenue Generation) beyond what is needed
Similar to air quality, the design of an emissions-based or congestion for program operation. In several cases, a portion of these revenues has
pricing system will heavily impact its ability to reduce GHG emissions. been dedicated to hyper-local public space improvements. For example, in
Again, London’s LEZ had no impact on GHG emissions, though the stricter 2012, Mexico City’s ecoParq program generated nearly 58 million pesos in
ULEZ showed a 4% reduction in CO₂ in the first six months. Indeed, while revenue, 17.3 million of which was reinvested into public space and sidewalk
local CO₂ emissions reductions may be observed, lifetime CO₂ could improvements in the Polanco neighborhood where the parking program
increase if people replace their vehicles before the optimal replacement was located.139 Off-street parking reforms have also integrated revenue
frequency (estimated at 19 years) to avoid a LEZ charge or if high-polluting reallocation: In Mexico City, revenues from fees charged to developers
vehicles are sold secondhand in locations that do not impose emissions- who want to build parking beyond the city’s off-street maximum (up to
based restrictions.137 More widespread emissions-based restrictions in L/ ceiling) are allocated to public transit and social housing improvements.
LMIC cities can, however, counteract the latter. Substantial revenues have also been generated from commercial parking
taxes, and these are often allocated to public transit improvements.140
Few studies evaluate the link between reallocating road space for However, increasing commercial parking tax rates to support public transit
people and GHG emissions reductions. However, walking and cycling are has been unsuccessful in some cases, such as in Seattle, where a 2014
particularly attractive substitutes for short vehicle trips. Vehicle use proposal to raise the city’s commercial parking tax, which would help
for short trips is particularly fuel inefficient due to cold engines and prevent cuts to Metro service, failed.141
congestion, so making walking and cycling safer and more comfortable
through street designs that prioritize those modes would likely yield Revenues generated from direct charges to drivers, such as through
emissions reductions.138 emissions-based pricing or congestion pricing, are often allocated to
public transit, cycling, and walking improvements as a way to generate
public support and to provide high-quality alternatives to driving. Indeed,
revenues from emissions-based pricing schemes are likely to shrink over
time with the uptake of cleaner vehicles (and, therefore, fewer drivers
needing to pay the fee), but revenues from congestion pricing schemes
have been shown to increase over time, particularly if more stringent
requirements are phased into the design.142 London has used a portion of
its congestion pricing revenues to improve public bus service, enhancing
a mode already heavily used by many low income travelers.143 Efficient
use of resources is not inherent to a strategy but will ultimately come
from strategy design and the prioritization of directing revenues toward
equitable sustainable transport improvements.

The potential to generate revenue can enable cities to secure revenue

bonds used to finance infrastructure or related implementation costs.
Revenue generated from the program is then used to pay interest and/
or principal to the bond holders. This approach has been used to finance
passenger rail and toll road projects.

