Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 12, No. 3, 2013

Vol.12, No.
3, 2013
ISSN 1648-3898
The International Journal of the Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 12, No. 3, 2013
Editorial Board ISSN 1648–3898
Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas Siauliai University, Lithuania
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Andris Broks University of Latvia, Latvia
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. habil. Aarne Tõldsepp Estonian Chemistry Teachers Association, Estonia
Executive Secretary
Dr. Laima Railienė Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Editors:
Prof., Dr. Boris Aberšek University of Maribor, Slovenia
Prof., Dr. Agnaldo Arroio University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Prof., Dr. Martin Bilek University of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
Commission for the Publication of the National Edition of Federigo
Dr. Paolo Bussotti
Enriques’s Works, Italy
Dr. Bulent Cavas Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey
Prof., Dr. Hana Čtrnáctová Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Peter Demkanin Comenius University, Slovakia
Prof., Dr. Jānis Gedrovics Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management
Academy, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Ryszard M. Janiuk Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Poland
Dr. Rita Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, Lithuania
Dr. Milan Kubiatko Masaryk University, Czech Republic
Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after Maxim Tank,
Dr. Todar Lakhvich
Republic of Belarus
Prof., Dr. Jari Lavonen University of Helsinki, Finland
Prof., Dr. Aadu Ott Göteborg University, Sweden
Dr. Paul Pace Malta University, Malta
Prof., Dr. Valfrids Paškevičs Daugavpils University, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Jongwon Park Chonnam National University, Korea
Dr. Raffaele Pisano European Society for the History of Science, Italy
Dr. Pavol Prokop Institute of Zoology, Bratislava, Slovakia
Dr. Miia Rannikmäe Tartu University, Estonia
Dr. Alona Rauckienė Klaipėda University, Lithuania
Prof., Dr. Heimo Saarikko Helsinki University, Finland
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin University of Oregon, USA
Prof., Dr. Valery P. Solomin Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, Russia
Prof., Dr. Borislav V. Toshev Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr. Georgios Tsaparlis University of Ioannina, Greece
Dr. Muhammet Usak Zirve University, Turkey
A scientific journal JBSE issued by the SMC Scientia Educologica in cooperation with Scientia Socialis, Lithua-
nia, emphasizes theoretical, experimental and methodical studies in the field of science education. JBSE is
an international academic journal. In order to maintain the high standards appropriate to such a journal, all
contributions received are submitted for anonymous review by two experts, additionally to review by the
Editor. The decision of the Editor on the acceptance of articles is final and no correspondence can be entered
into on reasons for rejection of a submitted contribution.
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The articles appearing in this journal are indexed/abstracted in British Education Index
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ISSN 1648–3898 Contents
Contents
Editorial
COGITO ERGO SUM HOMOMACHINE?

Boris Aberšek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Articles
THE EFFECTS OF INQUIRY SUPPORTED BY ARGUMENT MAPS ON SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

AND EPISTEMOLOGICAL VIEWS OF PROSPECTIVE SCIENCE TEACHERS
Gül Ünal Çoban . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
TURKISH STUDENTS’ IMAGES OF SCIENTISTS

Ayşenur Yontar Toğrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
THE EMOTIONS ABOUT TEACHING AND LEARNING SCIENCE: A STUDY OF PROSPECTIVE

PRIMARY TEACHERS IN THREE SPANISH UNIVERSITIES
María Brígido, Digna Couso, Ciro Gutiérrez, Vicente Mellado. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
EXAMINING THE LEARNING EXPERIENCES OF SCIENCE TRAINING AMONG TAIWANESE

ABORIGINAL ADOLESCENTS
Ya-Ling Wu, Cheng-Wu Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
PREDICTING COLLEGE STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT IN SCIENCE COURSES

Abdurrahman Ilgan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
THE IMPACT OF SITE-VISITS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIOLOGICAL COGNITIVE

KNOWLEDGE
Miriam Muscat, Paul Pace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
An Investigation of Mathematics and Science Questions in Entrance

Examinations for Secondary Education Institutions in Turkey
Lutfi Incikabi, Mehmet A. Kurnaz, Murat Pektas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
LEARNING APPROACHES TO APPLYING ROBOTICS IN SCIENCE EDUCATION

Heilo Altin, Margus Pedaste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
A MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL FOR THE EXPLORATION OF NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL

NETWORKING WEBSITES AS PERCEIVED BY STUDENTS
Alexandru Balog, Costin Pribeanu, Vincentas Lamanauskas, Violeta Šlekienė. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Information
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Problems of psychology in the 21st Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Quality Issues and insights in the 21st Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
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COGITO ERGO SUM HOMOMACHINE?
Boris Aberšek
University of Maribor, Slovenia
When European Union (EU) heads of state and government met at a summit in Lisbon in 2000 (Lisbon
declaration, 2000), they set the goal of making Europe ‘the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-
based economy in the world’. In a knowledge economy, the ‘most effective modern economies will be
those that produce the most information and knowledge, and make that information and knowledge
easily accessible to the greatest number of individuals and enterprises’. This policy brief suggests that
individuals and companies can easily collaborate and compete globally, and that the solution for Eu-
rope in meeting the Lisbon goals is to invest heavily in education and skills. Statistical evidence briefly
demonstrates the high return on investment in education. It makes recommendations for ensuring
that Europe’ school systems become more flexible and effective in improving learning outcomes, and
argues that Europeans capacity to compete in the global knowledge economy will depend on whether
its higher education institutions can meet the rapidly growing demand for high-level skills. International
comparisons demonstrate the challenges confronting Europe but also illustrate the success of efforts
to meet such challenges. Education and skills will be most important in this process. Those statements
are approx. 13 years old. Let’s look at this problem from today’s perspective. What influences a student’s
experience is briefly shown at the Figure 1.
Figure 1: 4 pillars of the education system.
One of the basic questions facing educators today has always been “Where do we begin in seeking
to improve the teaching/learning process?” Fortunately we do not have to begin from scratch in searching
for answers to this complicated question. The experts recommend that one place to begin is in defin-
ing the nature of thinking. Before we can make a better process, we need to know more of how people
process information, how people think. New discoveries in the field of developmental cognitive science
and neuroscience hold great promise for improving current teaching methods (Anderson, 2007). Yet
there remains a significant gap between the scientific discoveries that could improve our education
system and the application of this knowledge. If we want to introduce innovation in schools we must
primarily take into account the whole complexity of this system, which is symbolically represented in
Figure 2: the appropriate infrastructure and with it connected teaching practices, connectedness (social
interaction) and learning practices, assessment, leadership and values and, last but not least, contents,
curricula and organization must be taken into account (Flogie, 2013).
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Figure 2: School system and innovative pedagogies.
From Figure 1 it is obvious that the students’ experience and the quality of their knowledge is most
important. From this point of view, in recent years we have talked a lot about efficiency of teaching and
the learning process. We all know that two diametrical possibilities exist in these processes, namely “clas-
sical” class teaching in large groups (with low efficiency) and individual teaching, 1:1 teaching or one
teacher for one student (for example: Socrates and Plato, Plato and Aristotle, Aristotle and Alexander the
great etc.) So the average efficiency, if normal (Gaussian) distribution is assumed, according to figure 3
oscillates between 50% for teaching in the class and 98% for individual teaching. These are our limits.
Figure 3: Efficiency of teaching process.
If we want to increase the efficiency of (todays) teaching process from 50% we must somehow
incorporate a 1:1 philosophy in the regular class room process. This could is only possible through the
use of technology, with innovative 1:1 pedagogy, which means every student would have their own tu-
tor, specifically their own i_tutor (intelligent computer tutor - netbook). A lot of research in education is
concerned with the development of intelligent applications such as Intelligent Computer-Aided Instruc-
tion (CAI), intelligent tutoring system (ITS) and intelligent learning environment (ILA) (Allen and Seaman,
2008, Aberšek, 2010) and also with applications that can be justified as being consistent with educational
theories. Providing these forms of intelligent tutoring, poses unique challenges, because it requires an
intelligent system that can model domains as well as student behaviours and mental states that are
often not as structured and well-defined as those involved in traditional problem solving. Advances in AI
techniques for reasoning under uncertainty, machine learning, decision-theoretic planning, as well as the
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increasing availability of sensors that can help capture the relevant user states, are promising means for
the field to face these challenges (Bermudez, 2010). Success in these endeavours has the potential to have
a great impact on our society, and on its ever-increasing need for high quality teaching and training. The
most promising way for today is use of intelligent educational systems that promise increasing efficiency
according to figure 3 of up to 84% (Conati, 2009). The most important part of such systems is the use of
artificial intelligence that makes the following possible:
•• representation of knowledge and teaching/learning process,