Mexico City's ecoparq Efficient use of space

program reduced CO₂
Space in cities is finite, and streets are often overlooked as a city’s
emisisons equivalent
to taking more than most valuable open space asset. For example, compared to a general
3,500 passenger purpose traffic lane, a bus rapid transit (BRT) or bus-only lane is a more
vehicles off the road
source: Héctor Ríos, efficient use of the resource because it can serve more people with
ITDP México
139 Impacts of the ecoParq Program on Polanco: Preliminary Overview of the Parking Meter System After One Year Running.
140 Mexico City Got Rid of a Ridiculous Subsidy for Drivers, and Other Cities Should Too.
141 The Case for a Tax on Parking Lots.
52 137 CO₂ Emissions from Cars: The Facts. 142 London Congestion Charge: What Worked, What Didn’t, What Next. 53
138 Reducing Carbon Emissions Through Transport Demand Management Strategies: A Review of International Examples. 143 Income-Based Equity Impacts of Congestion Pricing—A Primer.
 fewer negative externalities. Similarly, on a busy urban street, a loading
zone is a more efficient use of space compared to free parking. Demand- POLITICAL WILL
based on-street parking is more efficient compared to static or free
on-street parking because it incentivizes turnover and reduces driving 2
in circles looking for open spaces. Reallocating road space away from Political will is needed to advance any traffic
reduction strategy. It is critical to identify CONTEXTUALIZING STRATEGY NARRATIVES
inefficient single-occupancy vehicles and toward high-volume modes like WITHIN LOCAL POLITICAL CLIMATE
political champions and understand the
public transportation and space-efficient modes like cycling and walking
degree of political or bureaucratic complexity
maximizes the performance of limited street space and is more equitable.144 (e.g., is the scope of the problem multi- Understanding the current political and
jurisdictional and/or regional? Which lobby cultural climate is important in selecting
groups might resist or support the idea of the most promising policy option(s) as
3.3 CAPACITY NEEDED FOR EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION making the cost of driving more explicit?) well as when promoting adoption of policy
when trying to advance traffic reduction reforms. Contexts—including political,
policies. logistical, demographic, economic, and
Local governments require effective management and problem-solving
cultural factors—differ from city to city.146
capabilities to implement effective programs.145 Such capabilities include:
Cultivating political will often requires: Thus, “lessons learned” from one context
cannot necessarily be mapped onto another.
Awareness and buy-in from decision-makers (“having a vision”); With this in mind, messaging around the
1
traffic reduction strategy should be crafted
Technical ability of city staff (or ability to hire consultants) to facilitate IDENTIFYING POLITICAL CHAMPIONS to reflect the particular city’s context and
policy adoption and implementation, write contracts, and conduct related AND EDUCATING KEY TECHNOCRATS climate. Whenever possible, objectives should
program planning, design, and implementation; align with other current policy priorities.
Champions can help introduce and move a Similarly, narratives could be developed
traffic reduction strategy forward, fostering around traffic reduction as a solution to
Strong institutions and the ability to create structures, when appropriate, to
credibility in the eyes of allies and calming challenges political leaders are trying to
coordinate and plan actions; naysayers. At the same time, it is beneficial address or one that advances their stated
to develop the knowledge base of ministry policy goals. For example, if an elected
Funding for project implementation, operations, and maintenance. technocrats who can directly influence official cares less about environmental
internal understanding and messaging. Their issues and more about the local economy,
To effectively implement policies, cities must understand the political, interest and curiosity about the underlying the strategy narrative should underscore
technical, and funding requirements of different traffic reduction policies issues can be a hook for engagement and potential economic gains from congestion
as well as their government’s own capacity constraints. Based on available eventual alliance. reduction. Regardless, narratives should be
literature and information gleaned from internal and external expert simple, feasible, and sellable. They should not
interviews, we consider the following concepts in the context of capacity offer arguments that are overly complex or
requirements for effective traffic reduction policy implementation: data moralistic.
privacy and surveillance concerns, technology needs, political complexity,
and upfront government investment needed (for further explanation of
these concepts, see Appendix B).

Pune has reallocated

public space for
pedestrians and
cyclists along many
major roads, including
DP road, shown here.
source: ITDP India

54 144 Transit Street Design Guide: Designing to Move People. 55

145 Institutional Capacity-Building in Urban Planning and Policy-Making for Sustainable Development: Success or Failure? 146 Urban Transport Pricing.
 REALLOCATING ROAD SPACE FOR PEOPLE
Privacy Technology Political Upfront govt Capacity
concerns needs complexity investment required for
effective im- CAPACITY Pedestrianization, transit malls, and complete streets have been
plementation REQUIRED FOR successfully implemented in a wide variety of cities, including in L/LMICs.
EFFECTIVE
IMPLEMENTATION: These strategies require minimal technology to operate (transit malls and
pedestrianized streets may feature bollards or access gates that can be
LOW lowered by emergency vehicles, for example) and can even be implemented
PARKING without any technology at all by using cones, paint, and street furniture.
REFORM These approaches present no privacy concerns and do not charge a fee for
NONE MED
(ON- AND access, and they may yield less public pushback than some other traffic
OFF-STREET) reduction strategies that may be seen as punitive. In cities where walking
already accounts for a substantial share of trips and safety for pedestrians
and cyclists is underprioritzed, there may be stronger support for this
COMMERCIAL type of policy. Well-documented case studies of road space reallocation
NONE NONE LOW
PARKING TAX for people in LIC/MIC cities—such as Buenos Aires and Pune—and in-depth
guides such as ITDP India’s Complete Streets Framework toolkit and ITDP
Africa’s Non-Motorized Transport toolkit provide reference points for
EMISSIONS- implementing similar designs in other locations. Thus, the capacity required
BASED for effective implementation is low.
PRICING AND HIGH
CONGESTION Capacity will be needed to develop plans to guide the implementation
CHARGING of road space reallocation, which typically includes tasks such as goal
setting, stakeholder engagement, drafting, and adopting policies.147 It is
recommended that local governments coordinate with key stakeholders
REALLOCATING
ROAD SPACE from agencies, utilities, and other related fields to contribute their
NONE LOW
FOR PEOPLE expertise to policies or designs. Developing a master plan for people-first
streets will help to ensure projects connect to form a network, establish
minimum standards and design guidelines, and commit long-term funding
LIMITED for implementation and maintenance.
TRAFFIC MED
ZONE Governments will also need to effectively communicate the benefits of road
space reallocation to businesses and the public. In some cases, temporary
interventions that use flexible, low-cost materials can be implemented,
Low Medium High reducing upfront costs and enabling people to observe and physically
interact with a vehicle-restricted environment. These interventions can
be made permanent more easily after people have had the opportunity to
experience the design and provide feedback on what works and what could
be improved. A phased implementation approach (e.g., block by block or
neighborhood by neighborhood) can also help manage costs, and setting
baselines and collecting data during these temporary interventions helps
to underscore their benefits.