•• intelligent selection (selection of most appropriate tasks, i.e. individualisation),
•• learning from previous experience (experience based learning), etc.
Figure 4: Do we think differently? (Kurzweil, 2005).
What happens with humans` intelligence? Try to find an answer to this question in the example
of processing power. In figure 4 the short historical overview and, comparison of human-computer
is presented. It is possible to conclude that human processing power was nearly constant before the
computer era (figure 4a) and after computer power it slightly decreases linearly. If we combine human
and computer the processing power considerably increases and results in an, the information society
(figure 4b). But the problem is that human processing power decreases. And if we start talking about
artificial intelligence etc., the whole processing power increases rapidly (figure 4c), but could lead to
the question: What will happen to humans as such and/or is everything that is good for society (=global
economy) also good for humans as individuals and/or only as a part of this global economy?
References
Aberšek, B., Kordigel Aberšek, M. (2010). Information Communication Technology and e-learning Contra Teacher.
Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 24, 8-18.
Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2008). Staying the Course: Online Education in the United States. Needham MA: Sloan Con-
sortium.
Anderson, J. R. (2007). How Can the Human Mind Occur in the Physical Universe. Oxford University Press.
Bermúdez, J. J. (2010). Cognitive Science. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Conati, C. (2009). Intelligent Tutoring Systems: New Challenges and Directions. In International Joint Conferences on
Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI). Pasadena, California, USA, pp. 2-7.
Flogie, A. (2013). Innovative pedagogy 1:1in the light of the competences for 21st century, Project application, Ministry
for Education, Science and Sport RS and ESS.
Kurzweil, R. (2005). The Singularity is Near. New York, Viking Press.
Lisbon Declaration (2000). Retrieved from, http://www.eua.be/fileadmin/user_upload/files/
Lisbon_Convention/Lisbon_Declaration.pdf (Accessed, Jun 5, 2013).
Received: June 11, 2013 Accepted: June 25, 2013
Boris Aberšek PhD., Professor, University of Maribor, Faculty of Natural Science and
Mathematics, Koroška 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia.
Phone: +386 2 2293 752, Fax: +386 2 2518 180.
E-mail: boris.abersek@uni-mb.si
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THE EFFECTS OF INQUIRY
SUPPORTED BY ARGUMENT
MAPS ON SCIENCE
PROCESS SKILLS AND
EPISTEMOLOGICAL VIEWS
OF PROSPECTIVE SCIENCE
TEACHERS
Gül Ünal Çoban Abstract. Situating arguments as a