56 57
147 Complete Streets: Policy Workbook.
 PARKING REFORMS COMMERCIAL PARKING TAX

CAPACITY On- and off-street parking reforms require moderate capacity for successful CAPACITY Commercial parking taxes are a straightforward approach to limiting
REQUIRED FOR implementation. Demand-based pricing in particular requires lower levels REQUIRED FOR parking supply and generating revenue. They are relatively inexpensive
EFFECTIVE EFFECTIVE
IMPLEMENTATION: of capacity because the technology needed is accessible and affordable, IMPLEMENTATION: and simple to implement, and they require no additional technology
and it presents virtually no privacy concerns. While the concept of demand- and present no privacy concerns. And, while a commercial parking tax is
MEDIUM based pricing may be new to some drivers, many people who live in cities LOW typically passed on to consumers, it is bundled into parking fees the driver
are already familiar with the idea of paying to park near high-density is already paying, making it less visible. Commercial parking taxes reduce
destinations. Well-documented case studies of established demand- excess parking supply and un- or underutilized surface lots, which can help
based parking programs and complementary parking reforms can provide build density and potential for walkability.
useful guidance for designing and evaluating similar programs in other
locations. There is some consensus that parking reform acts as a kind of However, commercial parking taxes have not been strongly linked to
“gateway” policy: It is easier to implement than more complex policies such changes in driver behavior (e.g., mode shift away from vehicles). In fact,
as congestion pricing, and once implemented, it can provide an opening to in places where parking subsidies (such as from employers or bundled
considering more complex reforms. into housing costs) are common, increasing the cost of parking through a
commercial tax can make these subsidies more valuable to drivers and can
Demand-based parking does require some upfront investment in new actually increase vehicle travel.150 Cities should be aware of this potential
technology, typically smart parking meters and sensors. However, this outcome and consider a commercial parking tax as a complementary policy
equipment is relatively inexpensive and tends to be publicly accepted (to, say, emissions-based or congestion pricing) and not a stand-alone
because people are generally familiar with how parking meters operate. solution.
Smart sensors used to implement demand-based parking can also make
enforcement of unpaid or expired meters more efficient. Using a mobile Political complexity may arise around ensuring that parking managers
application, parking control officers can automatically view the location report revenues accurately. Political challenges may also stem from the
of unpaid or expired meters where a vehicle is also parked, as opposed ability to generate significant revenues from commercial parking taxes, so it
to circling blocks to issue citations to violators.148 This more efficient is important for cities—particularly those that struggle with corruption—to
enforcement could enable cities to reduce the number of parking control be transparent about what these revenues will be allocated toward and to
officers needed. set up a specific fund to house these revenues. In many cases, revenues
from commercial parking taxes are used to improve public transit facilities.
Political complexity to implement demand-based parking is moderate. The revenue-generation potential of commercial parking taxes could also
Parking supply does not need to change (at least in the short term), and be a reliable way to support other traffic reduction strategies, like road
those who have the flexibility to do so can avoid the highest parking space reallocation.
fees if they shift their trips to non-peak times and/or non-prime parking
locations. However, political pressure in cities like Bogotá has prevented
parking prices from being raised at all. Some public pushback has been
documented where it’s believed that city governments are implementing
demand-based parking programs and increasing parking prices to boost
municipal revenues. This critique can be countered if governments are
transparent about the share of revenues needed to operate the system
and dedicate surplus revenues to specific programs. For example, Mexico
City’s ecoParq program allocated surplus revenue from parking fees to be
used for sidewalk and other pedestrian infrastructure improvements in the
Polanco neighborhood where the parking program was operating. This type
of local reinvestment of revenues can help to build public acceptance and
political will.149

58 148 SFpark Pilot Project Evaluation. 59

149 Parking Reform Has Big Implications for Sustainable Transit—and for Ride-Hailing, too. 150 Evaluating Seattle Parking Tax Options.
 LIMITED TRAFFIC ZONES + ZEAS EMISSIONS-BASED PRICING (LEZ) AND CONGESTION CHARGING

CAPACITY Limited traffic zones require a high degree of capacity to implement CAPACITY Emissions-based pricing and congestion charging schemes require a high
REQUIRED FOR effectively due to moderate privacy concerns and technological needs as REQUIRED FOR level of capacity for effective implementation, as they involve moderate
EFFECTIVE EFFECTIVE
IMPLEMENTATION: well as the high political complexity and upfront government investment IMPLEMENTATION: to high privacy concerns and also high political complexity and upfront
required. In terms of technological needs, limited traffic zone entrance government investment. At the time of writing, we found only examples of
MEDIUM points can be monitored manually by traffic officers. Tehran’s Restricted HIGH emissions pricing programs and congestion charging schemes operating in
Traffic Zone (RTZ) operated without automatic entrance monitoring until HICs. However, Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro are evaluating how best to
2015, when the city installed ANPR cameras.151 While stationing police implement low emission zones, and Jakarta and Mumbai are considering
officers at zone entrances instead of investing in automated technology congestion pricing approaches.
is an option, cameras have a distinct efficiency advantage over manual
monitoring because they can identify multiple noncompliant vehicles at a Many emissions-based pricing and congestion charging schemes use ANPR
time and automatically assess fines. Comparatively, when officers in Tehran cameras (also known as “smart cameras”) to enforce the boundaries of
cited violators, many drivers engaged in “fine bargaining,” which led to the priced zone. These cameras must be positioned at every entrance to
traffic holdups, not to mention corruption. Cameras resulted in a nearly the zone to scan the license plates of all entering vehicles, checking each
threefold increase in identified violations; however, some drivers have against a database of conforming (in the case of a LEZ) or pass-holding
taken to covering their license plates and engaging in other behaviors, such (in the case of a congestion charge) vehicles.156 This allows the system to
as vandalism of camera equipment, to evade fines.152 quickly assess whether a vehicle meets the terms of the zone, is exempt,
or has already paid the entrance fee. This database may be populated with
The process of identifying, processing, and sending fines to violators can information from an existing driver’s license database, vehicle standards
involve multiple government agencies or private contractors. In Tehran, agencies, make and model data, and information from those who have
this process includes three government sectors and two contractors, and it purchased daily or annual passes to enter the zone. For an LEZ, residents
has led to fines not being issued consistently. In cities where coordination and people who drive into the zone regularly are usually required to
between the public and private sector is not transparent or where register their vehicle even if it complies with the emissions standard.
corruption is widespread, this process could present challenges. Maintaining this database requires the government to process and house
large amounts of personal data.
Finally, governments will need to provide high-quality, reliable, affordable
alternatives to driving that are available when the zone goes into effect. In cities or countries where personal data is not expressly protected
If people can no longer drive into the zone to access their jobs, schools, through legislation or regulations do not limit the nonconsented use
or other destinations, there needs to be a viable alternative that does not of personal data or the maximum period of retention, privacy concerns
pose significant time, cost, or security losses. This stems from a commonly brought about by ANPR cameras could be high. Concerns may be highest
held tenet of transportation planning: Everyone has a right to equitable among the most vulnerable populations, such as immigrants, who would
transportation services.153 Governments that do not have the capacity— be disproportionately impacted if personal data, say from a driver’s license
whether its financial resources, technical expertise, or both—to provide database, were to be used for ends other than zone enforcement. Similar
viable alternatives to driving may not be successful implementing an LTZ concerns related to equitable enforcement and social justice can arise,
or other vehicle access restrictions. For example, commuters in Manila however, if the zone is manually enforced by police.
reported preferring to alter their schedule (going to work early and arriving
home late) to avoid license plate–based vehicle restrictions over using Alternatives to ANPR cameras for automatic vehicle identification may be
public transport because of poor service.154 Governments also need to preferable for cities that are apprehensive about their ability to protect
carefully consider—and be transparent about their decision—which drivers personal data. Radio Frequency Identification Device (RFID) tags attached
will be permitted to access the zone. In most Italian limited traffic zones, to vehicles and read by a roadside unit when the vehicle drives past it
residents, people with disabilities, and public service vehicles like transit, function in a similar way to an ANPR system. While RFID tags pose lower
taxis, and emergency vehicles can enter. Motorcycles are also permitted. privacy and data-handling concerns, they are also less effective than
Tehran’s limited traffic zone also allows government officials to purchase ANPR cameras because vehicles without an RFID tag cannot be identified,