central element in the design of inquiry
learning environments is important for
engaging learners in the coordination of
conceptual and epistemological goals.
Introduction The purpose of this study was to find out
the effects of inquiry based laboratory ac-
In many of the countries all over the world, the national
tivities which are supported by argument
science education curricula cite competence in scientific inquiry
(Erduran, 2006; Turkish Ministry of National Education Board of maps on the prospective science teachers’
Education and Discipline Primary Science and Technology Cur- science process skills and epistemologi-
riculum [MEB], 2005; Abd-el-Khalick et al., 2004; Boujaoude, 2002; cal views. A quasi experimental research
American Association for the Advancement of Science [AAAS], was conducted with sixty 3rd grade
1993). It may because the most effective form of learning is likely prospective science teachers of a faculty
to be inquiry-oriented which is personalized and collaborative,
of education in Turkey for over 3 months.
and conducted in accordance with the norms and values of com-
munity of the scientists, under the guidance of a skilled practitioner The results displayed that although the
(Trowbridge & Bybee, 1996). Therefore, it may be claimed that inquiry supported by argument maps had
inquiry is central to science learning as it is the active process of significantly affected the science process
learning to reflect the nature of scientific inquiry in the scientific skills of prospective science teachers’, it
context (Anderson, 2007). did not affect their epistemological views.
Although the curricular emphasis on inquiry is necessary,
It is thought that it may take some time
it is not sufficient for the fruitful implementation (Boujaoude,
2002). There are many factors affecting this situation such as the and special efforts to see the effects of
students’ assessments based on standardized testing which result inquiry supported by argument maps on
in teaching practices those are in contradiction with the aim of the the epistemological views of prospective
curriculum creating a pressure for teachers to prepare students for science teachers.
tests covering a large amount of content and emphasizing factual Key words: argument mapping, inquiry,
knowledge (Blanchard, Annetta & Southerland, 2008). Anderson
prospective science teachers.
(2002) summarizes these obstacles which must be overcome for
teachers to acquire inquiry approach to teaching science under
three headings as technical (related to the ability to teach con-
structively and the role of the teacher), political (related to limited Gül Ünal Çoban
in-service education, parental resistance, lack of resources and etc.), Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey
and cultural (related to system of beliefs and values, preparation
ethics and etc.). He also claims that preparing teachers for inquiry
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SKILLS AND EPISTEMOLOGICAL VIEWS OF PROSPECTIVE SCIENCE TEACHERS
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teaching is much bigger than technical matters. Therefore, it seems teaching science through inquiry
needs to accomplish much more than simply detailing what we know about scientific inquiry (Simon,
Erduran & Osborne 2002). This situation may depend on that although inquiry learning has a sound
definition as an active process of learning by having relationship to scientific inquiry; inquiry teaching
has no clear definition or boundaries (Anderson, 2007).
On the other hand, less than 10% of science teachers are able to provide one of two crucial pieces
of evidence that demonstrate the Earth spins (Osborne, 2005). This reveals that although the science
teachers seem to be well equipped to teach science, there are missing key points in their professional
life such as engaging in the process of scientific argumentation. In other words, they fail to give stu-
dents critical thinking, thinking with evidence and as a result of doing the essence of science. Moreover,
the science teachers encounter problem of relating evidence from practices and experiments to the
knowledge claims in texts and statements of scientific theory (Duschl & Erduran, 1996). According to
this view, one part of the problem concerns the cognitive and manipulative procedures of scientific
exploration and investigation that generate data and evidence. The other part of the problem concerns
learning the skills of argumentation and of theory development and evaluation that forge evidence
into scientific explanation
Understanding science has conceptual and procedural patterns (Gott & Murphy, 1987, as cited in
Millar, 1991, p44). While conceptual side addresses the core subjects of science such as natural events
and facts; procedural side involves the fundamental skills to do science. This procedural side addresses
the science process skills. Harlen (1999) emphasized that the development of science process skills
has to be a major goal of science education besides being general descriptions of logical and rational
thinking:
Learning with understanding in science involves testing the usefulness of possible explanatory ideas by
using them to make predictions or to pose questions, collecting evidence to test the prediction or answer
the question and interpreting the results; in other words, using the science process skills (p. 130).
In this context, it gets highly important for students to gain understanding about the science as a
way of knowing (Driver, 1995). Furthermore, the aim of science and scientific works are idea testing, and
as a result scientific knowledge is constructed through justification (Smith, 2000; Carey, Evans, Honda,
Jay & Unger, 1989). The justification addresses how the knowledge in science is developed, how it is
understood to be true and how is the quality of the data that build up the knowledge is determined
and evaluated (Ryder & Leach, 2006; Saunders, Cavallo & Abraham, 2001). Consequently, the scientific
knowledge or the epistemology of science basically concerns with the questions of “what do we know?”,
“how do we know?” and “how do we come to believe in our knowledge to be true?” (Duschl & Osborne,
2002). These issues all address the importance of scientific knowledge and in particular the need in
science to justify our claims with evidence or argument (Erduran, 2006).
Some of the researchers define argument as the justification of claims with evidence and argu-
mentation as the coordination of theory and knowledge (Erduran, 2006; Patronis, Potari & Spiliotopou-
lou, 1999; Kuhn & Pearsall, 2000). According to Nussbaum, Sinatra & Poliquin (2008, p. 1978) scientific
argument refers to the application of scientific standards (e.g., provision of evidence, consideration of
counterarguments and rival hypotheses) to arguments for the purpose of understanding scientific
phenomena. Moreover, an argument is not a mathematical proof but the discussions that present and
provide support for claims with evidence and premises (Belland, Glazewski & Richardson, 2008). The
evidence only has meaning in the context of the ideas we use to interrogate. In other words, “ideas and
evidence” is always an implicit part of the context for practical work in a school context (Taber and et
al., 2006). Argumentation can also be used to help students develop rigorous standards for what counts
as warranted knowledge in science (Driver, Newton & Osborne 2000).
In this study, arguments are composed in form of maps as they are easy to construct, document
and to keep for groups of students when comparing and discussing. Argument or reasoning mapping
is a thought mapping technique such as concept mapping and mind mapping (Austhink, 2010; Stolpe &
Strömdahl, 2007; Novak & Gowin, 1984). However, in argument maps the focus is on exclusively reason-
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ing or argument structure and this time instead of putting just one concept word in each box, a whole
statement is used. Different statements are connected by lines or arrows which indicate the chronol-
ogy of statements or support of evidence for a claim and thereby give a graphical picture of reasoning
process (Stolpe & Strömdahl, 2007). It may be also defined as the graphical display of evidential relation-
ship (evidence for or against others) by making a picture of reasoning (Austhink, 2010). Reasoning can
be defined as the process of constructing and evaluating arguments (Shaw, 1996). Therefore, the basic
unit of all reasoning is composed of simple arguments. A single argument contains one contention and
one piece of evidence related to it. Therefore, argument maps can be used to characterize idea testing
behavior of individuals (White, 2004).
On the base of above literature, it is clear that inquiry and arguments have essential roles in sci-
ence teaching and learning. As it is stated in the next chapter, they both also have potential of affecting
prospective science teachers’ science process skills and epistemological views. Therefore, this study aims
to answer the following research questions:
1. Is the Inquiry Supported by Argument Maps effective on prospective science teachers’ sci-
ence process skills?
2. Is the Inquiry Supported by Argument Maps effective on prospective science teachers’
epistemological views?
Science Education and Prospective Science Teachers
There are many studies examining inquiry and use of arguments in science education. For example,
Yerrick (2000) examined the effects of open inquiry instruction with low achieving, marginalized high
school students in general course instruction that was included generation, experimental design, and
argument construction. She reported that students’ arguments were observed to improve toward
those more consistent with the nature of the scientific arguments including students’ tentativeness
of knowledge claims, students’ use of evidence, and students’ views regarding the source of scientific
authority.
Besides, Hogan & Maglienti (2001) studied on the reasoning abilities of scientists, non-scientists
and students and found out that the performance of non-scientists and students were lower than that
of scientists. They also added that students are able to perform well if they are given opportunity to
participate into discussions through the criteria of scientific work.
Moreover, in her study with children and adults, Kuhn (1993) put forward that both groups she
studied on showed a low level of coordination of evidence and theory (or use of arguments). Addition-
ally, she also reported that students with more constructivist epistemic perspectives were more likely
to consider alternative theories and disconfirming evidence. Additionally, Bell & Linn (2000) showed
that students who viewed science as dynamic and constantly changing tended to create more complex
and integrated arguments.
Kelly & Takao (2001) studied with university students about inquiring by writing of arguments
through accessing the geological data bases through the use of an interactive CD-ROM. They found
that, student generation of scientific argument derived from real earth data improved their scientific
inquiry skills.
Gott & Duggon (2003, p. 191) examined the concepts of evidence through 5 layers on how various
practical work relates to the underlying ideas. They structured layers of evidences in circles where a
single datum lies at the centre (region A). This core layer is outwardly followed by a data set (region B).
In region C, there lie the relationships between the variables -patterns in data and ‘truth tables’- in the
private claim. This layer is outwardly followed by the comparison with other sources of data (region D).
After then, there come the wider societal issues about defining the way the task is conducted such as
costs, values and bias (prejudice, preconception, fear, authority and etc.) in region E. In their structure
while the regions addressed by A, B and C represent the design determining the selection of ideas to
be used in the task, all of the regions from A to E address a public claim based on all the evidence.
In the same manner Osborne (2005) claimed that scientific literacy depends on the ability to reject
and recognize poor scientific arguments as well as on the ability to reproduce the correct scientific view
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based on evidences. It means there is relation between understanding and using arguments and being
scientifically literate.
Lederman, Lederman & Wickman (2008) also conducted an experimental study with science
teachers of three groups in order to see the effects of direct instruction, guided inquiry and hybrid
of two on the subject matter knowledge, knowledge of inquiry and attitudes towards science. He
reported that the most successful group was the one having the instruction of hybrid approach.
Besides being skilled on inquiry teaching and learning, Morowitz (1990) also claim that, in or-
der to avoid the appeals to authoritarianism, the science teacher must be equipped with a deeper
understanding of the acquisition and validation of knowledge. As explained above, argument in
science education is the core subject in order to understand the role of evidence for justification of
the scientific knowledge as a process. Through taking part in activities that require them to argue the
basis on which knowledge claims are made, students also begin to gain an insight into the episte-
mological foundations of science itself (Newton and et al., 1999). Therefore, teaching how to argue
with evidence is essential for students to understand how scientific knowledge is constructed and
validated (Okada, 2008).
Lawson (2002) in his study with prospective biology teachers where they submitted written
arguments as lab reports found out that when students were able to manipulate observable hy-
pothesis they argumented well. However, he pointed out that when the hypothesized causes were
unobservable and indirectly tested, their performance of argument dropped. He concluded that in
order for prospective teachers understand and develop adequate hypothesis-testing skills and nature
of science is closely related to their argumentation skills.
However, it is cited in many of the studies that getting individuals to adopt argumentation either
as discourse or as written task is a long and difficult term (Osborne, 2005; Erduran, 2006, Prain & Hand,
1996) and difficult process due to the individual differences. These individual differences may range
from willingness and preparedness to learn; from engaging in argumentation and epistemological
beliefs to having mistaken views about argument as a disagreement and resulting in not appreciating
the role of argumentation as a normal part of the working of science (Nussbaum, Sinatra & Poliquin,
2008; Nussbaum & Bendixen, 2003; Duschl & Osborne, 2002; Bell & Linn, 2000).
Nussbaum and Bendixen (2003) found out that epistemic beliefs are directly related to students’
willingness to engage in argumentation. Specifically, students who believe that knowledge is simple,
certain, and unchanging reported that arguments were anxiety-promoting, and thus they tended to
avoid them. Therefore, as a role model for student, the science teachers’ prior knowledge, willingness
about argumentation extending down their years at faculties gets importance.
As part of their project, IDEAS, Erduran, Ardaç and Yakmaci-Güzel (2006) studied with 17 trainee
teachers for 6 weeks in 90 minutes workshops through Toulmin’s argument pattern. At the end, they
examined the teachers’ strategies on how they structured the task, used group discussions, questioned
for evidence and justifications, modeled argument, used presentations and established the norms of
argumentation. They found out that formative feedback in argumentation might be challenging to
beginning teachers although other advanced skills such as modeling and questioning did not present
as much difficulty. Therefore, as the researchers offered the developmental stages in the learning to
teach argumentation needs to be traced.
On the other hand, Von Aufschnaiter, Erduran, Osborne & Simon (2007) put forward that when
engaging in argumentation students draw on their prior experiences and knowledge. Besides, they
pointed out that activities based on argumentation enabled students to consolidate and elaborate
their existing knowledge but did mainly not result in new (conceptual) understanding.
Nussbaum, Sinatra & Poliquin (2008) in their experimental study with college undergraduates
found out that constructivist epistemic beliefs and instruction in the criteria for a sound scientific
argument facilitated students’ consideration of evidence and alternative points of view, which in turn
would create greater opportunities for conceptual development. By proposing that many of science
teachers are unsure abut how to conduct and support inquiry learning in the classroom, Sampson &
Gleim (2009) improved an argument-driven inquiry model where the laboratory task is presented to
the students as the problem and they produce arguments based on laboratory experiences in groups.
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The researchers claim that the model they developed has the potential of fostering scientific literacy
since the students actively involved in science process skills during argument sessions.
In summary, situating arguments as a central element in the design of inquiry learning environ-
ments is important for engaging learners in the coordination of conceptual and epistemological
goals and making students skilful regarding scientific inquiry (Simon and et al., 2002). Hahn & Gilmer
(in Abd-el-Khalick and et al. 2004, p. 403) and Anderson (2002) proposed that most science teachers
have never directly experienced scientific inquiry during their education in the science courses and
science education programs. A critical component of professional development of science teachers
should include direct experiences with science as they need to be well experienced in scientific inquiry
as a teaching approach, set of process skills and content area as well as pedagogical skills necessary
to teach about inquiry and nature of science (Abd-el-Khalick and et al. 2004, p. 403). Therefore, the
best inquiry teaching experience can be obtained by experiencing inquiry learning. Moreover, it is
known that, students need to be modeled by their science teachers in making their thinking explicit
for scientific argumentation (Okada, 2008; Hogan & Maglienti, 2001; Simon, Erduran, Osborne, 2002).
Based on the above arguments, it is thought that experiencing inquiry supported by argument maps
may have important outcomes for prospective science teachers. Therefore, by addressing the above
issues related to the importance of both inquiry and arguments in science education, this study aimed
to see the effects of the inquiry based laboratory activities which are supported by argument maps on
the prospective science teachers’ science process skills and epistemological views.
Methodology of Research
Research Design
This study is based on quasi-experimental research design where the researcher studies the effects
of the treatment on the intact groups which are not randomly assigned as experimental and control
groups (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1996; Mertens, 1998). This research is structured to see the effects of the
inquiry supported by argument maps on the prospective science teachers’ science process skills and
epistemological views in a cause-effect relationship in Science Laboratory Practices II course. Although
the participants are not randomly assigned to the groups, the groups were randomly assigned as ex-
perimental and control.
Participants
The participants of this research are prospective science teachers of a faculty of education from a
state university in one of the cities located on the west of Turkey. A total of sixty 3rd grade prospective
science teachers (N=29 in experimental and N=31 in control groups with average age of 22.1) took place
in the research. Before participating into this research, all of the participants had Science Laboratory
Practices I course (for approximately 3 months) about how to conduct activities and practices in the
laboratory during the fall term of the same instructional year. In that course, they all had experiences in
conducting expository, discovery and problem based laboratory activities as defined by Domin (1999).
Therefore, the prospective science teachers had already had the basic skills and knowledge about labora-
tory activities when they came to The Science Laboratory Applications II course for the spring term.
Assumptions and Limitations
The external validity of this research is limited in that the study was conducted only with sixty
prospective science teachers in one faculty. The application is restricted to general science subjects within
the scope of subjects requiring basic knowledge of physics, chemistry and biology. It is assumed that the
prospective science teachers followed directions in the worksheets, and the teaching was performed
by the researcher.
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Data Collection Tools
Science Process Skills Test and Epistemological View Questions were used for collecting data in this
research. The instruments were given to students at the beginning and at the end of the course.
Science Process Skills Test
In the literature, there are many paper-pencil tests developed for assessing science process skils of
individuals from elementary school to college level (Burns, Okey & Wise, 1985; Germann, Aram & Burke,
1996; Temiz, Taşar & Tan, 2001; Ateş, 2005; Aydoğdu, Yıldız, Akpınar & Ergin, 2006; Temiz & Tan, 2007).
Among these tests, namely, Science Process Skills Test (SPST) was developed towards assessing the
science process skills of prospective science teachers by Aydoğdu and et al. (2006). SPST has two parts.
There are 9 multiple choice items those require explanations for choosing in the first part and there are
4 scenarios ending with open ended questions. The science process skills measured by SBST are doing
observation (1 multiple choice item and 1 scenario), classification (1 multiple choice item), inferring (1
multiple choice item), controlling variables (1 multiple choice item, 2 scenarios), interpreting data (1
multiple choice item), measuring (1 multiple choice item), hypothesizing (1 multiple choice item) and
fair testing (2 multiple choice items and 1 scenario). The reliability coefficient (KR-20) was found to be
0.70 for SBST.
Epistemological View Questions
The epistemological views or beliefs have been interest of many resarchers who also developed
questionnaires to determine the epistemological views of individuals from different age levels (Ünal &
Ergin, 2008; Oksal, Senşekerci & Bilgin, 2006; Saunders and et. al, 2001; Holschuh, 1998; Pomeroy, 1993;
Schommer, 1990). These questionnaires, in common, have explicit questions or items directly related to
epistemological characteristics. On the other hand, Roth & Roychoudhury (1994) claimed that asking
explicit questions leads individuals to give answers inconsistent with the epistemological understanding
that is expected from them instead of reflecting their actual thoughts. Therefore, it is important to put
forward the implicit or actual epistemological views of individuals through different data collection tools
such as dialogues, scenarios and etc. revealing the epistemological views indirectly rather than explicit
questions. In this research, the aim of using Epistemological View Questions (EVQ) is to figure out the
implicit thoughts of prospective science teachers towards epistemological foundations of scientific
knowledge. EVQ has 5 items including 2 dialogues and 3 scenarios which were developed by Ünal
Çoban (2009) towards primary school students. These questions were adapted to the prospective science
teachers considering their age level and experiences. All questions were examined by one professor of
science, two lecturers of science education and one lecturer of philosophy of science and then revised
accordingly. In addition, the questions were piloted on another group of 5 prospective science teach-
ers for clarity and comprehensibility. Initially, the pilot participants were asked to read and answer the
questions by themselves. Afterwards, the researcher interviewed each of the pilot participants about
what they think about the meaning of each question and suggesting ways of rewriting the questions if
they are unclear. At the end, final revisions on the questions were done and EVQ turned out to measure
about justification (2 items), scientific method (1 item) and theory ladenness (2 items).
Procedure
During the instruction, while the experimental group received inquiry based laboratory activities
supported by argument maps the control group received inquiry based laboratory activities from the
same instructor (the researcher) for over 3 months. Since both groups of students had already learnt
about basic science process skills before the study was conducted, they were assumed to be ready to
take in place in a deeper study which emphasizes the importance of use of arguments as a way of using
evidence and justification in scientific inquiry.
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The scientific inquiries took place as a part of the Science Laboratory Applications II course which
scheduled as two hours of lesson in a week and held by students in groups of three or four who were
randomly assigned to work collaboratively in both groups. The tasks for the scientific inquiries were given
in form of scenarios each of which include a problem to be defined and solved through scientific inquiry
and reflect real life situations and problems. As known, learning by inquiry allows for classroom activi-
ties to be teacher-led, negotiated and shared between student or teachers and students with varying
amounts of teacher guidance and support (Trowbridge & Bybee, 1996). However, since the participants
had experience with guided inquiry before, this study was based on free inquiry. In free inquiry, there is
an undetermined outcome, students generate their own procedure and take responsibility. Moreover,
free inquiry instruction requires students formulate the problem, state the purpose of investigation,
identify the procedure and perform investigation with components of higher order thinking skills
(Domin, 1999). Seven free inquiry scenarios were used during the instruction. The scenarios extended
from directly experimenting such as determining the O2 level in an aquarium to designing a tool such as
making a submarine or a bridge. The same scenarios were delivered to both experimental and control
group students. Each session (90 min.) composed of performance of the inquiry related to the scenario
that was given in the previous week and the discussion and the planning of the newly given scenario.
Treatment in Control Group
In this study, the control group students were given the same scenarios with the experimental group.
The procedure is three step including identification of task where they were given time to understand,
comprehend and discuss the task given by the scenario; planning where they formulate the problem
and figure out ways for the solution and performing the plan by setting the experimental design and
conducting the experiment followed by reporting. Teacher only guided students to better understand
the issues given in the scenarios and replied the students’ relevant questions. She also helped to provide
the basic materials or measurement tools (such as AVOmeter, power supply and etc.) which are required
by students to perform investigation if there is any in the laboratory. The time for identification of task
and planning took place almost 30-40 minutes in the same session and the students were given a week
for preparing the performance for the next lesson. They are advised to conduct trial experiments or
construct preliminary drafts towards their performance in the laboratory whenever they wish in that
one week interval before the lesson. Finishing the preparations by the next lesson, they conducted the
experiments or presented their results or constructs and submitted their reports which took almost
50-60 minutes.
Treatment in Experimental Group
In this study, although the experimental group received the same free inquiry scenarios with the
control group the implementation was different due to use of argument maps. The general structures
of the lessons were the same with the control group’s lessons apart from use of argument maps and
the group discussions before and after their performance. During the identification of task after they
understood and started to comprehend and discuss about the task they were asked to map the argu-
ment given in the scenario. The teacher followed the argument maps of each group in order to ensure
if they correctly coordinate the knowledge or explanation, evidence and required solution by asking
them provoking questions such as “How do you know that happen?”, “What do you need to figure out
that?”, “Do you think the data presented is enough?”, “What else do you need?” and etc. After raising their
awareness, they were asked to revise their arguments accordingly and leave empty for any unrelated
or unexplained issues in the structure of the argument (the structure of the arguments is explained in
Construction of Arguments part).
Completing the argument maps based on the scenario they started planning in the same way with
the control group. After spending a week on investigation and trial performances in the laboratory as in
the same way with the control group students, they conducted their experiments in the following les-
son. Completing and reporting the results of experiments, the students are asked to draw the argument
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maps for the second time of what they performed through experiments. The aim of constructing this
second argument map is to provoke the students about the coordination of theory and evidence and
the general steps they had taken during experimentation. This time, the researcher asked each group
probing questions about their argument maps such as “How do you know that your data is reliable?”, “How
do you reach that conclusion?”, “Do you have enough data to support your ideas?”, “Does your conclusion
answer your research question?” and etc. which are about the validity, reliability and theory-evidence
coordination of the experimental design. The groups revised their arguments accordingly after discussing
the answers of these questions. After completing revisions on the second argument maps, the students
are asked to go back to their first argument maps and compare and discuss it with the second one and
revise, correct and fill in any issues on the first one accordingly. The aim of this process is to identify
similarities and differences as a way of confirming the consistency of both argument maps originated
from the same scenario representing a real life situation.
As seen, in this study, mapping the arguments is held as a two step process. The first argument
mapping is related to the scenarios showing the real life situations and the second argument map is
related to the experiments conducted in the laboratory. The idea of using two argument maps during
the scientific inquiry is based on Gott & Duggon (2007, p. 282) who emphasize the importance of un-
derstanding the use of evidence in order to become scientifically literate. By referencing their previous
study (Gott & Duggon, 2003, p. 191) on concepts of evidence (in layers of circles), they claim about the
importance of “looking back” and “looking forward”. When the real life issues are subject and real-life
decisions have to be taken the scientifically reader of science should have to delve back through the
claim to the data (going from public claim to single datum) by looking back. Moreover, the investigator
proceeds from data, through design, to a claim by looking forward (from single datum to public claim)
based on evidence. They explain that, looking back and looking forward are important because they allow
us to understand what is behind the public claim (considering the design, data collection and analysis
required to support that claim) and students are exposed to the reality of the design and collection of
data by using evidences. Therefore, it was thought that it will be appropriate to use of first and second
argument maps during the scientific inquiry in the experimental group in order to coordinate theory
and evidence and to see the correspondences of real life situations and their experimental trials.
Construction of Argument Maps
In order to establish the ground on which the argument maps will be constructed, firstly, Toul-
min’s (1958) argument model was investigated. In this model there are four main types of statements:
claims, assertions or conclusions whose merits are to be established; grounds or data which are the facts
that are appealed to in support of the claim; warrants which are the reasons justifying the connection
between particular data and the knowledge claim; and finally, backings which are basic assumptions
that provide the justification for particular warrants (Gott & Duggon, 2007; Newton, Driver & Osborne,
1999; Patronis, Potari & Spiliotopoulou, 1999). There are also qualifiers which is about the strength of
the claim and rebuttals which is exception to the claim and / or conditions under which the claim is not
true (Gott & Duggon, 2007). This model of argument has been used in many science education studies
(Erduran, 2006; Simon and et al., 2002).
However, Kelly & Takao (2002) identified the problem of the ambiguity of the categorical system
with Toulmin’s layout of arguments rearding the fact that claims may serve as data in broader, more
complex chains of reasoning. They claim that Toulmin’s argumentation approach does not consider
the relative epistemic status of the one’s assertions (i.e., degree of abstractness of knowledge claims),
nor the position of embedded claims in larger arguments. On the other hand, Sampson & Gleim (2009,
p.467) put forward a more simpler argument approach which consists of an explanation, evidence and
reasoning. According to this, the explanation serves as an answer to the research question that guides the
investigation. It may also offer solution to the problem, articulate a descriptive relationship or provide
a causal mechanism. Additionally, the evidence includes measurements or observations to support the
legitimacy of the explanation. This evidence may range from numerical data to observations including
either a trend over time or a difference between groups or a relationship between variables. The reason-
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ing component of the argument includes a rationalization that illustrates how the evidence supports
the claim and the evidence provided is justifiable evidence. It was decided to use an approach that was
closer to Sampson & Gleim’s (2009) approach by considering the above points about arguments. The
main structure of arguments and argument maps used in the study is given in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The structure of arguments and argument maps used in the study.
In order to map their arguments in accordance with the above mapping, the prospective science
teachers are given the following points:
•• Every box should contain a meaningful, exploratory and appropriate full sentences. Avoid
using a word or simple phrase in case it may lead problems in understanding.
•• No question words should take place in the boxes. Therefore, the propositions in the boxes
are neither right nor wrong.
•• If the given situation (or data) includes more than one claim, then it should be separated
into single claims and then chain of claim-evidence should be established for each single
claim.
•• If a claim is supported or refuted by more than one evidence (multi-layer arguments), then
one reason can provide evidence in support or refute of another.
•• If a claim is supported by more than one evidence then the evidence which is more abstract
and general should be put hierarchically further as the primary reason then the one which
is more concrete and more particular as the secondary reason and so on.
•• Arguments are made of claims. Therefore, claims must be supported by the evidences. The
reasoning should take place at the end of each map as a summary of the claim-evidence
relation.
In order not to exceed the limited number of pages of the paper, an example of a secondary argu-
ment map prepared by the prospective science teachers about the Hook’s Law related to the experi-
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ments they conducted in the laboratory is given in Figure 2 below. The research question drawn from
the related free inquiry scenario for the Figure 2 is “ What affects the extension length of a spring?”.
Figure 2: An example of a secondary argument map prepared by the prospective science teachers
about the Hook’s Law.
Preparation for Experimental Group
Since none of the prospective science teachers in the experimental group knew about argument
maps before the lesson, they were firstly given a 4 hour preparatory lesson at the beginning. The pre-
paratory lesson started with a series of questions such as “How will you find out if you are right?”, “What
would you say to someone who disagreed with you?”, “What if someone said that they thought that both
strings should work equally well?”, “ What if they said it was the acoustical guitar was made of wood and
wasn’t plugged in?” from Yerrick (2000) to warm up the prospective science teachers. Afterwards, they
are presented with some propositions from Osborne (2005) such as “Day and night occur as a result of
Earth’s rotation”, “Plants use CO2 which is in the atmosphere” and “Matter is composed of atoms” where they
may meet in an ordinary science class and they are also asked to determine which of these are true and
explain why they think to be true. The second lesson started with the materials form Lederman & Abd-el
Khalick, (1998, p. 88-90) named Trick Tracks which show tracks exposed from an archaeological dig. The
prospective science teachers are asked to imagine and discuss about what may have been the cause
of such tracks. This activity is followed by the graph activity of Osborne, Erduran, Simon & Monk (2001)
offering two possible graphs (one correct and the other is mistaken) related to the change in tempera-
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ture with time as ice heated to steam. Prospective science teachers are asked which of the graphs are
true with explaining their claims with reasons. The aim of these activities is to make prospective science
teachers explain and justify their ideas with plausible reasons and construct their arguments by pointing
out data-evidence-reason-claim relation. The third lesson is about how to compose an argument from a
given event and how to analyze the structure of an argument by mapping. They were introduced with
construction of an argument part which is explained above through simple scenarios extending from
everyday issues to scientific ones. A sample scenario was analyzed by the researcher to whole class
through mapping by explaining the parts of an argument: data, evidence, reason, backing, qualifier,
and rebuttal. The reasoning was also completed by reading the map. Afterwards, students were given
scenarios and asked to map the arguments in groups. After checking for their argument maps, they were
given two scenarios which are similar with the ones during the treatment as homework for the follow-
ing lesson. The fourth lesson started with controlling the home works by sharing and discussing with
the whole class and making prospective science teachers to revise their argument maps accordingly.
Finally, they are told how to support their inquiry with the argument maps as explained in treatment
in experimental group part.
Data Analysis
The data were analysed in two steps. Firstly the analysis of gathered data from each data collection
tool which are qualitative in nature was conducted and scores were obtained. Secondly, the statistical
analysis took place over these scores.
For the data collected through SPST, while each question in the first part was evaluated over 2
points (1 point for the correct choice and 1 point for the correct and full explanation), each scenario
in the second part was evaluated over 4 points (4 points for the correct and full answer, 3 points for
the partly correct answer –including more than one science process skills with reasons-, 2 points for
inadequate correct answer –including single science process skills with its reasons, 1 point for poor
answer –including single science process skills but no reason, 0 point for the irrelevant answer). The
highest score that can be obtained from SBST is 34 (18 points from the first 9 questions and 16 points
from the 4 scenarios). The answers were evaluated for two times in a three week interval by the same
researcher. The level of agreement between two scorings of the researcher was found to be 0.97 as for
providing the reliability of the evaluation.
The data obtained through EVQ was analyzed by using the rubric developed by Ünal Çoban, Ateş &
Kaya Şengoren (2010). This rubric evaluates the answers by classifying from an immature understanding
of science that is not able to distinguish the scientific activities and thoughts to mature understanding
of science that is the scientific knowledge is the product of thought testing in a fair manner. The sum-
mary of the scope and scoring of the rubric is given in Table 1.
Table 1. The scope and scoring of the rubric used for EVQ (Ünal Çoban and et. al, 2010).
Score Content
0 Irrelevant answer or no answer. (0 point)
She or he is not able to distinguish the scientific activities and thoughts. The scientific activities are not well defined
1 and undetermined. The required motivation for completing and sustaining a scientific activity is established over suc-
ceeding the activity itself not constructing or testing ideas. (1 point)
She or he realizes the importance of thoughts for science and scientific activities. However, one has no definite idea
2 how this occurs. Although she or he starts to understand the importance of thinking, the nature and kind of thinking is
undetermined. (2 point)
She or he realizes that thoughts are justified by fair testing through experiments and activities. She or he knows that
3 justification of scientific knowledge leads believing it. She or he distinguishes thoughts, experiments and results of
experiments. She or he has the idea of hypothesis testing. (3 point)
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According to Table 1, the highest score that can be obtained from EVQ is 15 since 3 points is given
to full answer for each question. The rubric was piloted on the answers of another 10 prospective science
teachers. The answers were evaluated for two times in a four week interval by the same researcher. The
level of agreement between two scorings of the researcher was found to be 0.93.
The dependent variables of the research are post-test scores of SPST (POST-SPST) and post-test
scores of EVQ (POST-EVQ). Independent variables of the research are Pre-test Scores of SPST (PRE-SPST),
Pre-test Scores of EVQ (PRE-EVQ) and Inquiry Supported by Argument Maps (ISAM) as the method of
teaching. Simple descriptive statistics (mean, SD), correlations were calculated. In order to test the
hypothesis, MANCOVA was conducted, because it can equate groups on one or more independent
variables and be used for multiple dependent variables.
Results of Research
Before comparing the means of both groups, the researcher conducted descriptive statistics. The
results are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics related to SPST and EVQ scores.
Experimental Group Control Group
Pre Post Pre Post
Scores on SPST
N 29 29 31 31
Mean 24.17 28.21 25.58 26.25
SD 3.90 2.45 3.73 3.13
Skewness -0.54 -0.64 -0.24 -0.32
Kurtosis -0.96 -0.62 -1.34 -1.04
Scores on EVQ
N 29 29 31 31
Mean 7.31 7.10 6.64 5.90
SD 1.58 2.21 1.30 1.01
Skewness 0.25 -.887 0.52 0.41
Kurtosis -0.31 2.49 -0.76 -0.60
Table 2 indicates basic descriptive statistics related to the pre and post SPST and EVQ scores. The
highest scores that might be obtained from SPST would be 34. The mean SPST score of experimental
group was smaller than that of the control group in the pretest, whereas it was higher in the posttest.
The mean scores of both groups were increased to some degree from the pretest to the posttest. The
mean increase for the experimental group (28.21-24.17) was 4.84 and the mean increase for the control
group was (26.25-25.58) was 0.67. The highest score that might be obtained from EVQ would be 15. The
mean EVQ score of the experimental group was higher than that of the control group both in the pretest
and the posttest. The mean scores of both groups were decreased to some degree from the pretest to
the posttest. The mean decrease for the experimental group (7.31-7.10) was 0.21 and the mean decrease
for the control group was (6.64-5.90) was 0.74. All skewness and kurtosis values were in the acceptable
range known as the skewness and the kurtosis values are expected as near 0 and 3 respectively for a
normal distribution (Ferguson & Takane, 1989, p. 78-79).
In order to determine the covariates as potential confounding factors of the study covariates were
determined. It was seen that the independent variables, PRE-SPST and PRE-EVQ had significant correla-
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tions with at least one of the two dependent variables and low correlations among themselves (Table
3). Therefore, they were taken as covariates for MANCOVA (Stevens, 2002, p. 345).
Table 3. Significance of test correlations between dependent and independent variables.
Correlation Coefficient
Variables
PRE-SPST PRE-EVQ POST-SPST POST-EVQ
PRE-SPST 1 0.191 0.283* -0.094