permits to enter. In fact, 40% of vehicles entering the limited traffic zone in creating a challenge for enforcement.157 This has been observed in South
Tehran are government-owned.155 Africa, where surveys showed that 60% of drivers do not pay RFID-based
electronic tolls.158 Manual vehicle identification by traffic officers is
another alternative, though issues of bribery and long traffic queues at
entrance points could emerge (see Limited Traffic Zones above). LEZs and
congestion charging zones tend to be larger in area than limited traffic
151 Impact of Traffic Zones on Mobility Behavior in Tehran, Iran.
152 Challenges of Implementation of Intelligent Transportation Systems in Developing Countries.
153 Traffic Congestion Pricing: Methodologies and Equity Implications. 156 Privacy Statement.
60 154 How Travel Pattern Changes After Number Coding Scheme as a Travel Demand Management Measure Was Implemented. 157 Including Congestion Effects in Urban Road Traffic CO2 Emissions Modelling: Do Local Government Authorities Have the Right Options? 61
155 Impact of Traffic Zones on Mobility Behavior in Tehran, Iran. 158 Why People Still Refuse to Pay E-Tolls—No Matter What Government Says.
 zones, and so these effects may be even more pronounced. Further, manual Finally, governments will need to identify groups that may be
enforcement may increase costs compared to implementing an automated disproportionately affected by a vehicle restriction policy—namely, those
solution in two ways. First, the ongoing labor costs incurred may be higher who cannot afford to purchase a cleaner vehicle or for whom public transit,
than the cost of purchasing and operating automated cameras. Officers cycling, or walking is not a viable alternative (e.g., certain shift workers,
need to be stationed at every entrance to the zone when the charging people with disabilities). It is good practice to support these groups so
zone is operating. Second, manual enforcement has been shown to miss that they can eventually comply with the emissions standard or congestion
violating vehicles at a higher rate than an automated system, resulting in charge. Cities like London and Paris offer subsidies to small businesses
lower revenues from unassessed fines.159 Therefore, emissions-based and and nonprofit organizations that use vehicles to help offset the cost of
congestion pricing may not operate optimally in cities where enforcement upgrading them to electric.164 However, incentives for individuals can be
technology is not available or feasible. more complicated and must be carefully designed to avoid the widespread
use of public funds to purchase new vehicles. If subsidies are being
Compared to parking pricing, emissions-based pricing and congestion considered for individuals, they should be limited to low income residents
pricing can be more challenging to “sell” to politicians and technocrats and time-bound, kick-starting the shift to clean vehicle adoption but not
who may not be familiar with the necessary design elements or operational substituting for the automobile industry’s manufacturing cleaner vehicles
aspects. Interest groups that benefit from driving, such as taxi operators over time. Similarly, giving more time to residents who live within the priced
and delivery-based businesses, could present strong opposition, zone to purchase a compliant vehicle or to find a viable alternate mode (in
particularly in places where advocacy and support for sustainable the case of a LEZ) or providing them with a time-bound exemption (in the
transportation is limited. Notably, the freight industry strongly supported case of a congestion charge) could ease the transition.
London’s congestion charging proposal, as reduced congestion makes
delivery trip times more reliable and costs are eventually passed on to
customers.160 Ridehail companies like Uber and Lyft have also voiced
support for congestion pricing as a way to reduce transport emissions.161
Successful schemes, defined in terms of their ability to reduce harmful
air pollution, have proved difficult for political leaders to eliminate. For
example, in 2019, Madrid’s then newly elected mayor faced widespread
public resistance and legal pushback when attempting to dissolve Madrid
Central, given that the policy had reduced nitrogen oxide (NOX) levels by
Demonstrators
38% and NO2 by 32% compared to 2018, the city’s lowest NO2 levels since gathered in 2019 to
2012.162 defend Madrid
Central, the limited
traffic zone in the city
Transparency around the use of revenues is also critical. As described in the center, against the
previous subsection, congestion pricing can generate significant revenues. newly-elected
government’s intent
Cities need to be clear about how revenues will be used beyond covering to remove the zone
operating expenses. For example, Transport for London publishes annual without an alternative
reports to bring transparency to the process. It is recommended that cities plan to reduce air
pollution.
designate specific uses for these revenues—such as improving public transit source: Thomas
and cycling and walking facilities, or offsetting costs for groups for whom Holbach,
wikicommons
the scheme presents a disproportionately high burden—as opposed to
directing all revenues into a general operating fund. It is also good practice
to establish a separate fund to house revenues, which can only be accessed
if a project meets certain agreed-upon terms. This has been done in Mexico
City, not for congestion pricing, but for other transport programs: The city
set up a “taxi, mobility, and pedestrian fund” to house per-trip fees paid
to the city by transportation network companies like Uber and Cabify, and
started another fund for pedestrian and cycling improvements that houses
revenue from bids from private dockless mobility companies to operate in
the city.163