PRE-EVQ 0.191 1 0.273* 0.270*
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
All the assumptions of MANCOVA (normality, homogeneity of regression, equality of variances,

multicollinearity and independency of observations) were tested and verified. The MANCOVA was used
in this research to detect the effect of the ISAM on the collective dependent variables of the POST-SPST
and POST-EVQ when the PRE-SPST and PRE-EVQ were controlled. The null hypothesis, claiming that there
were no significant effects of ISAM on the population mean of the collective dependent variables of the
POST-SPST and POST-EVQ when the PRE-SPST and PRE-EVQ were controlled, was rejected according
to the MANCOVA results. The findings of Wilks’ Λ = 0.79, F (2,55) = 7.43, p<0.001 showed that there was
a significant mean difference in favor of ISAM on the collective dependent variables of the POST-SPST
and POST-EVQ when the PRE-SPST and PRE-EVQ were controlled.
In order to test the effects of the ISAM on each dependent variable, ANCOVA was conducted as
follow-up test. Table 4 shows the ANCOVA results. The method of dividing hypothesis-wise alpha level
by the number of dependent variables (0.05/2) and testing each ANCOVA at alpha level of 0.025 to
control experiment-wise alpha level was used in this study to control for Type I error across the multiple
procedure. Since the researcher is obligated to consider the error rate (probability of making a type I
error) in terms of the experiment, not merely in terms of each comparison (Jacobs, 1976).
Table 4. Comparisons for scores of Science Process Skills and Epistemological Views.
df F Sig. Eta Squared Observed power
POST-SPST 1 8.7 0.005 0.134 0.83