159 Challenges of Implementation of Intelligent Transportation Systems in Developing Countries.

160 Sustainable Freight: Impacts of the London Congestion Charge and Low Emissions Zones.
161 Your Taxi or Uber Ride in Manhattan Will Soon Cost More.
162 People Power and Courts Fight First-Ever Attempt to Scrap Low-Emissions Zone.
62 163 Presentation by María Fernanda Rivera Flores, general director of Road Safety and Sustainable Urban Mobility Systems, SEMOVI, 63
January 14, 2020. 164 Low-Emission Zones Are a Success—But They Must Now Move to Zero-Emission Mobility.
 KEY Together, these evaluations yielded the following key takeaways:
TAKEAWAYS

4
Key
Takeaway
Implementing multiple traffic reduction strategies
In this paper, we selected several “push” TDM strategies, which we refer to
1
together maximizes impact and reduces potential
as traffic reduction strategies, in the areas of parking pricing, emissions challenges related to political will and equity.
pricing, congestion pricing, limited traffic zones, and reallocation of road
space for people. We evaluated these strategies, using the following
criteria, to help city officials make more informed decisions that account for
There are only a few examples of cities that have implemented multiple
their needs and available capacity.
strategies together, though this approach is gaining momentum. Notably,
C40’s Green and Healthy Streets initiative acknowledges the role of
1) How the strategy contributes to individual traffic reduction targets that
increased walking, cycling, and public transport in reducing the use of
improve well-being (e.g., mode shift away from single-occupancy vehicles,
polluting private vehicles and encourages city mayors to pursue public bus
fewer kilometers driven, or encouraging a cleaner vehicle fleet). Because
and other fleet electrification and complementary strategies to reduce
cities have different priorities for which of these outcomes they intend to
emissions and VKT.165
pursue, we do not provide a summary rating for this criteria.
Fee-based strategies have the advantage of generating considerable
2) How the strategy contributes to sustainable transportation goals of
revenue, depending on the design, which has been shown to successfully
improving access, maintaining safety, protecting the environment and
cover operational costs as well as fund improvements to walking, cycling,
human health, and using resources efficiently, and
and public transit facilities—projects that may not otherwise have received
funding. Revenue generation can be an attractive feature for cities with
3) The level of capacity required for effective implementation.
limited budgets. However, in addition to operations, revenue generated
from fee-based strategies should be used to address equity concerns,
offsetting burdens for low income people and other groups who may be
Link to livability Capacity required for disproportionately affected by the pricing policy. This can help to address
and sustainability* effective implementation concerns about regressivity that often arise in response to fee-based
(see 3.1 and 3.2) (see 3.3) strategies.

Non-fee-based strategies, while not able to generate revenue directly,

have been shown to stimulate economic activity and reduce societal costs
DEMAND-BASED
MED from road injuries and fatalities. These can also be attractive to risk-averse
PRICING
PARKING MED cities that may not be willing to commit to a large-scale congestion pricing
REFORMS scheme, for example. Because these strategies do not impose fees on
OFF-STREET
LOW
PARKING REFORMS drivers, they can be less challenging to implement, politically, compared
to fee-based strategies, especially in cities with high mode shares of
pedestrians. However, behavior change may not be observed as quickly or
COMMERCIAL
LOW LOW at as large a scale compared to fee-based strategies, given that drivers can
PARKING TAX
continue to drive, albeit less conveniently.