POST-EVQ 1 4.4 0.041 0.072 0.54
The result of the ANCOVA revealed that the ISAM has significant effect on the POST-SPST , F (1,
59)=8.7, p<0.025, η2=0.134, but no significant effect on the POST-EVQ, F (1, 59)=4.4, p>0.025, η2=0.072.
As η2=0.134 showed, 13.4% of variance of POST-SPST was associated with ISAM. In addition, the ob-
served statistical power for POST-SPST was 0.83 indicating that a high probability (83%) of finding this
difference (or significant effect) in the population.
Discussion
The current study investigated the effectiveness of the ISAM on prospective science teachers’ science
process skills and epistemological views. The descriptive statistics results showed that the ISAM improved
the mean SPST scores of students more than inquiry as both groups were increased their scores to some
degree from the pretest to the posttest and the mean increase was higher for the experimental group
(Table 2). However, the ISAM could not help students’ improve their epistemological views since the
mean EVQ scores of both groups were decreased to some degree from the pretest to the posttest. It is
also interesting that the ISAM seem prevented a more mean decrease in EVQ scores compared to inquiry.
It may be claimed that, although epistemological issues are not directly and explicitly presented in both
methods of teaching, inquiry supported by argument maps led an epistemological awareness.
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Following the descriptive statistics, when the comparisons for scores of SBST and EVQ are exam-
ined for statistical significance (Table 4), it is seen that the inquiry supported by argument maps made
significant effect on prospective science teachers’ science process skills but no significant effect on
prospective science teachers’ epistemological views. The effect size (0.134) and the observed statistical
power (0.83), calculated for POST-SPST showed that the change in prospective science teachers’ sci-
ence process skills could be explained by the study which has also practical significance over the entire
population. In other words, inquiry supported by argument maps significantly affected the prospective
science teachers’ science process skills.
The result of this study regarding the science process skills has similarities with the previous re-
searches. For example, Kelly & Takao (2001), studying with university students about inquiring by writing
down arguments in geology lesson, found that student generation of scientific argument derived from
real earth data improved their scientific inquiry skills. Lawson (2002), in his study with prospective biology
teachers where they submitted written arguments as lab reports, also found out that when students were
able to manipulate observable hypothesis causes they argumented well and understood and developed
adequate hypothesis-testing skills. Moreover, Sampson & Gleim (2009) claimed that the argument-driven
inquiry model where the laboratory task is presented to the students as the problem and they produce
arguments based on laboratory experiences in groups has the potential of fostering scientific literacy
since the students actively involved in science process skills during argument sessions.
The results related to epistemological views are in conflict with Yerrik’s (2000) research result which
concluded that inquiry instruction improved the high school students’ views in consistent with the
nature of the scientific arguments including students’ tentativeness of knowledge claims, students’ use
of evidence, and students’ views regarding the source of scientific authority. However, Newton and et
al. (1999) offered that taking part in activities require students to argue the basis on which knowledge
claims are made and as a result they begin to gain an insight into the epistemological foundations of
science itself. The results obtained from the descriptive statistics (Table 2) may address this kind of
awareness showing a slighter decrease in epistemological view scores when compared to inquiry. This
finding corroborates with claims of Von Aufschnaiter and et al. (2007) revealing that lessons based on
argumentation seem to have no direct impact on students developing a new understanding in a sense
that it emerges within the discourse directly rather it helps students to improve what they already know.
Therefore, it may be concluded that although inquiry supported by argument maps made no significant
effect, it helped prospective teachers raise epistemological awareness.
The results also points out that explicit teaching about the nature of science or scientific epistemol-
ogy is required for improving the epistemological views of prospective science teachers (Bell, Lederman
& Abd-El-Khalick, 1998). Moreover, when the studies conducted with other instructional methods on the
epistemological views are examined, such as model based education (Ünal Çoban, 2009) and inquiry
(Caliskan, 2004), it was seen that it is hard to change the epistemological views as they are fed by dif-
ferent fields such as psychology, content knowledge, attitude and etc. (Chin & Brewer, 1993; Sandoval,
2005). Besides the explicit teaching about epistemology of science and students’ resistant to change their
epistemological beliefs, another point to pay attention should be the duration of the treatment in the
experimental group. As the partially less decrease of the mean EVQ scores of the experimental group may
offer thinking that as the duration time of the study gets longer better results might be obtained.
The above results may also due to the fact that getting individuals to adopt argumentation is a long
term and difficult process (Osborne, 2005; Erduran, 2006, Prain & Hand, 1996) including the individual
differences. These individual differences may range from willingness and preparedness to learn from
engaging in argumentation and epistemological beliefs to having mistaken views about argument as
a disagreement and resulting in not appreciating the role of argumentation as a normal part of the
working of science (Nussbaum et al., 2008, p.1978; Nussbaum & Bendixen, 2003; Duschl & Osborne,
2002; Bell & Linn, 2000). Therefore, at this point, the prospective science teachers’ understanding and
perception about argumentation should be taken into account.
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Conclusions and Implications
The current study showed that inquiry supported by argument maps had significantly affected the
science process skills of prospective science teachers. However, it was found to be not affective on the
epistemological views of prospective science teachers. The results of this research suggest that inquiry
supported by argument maps may be used in order to create a significant difference in science process
skills. On the other, it may take some time to see the effects of inquiry supported by argument maps
on the epistemological views.
It may be concluded that prospective science teachers’ use of inquiry supported by argument maps
is useful for both displaying and internalizing the science process skills as a means of scientific literacy.
This study also revealed that the curricular emphasis on inquiry should be supported by practises in
order to have a significant gain in science process skills. This study also mapped out a route for inquiry
teaching through use of argument maps to overcome the obstacles about inquiry teaching mentioned
in the introduction session. As a method of teaching it not only gives insight about how to structure
argument and solve problems, it also helps prospective science teachers how to conduct inquiry in
their future classrooms.
However, it is thought that the study should be repeated with different groups of prospective
science teachers in order to raise the external validity of the research. It also needs to be tested for
longer periods of time in order to see its effect on epistemological views. Another point that requires
testing is to see the effects of argumentation (or indirect teaching) and explicit or direct teaching of
the scientific epistemology on epistemological views. For this, a new set of inquiry supported by argu-
ment maps should be designed for teaching the scientific epistemology based on true stories from the
history, philosophy, sociology and psychology of science in order to see the effects of the method on
epistemological views by treating directly on.
Moreover, as a follow up study, examining the argumentation patterns of the prospective science
teachers worths examining since they reveal the level of coordination of evidence and theory as a kind
of reasoning process. The results may be helpful for finding ways of improve the method of inquiry
supported by argument maps.
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Received: January 10, 2013 Accepted: April 11, 2013
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E-mail: gulunalcoban@gmail.com , gul.unal@deu.edu.tr
Website: http://www.deu.edu.tr/akademik/index.
php?cat=3&akod=20020724
288
TURKISH STUDENTS’
IMAGES OF SCIENTISTS
Ayşenur Yontar Toğrol
Introduction Abstract. This study analyses the draw-

ings of scientists done by Turkish students,
During the 20th century, while the practice of science was primarily to learn how the students have
studied and clarified, it has acquired a new status in society. Paral-
represented scientists and to find out the
lel to this development, the image of scientists has changed and
stereotypical images that they use. The
become more stable, with standardised characteristics. Several
variables have affected the standardisation process, but the influ- drawings are compared with the results
ence of science in schools and the role of science teachers must of a similar study conducted twelve
be considered paramount. The science teacher is in a unique years earlier by the same author. Gender
position to influence students’ impressions of science teaching, characteristics and differences are a focus
science, and scientists all at once. These impressions may affect
of interest. The Draw-a-Scientist Test
the students’ values and attitudes towards science and shape their
(DAST) was used to record and analyse the
images of scientists. As Finson, Beaver, and Cramond (1995) point
out, researchers do not know precisely what effect stereotypical images. The sample for the study consisted
images of scientists have on children’s perceptions of science, but of 520 students from various grade levels.
the indications from research are that negative stereotypical im- Their drawings are discussed in terms of
ages translate into negative perceptions. This means that when three themes: the general use of standard
stereotypical images have negative connotations for an individual,
indicators, gender differences in stereotypi-
they will prevent him/her from developing positive attitudes about
cal images, and implications of the results
science and the various objects and activities associated with sci-
ence. It is known that affective variables such as attitudes have a for teaching and learning science.
strong influence on learning, career plans, and leisure time activities Key words: Draw-A-Scientist Test (DAST),
as cognitive variables. Attitudes are learned from experiences both images of scientists, scientific literacy,
actively or vicariously; students are not born with attitudes about values in science education.
learning science or about scientists. The classroom is one of the
major influences on attitude formation and change; thus, science
teachers have opportunities to influence multitudes of children
and teenagers’ attitudes towards science and scientists.
The basic aim of science education is to develop scientifically
and technologically literate citizens after approximately 12 years
of schooling. One of the characteristics of this literate person is to Ayşenur Yontar Toğrol
appreciate science and technology for the intellectual stimulus Boğaziçi University, Turkey
they provide and to have a positive attitude towards the science,
technology, and scientists.
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In the course of their education, students form images of scientists and scientists at work. These
images have become an interesting topic for science education communities (Schibeci, 2006). Conse-
quently, a considerable amount of research has investigated students’ images and related attitudes
towards science (Krajkovich & Smith 1982; Parker & Rennie, 1986; Koballa, 1988; Flick, 1990; Finson,
Beaver & Cramond, 1995; Huber & Burton 1995; Talsma, 1997; Jones, Howe & Rua, 2000; Buck, Leslie-
Pelecky & Kirby, 2002; Fung, 2002; Quita, 2003; Buldu, 2006; Thomas, Henley & Snell, 2006; Miller, Blessing
& Schwartz, 2006; Talsma, 2007; Losh, Wilke & Pop, 2008; Türkmen, 2008; Lee, 2010). The study conducted
by Mead & Metraux in 1957, which analysed American high-school students’ images of scientists, was
the earliest example of this type of research. They collected qualitative data from approximately 35,000
high school students by using essay-type questions. Acknowledging the results of that study, Chambers
(1983) developed the Draw-a-Scientist Test (DAST) as a way of measuring the images of scientists. Since
then, as Rosenthal (1993) mentions, drawings have become one of the most important research instru-
ments used to study students’ concepts of scientists at work. Schibeci and Sorensen (1983), who used
the test in two schools in Western Australia, claimed that DAST is a quick, reliable, and useful method
of assessing students’ images of scientists.
Chambers’ (1983) looked at children’s earliest drawings and described how variables such as socio-
economic status, intelligence, and gender influenced their images of scientists. He administered the
DAST to 4807 children in K-5 classes. He found that only female students drew female scientists and
noted that stereotypical images of scientists appeared at the second grade level and that the number
of indicators of stereotypical images tended to increase at successive grade levels. Newton and Newton
(1992) reported that students’ stereotypical images appeared as early as six years of age, and Rahm
and Charbonneau (1997) discovered that stereotypical images tend to remain stable throughout high
school and university.
Research Focus
The present study examines Turkish students’ images of scientists and compares recently collected
images with those drawn by a similar sample of students for an earlier study conducted by the author
(Toğrol 2000). That earlier study was a cross-sectional analysis of stereotypical images according to
grade level. DAST was the instrument of choice, and analysis of the drawings of 443 students showed
that their images of scientists were similar to those found in previous western studies. One of the rea-
sons for comparing recent images with earlier images is that after the year 2000 the Turkish national
science curriculum was changed radically. By the year 2005, as a result of extensive curriculum reform
at all levels from kindergarten to 8th grade, a constructivist approach to science teaching replaced the
traditional teacher-centred approach of earlier years. In the process of revision, the emphasis shifted
from teaching science and learning science to doing science. Scientific literacy for all students became
the goal of the science curriculum. The Ministry of Education set standards for textbooks and only text
books that met the standards were selected for use in state-supported schools. In the year 2011-2012, a
population of students progressing through the new curriculum reached the same age as the students
tested in the 2000 study. Thus, a comparison of the images drawn by the two student groups may
yield some information about the influence of the new curriculum and the new textbooks. Because it
is a centralised educational system and thus it effects an important percent of the student population
throughout country, any research that serves to enlighten the impact of change is important.
This study was designed to investigate the images of Turkish students related to the scientists. In
this respect it is a descriptive study. For the purpose of the investigation Draw-a-Scientist Test (DAST)
was administered in the classroom settings by the regular teachers as well as the researcher. Analysis
and interpretation of student drawings were the basic data for this investigation.
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(P. 289-298)
Sample of Research
The sample for the study consists of 272 female and 248 male students in grades 5-8 (see Table 1).
Totally 520 students from three state supported schools were the participants. They were approximately
ten to thirteen years old. The sample for the 2000 study was taken from the same grades, as well as
grades 9 and 11, and a total of 443 students participated.
Table 1. Grade, and gender distribution of the sample.
Grade n
5 208
6 52
7 105
8 155
Gender
Female 272
Male 248
N 520
Instrument and Analysis of Drawings
The instrument used in the study is the Draw-a-Scientist Test (DAST) developed by Chambers (1983).
It is a qualitative projective instrument with an open-ended response format. Only instruction given
to students taking the test is draw a picture of a scientist, and they are given a blank sheet of paper for
the purpose. Subsequently, their drawings are assessed according to certain characteristics. It is a quick
and practical instrument for assessing global images of scientists (Schibeci and Sorensen, 1983). DAST
is not merely an extension of the Draw-a-Man or Draw-a-Person tests which have been used to reveal
the drawer’s intelligence, self-image or certain emotional states or conflicts (Chambers, 1983).
Author’s 2000 study is the earliest study which DAST was used for clarifying Turkish students’ images
of scientists. In that study a checklist was prepared for the analysis of drawings. To prepare the checklist,
the drawings of 197 students in grades 6, 7, and 8 were analysed, and the indicators portrayed in those
drawings were recorded by two different scorers. The results of that pilot study revealed that several
characteristics of the images of scientists coincided with characteristics reported by other researchers
in earlier studies (Mead & Metraux, 1957; Chambers 1983; Schibeci & Sorensen, 1983; Finson, Beaver &
Cramond, 1995). These indicators included such features as eye glasses, lab coat, facial hair, and baldness;
qualities of appearance such as elderly, unkempt, and confused; the use of symbols and/or captions to
indicate abstractions such as research and knowledge; if a setting was indicated it was usually indoors.
Some of the characteristics found in previous studies, however, were not found in the pilot study (e.g.,
Caucasian, secrecy, and some mythical stereotypes) and thus were not included in the checklist.
To test for, intra-scorer (intra-judge), inter-scorer (inter-judge) reliability, following studies were
conducted. The author scored and re-scored 45 of the drawings at different times and found the corre-
lation coefficient of these two sets of scores to be 0.92, p < 0.001. Also, an inexperienced second scorer
scored 68 drawings that were scored previously by the author, and the correlation coefficient for these
two sets of scores was 0. 71, p < 0.001 (Toğrol, 2000). These results indicate fairly high inter-scorer and
intra-scorer reliabilities, similar to the reliability studies found in earlier research conducted by Schibeci
and Sorensen (1983).
Above mentioned checklist of indicators was used in the current study. Thus the administration of
the instrument and the analysis of drawings in both studies were similar.