LOW EMISSION Implementing fee-based and non-fee-based strategies as part of a

EMISSIONS- LOW
ZONE comprehensive traffic reduction policy could help to maximize the
BASED PRICING HIGH
AND CONGESTION benefits of both while reducing political or public pushback. Designing
CONGESTION HIGH a comprehensive traffic reduction policy may also allow for more
CHARGING
PRICING transparency around the use of revenues from fee-based policies to
support other interventions, like road space reallocation, which not only
REALLOCATING restricts drivers but improves conditions for non–vehicle users.
ROAD SPACE HIGH LOW
FOR PEOPLE

LIMITED TRAFFIC
MED MED
ZONE

*Evaluation considers the extent to which each strategy contributes to the livability targets identified in 3.1 and the
64 sustainable transport goals in 3.2. 65
165 Amsterdam, Austin, Berlin, Jakarta and Liverpool Commit to Rid Fossil Fuels from City Streets by 2030.
 Key Reallocating road space for people should be Key If capacity is limited, adoption of traffic reduction
Takeaway Takeaway
considered part of a comprehensive traffic reduction strategies could follow a progression.
2 strategy, especially where capacity is limited.
4
Road space reallocation is not always a top-of-mind strategy for traffic Cities with capacity limitations should consider alternatives to high-cost,
reduction; however, it has been shown to generate mode shift toward high-technology traffic reduction strategies, at least to start, as lower-cost,
sustainable modes. Physically reducing space for vehicles on the street low-technology strategies have documented success in reducing demand
makes driving less convenient and walking, cycling, and public transit for driving. Indeed, road space reallocation projects, which do not require
faster, safer, and more enjoyable options. Street redesigns that de-prioritize a lot of capacity to implement, can be a first step in catalyzing a shift to
vehicles without banning them outright or charging drivers can help with sustainable transport modes by establishing a network of high-quality
public acceptance. Phasing—starting with targeted corridor or intersection walking, cycling, and public transport options and de-prioritizing vehicle
redesigns and replicating and expanding them over time—can ensure use. Then, moderate-cost, moderate-capacity strategies like parking reform
the development of a network of pedestrian, cyclist, and transit-priority and limited traffic zones can be undertaken, continuing the momentum
streets, enhancing their impact and ability to provide a viable alternative to toward driving less and beginning to generate revenue to expand and
private vehicle use. Similarly, road space reallocations can be implemented improve sustainable transport options. Both road space reallocation and
gradually, whereas a low emission zone or congestion pricing zone needs to on-street parking pricing can be implemented incrementally, as needed,
be a significant size to be effective. Furthermore, road space reallocation which may help with political palatability and public acceptance. Eventually,
does not present the transparency concerns or technology requirements once the network is large enough and capacity is robust, high-cost,
raised by other traffic reduction strategies. Additionally, in places where high-technology strategies like emissions-based and congestion pricing
mode share of private vehicles is low, as is often the case in many L/LMIC zones can be more seriously pursued, supported by a strong network of
cities, reallocating road space for people restricts private vehicle use while sustainable transport alternatives to driving.
improving safety and comfort for the majority of people who already travel
by foot, bicycle, or public transport.

Key The presence of alternative transportation options

Takeaway
is critical, particularly when most or all private
3 vehicles are restricted from a zone.

Impacts from any traffic reduction strategy will be bolstered by

improvements to cycling, walking, and public transit facilities. Without such
alternatives, those who can continue to afford (financially or with time)
to drive will do so, and those who cannot will see their ability to access
destinations disproportionately limited. Providing affordable, reliable
alternatives to driving is consistently cited as a requirement for maintaining
equity when implementing a traffic reduction strategy.166 Furthermore, using
revenues generated from fee-based strategies, like a congestion charge or
demand-based on-street parking, to directly fund local improvements to
cycling, walking, and transit helps make these strategies, which could be
viewed as regressive, more progressive.167

166 Low-Emission Zones Are a Success—But They Must Now Move to Zero-Emission Mobility.
66 167 Traffic Congestion Pricing: Methodologies and Equity Implications. 67
 APPENDIX A:
DESIGN AND • ITDP. (2017). TOD Standard.

IMPLEMENTATION • ITDP. (2018). Pedestrians First: Tools for a Walkable City.

RESOURCES • ITDP Africa. (n.d.). How to Develop Non-motorised Transport Strategy or

REALLOCATING Policy.
ROAD SPACE
FOR PEOPLE • ITDP Africa. (2018). https://africa.itdp.org/publication/africa-streets-
walking-cycling/
• Asian Development Bank. (2011). Parking Policy in Asian Cities.
• ITDP India. (2019). Complete Streets Framework.
• Inter-American Development Bank. (2013). Practical Guidebook: Parking and
Travel Demand Management Policies in Latin America. • NACTO/GDCI. (2016). Global Street Design Guide.

• ITDP. (2014). Shared Parking. • Streetmix. (n.d.). Streetscape Design Tool.

• ITDP. (2015). Parking Basics.

• ITDP China. (2015). Parking Guidebook for Beijing.

PARKING
• ITDP India. (2014). Park It Right! How Smart Management Can Help Us Solve
Our Parking Woes.

• ITDP Mexico. (2014). Less Parking, More City: A Case Study in Mexico City.

• ITDP Mexico. (2015). Menos Cajones Más Ciudad [Video].

• Victoria Transport Policy Institute. (2018). Parking Management: Strategies

for More Efficient Use of Parking Resources.

LOW
EMISSION • C40 Cities. (2019). How to Design and Implement a Clean Air or Low
ZONES AND Emission Zone.
EMISSIONS-
BASED • WRI. (2017). Study on International Practices for Low Emission Zone and
PRICING Congestion Charging.

CONGESTION • Asian Development Bank and GIZ. (2015). Introduction to Congestion

PRICING Charging: A Guide for Practitioners in Developing Cities.

68 69
 APPENDIX B:
DEFINITIONS OF 3.3
EVALUATION CRITERIA
Data privacy and surveillance concerns
The design of some traffic reduction strategies may raise concerns about
governments’ abilities to protect personal privacy, maintain data integrity,
or prevent improper data sharing. For example, existing congestion pricing
schemes in Stockholm, Singapore, Milan, and elsewhere use automatic
number/license plate recognition (ANPR/ALPR) cameras or similar
technology to identify vehicles without an on-board unit (OBU) that enter
the congestion charge zone. Privacy concerns related to the ability to
reidentify individuals based on their vehicle’s travel patterns or the use of
license plate records to track marginalized groups like immigrants could
lead to pushback against this traffic reduction strategy design.168

Technology needs
Some traffic reduction strategies require technology to operate
successfully. For example, cordon and distance-based pricing could require
an OBU inside each vehicle to accurately charge local vehicles or might use
ANPR cameras to charge vehicles without an OBU. Other technologies, like
smart meters and sensors, are used to operate demand-based parking.
Lack of access to these and other costly technologies, such as intelligent
transportation systems (ITS), may prevent the successful implementation of
certain traffic reduction strategies. However, while these technologies can
help to automate operational aspects of traffic reduction strategies, they
present monetary costs and can generate privacy concerns that threaten
public acceptance.

Political complexity
Political complexity refers to the feasibility of designing and implementing a
traffic reduction strategy given current and historical political willingness to
do so. For example, even though fee-based strategies may be attractive from
an economic standpoint, they have been difficult to pass politically because
individuals and groups have pushed back against being charged for what
had previously been free. Non-fee-based strategies also present political
complexities, as demonstrated by legal challenges from drivers in Paris in
response to the mayor’s closing of streets along the Seine to vehicles.169

Upfront government investment

Some traffic reduction strategies are more costly to implement and
maintain than others, especially if new technologies or systems are being
pursued. London’s congestion pricing scheme required $214 million in
upfront investment, but it generated nearly $4 billion in revenue in its first
10 years of operation.170 The need for significant initial investments from
the government could lead to public backlash, especially if drivers are also
being charged. Therefore, it is important to communicate clearly how the
traffic reduction strategy will improve people’s daily lives. Transparency
around the use of revenues can also help to foster social acceptance.
Funding for concrete benefits that can be observed locally in the short term
should be prioritized, though some revenues should be set aside for longer-
term system-level projects.171

168 Congestion Pricing Should Use Apps, Not Cameras.

169 Paris Car Ban: Court Upholds Mayor Anne Hidalgo’s Plan.
70 170 https://www.nlc.org/resource/making-space-congestion-pricing-in-cities/ 71
171 The Potential of Road Pricing Schemes to Reduce Carbon Emissions.
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