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Results of Research
In the present study, as in the earlier study, every drawing was transcribed and the frequency
of each indicator recorded. The frequency distribution of standard indicators is given in Table 2. The
stereotypical image of scientists may be summarised as follows: a smiling bald man in a lab coat, with
glasses and facial hair, who works indoors alone. The indicators contributing to this description appeared
in the drawings of at least 15% of the sample (see Figure 1 and Figure 2).
Among the 520 images drawn by students in grades 5-8, the majority depicted male scientists.
Although 53% of the participating students were female, only 13% of the drawings were of female
scientists.
Figure 1: Smiling scientist. Figure 2: Happy scientist.

Nowadays, scientists usually work in groups. A team of research scientists may come from differ-
ent countries and include both genders and all ages. Out of 520 drawings, only 8 showed a scientist
working in some kind of group; all the others showed a man/woman working alone. To understand
the work done by scientists, student should learn that much of it depends on shared information and
focused interaction with peers.
Table 2. Analysis of drawings-frequency of indicators.
N=520
Indicators %
Frequency
Crazy Hair 118 23

Bald 105 20
Facial Hair 83 16
Being Elder 23 04
Wearing Glasses 127 24
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(P. 289-298)
N=520
Indicators %
Frequency
Wearing Lab Coat 78 15

Technology 30 6
Smiling 237 46
Crazy Mood 63 12
Being Alone 501 96
Working Indoors 124 24
Unkempt Appearance 70 13
The results of the two studies will be discussed and compared in terms of three themes; first, the
use of standard indicators; second, gender differences in stereotypical images; third, implications for sci-
ence teaching and learning. The standard indicators shown in Table 3 show some interesting differences
between the drawings of 2000 and 2012. In 2012, 46% of the scientists are smiling, whereas smiling in
2000 was not even a category. The frequency of unkempt scientists, scientists wearing lab coats, and
scientists wearing glasses decreased in 2012, and todays’ scientists have become younger.
Table 3. Comparison of frequencies of indicators.
N=520 N=443
Indicators Frequency % Frequency %
2012 2012 2000 2000
Bald 105 20 130 29

Facial Hair 83 16 138 31
Being Elder 23 04 38 9
Wearing Glasses 127 24 204 46
Wearing Lab Coat 78 15 106 24
Technology 30 06 46 10
Smiling 237 46 * *
Crazy Mood 63 12 27 6
Being Alone 501 96 439 99
Working Indoor 124 24 132 30
Unkempt Appearance 70 13 59 30
* no category
As it is shown in Table 4, 68% of students in the 2012 sample drew a male scientist. A further break-
down of the data shows that 16% of the drawings do not indicate a gender, 88 of these are stick figures,
some of which may have been imagined as male, but none of the 88 is included in the 68% identified
as male. Only 13% of students in the sample (n = 68) drew distinctly female scientists. Of these 68 draw-
ings, 66 were drawn by female students. Comparison of the data from 2000 with the data from 2012, as
shown in Table 4, reveals that the predominant male image has persisted for the past 12 years.
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Figure 3: Woman scientist working with time machine.
Table 4. Comparison of frequencies of gender.
N=520 N=443
% %
Indicators Frequency Frequency
2012 2000
2012 2000
Male 356 68 321 73

Female 68 13 56 13
Both Male and Female 8 1 5 1
Discussion
Chambers in 1983, reported that only 28 out of 4807 childrens’ drawings of scientists depicted
females, and all 28 were drawn by girls. Similarly, several other research studies including Turkish stud-
ies (Mason, Kahle & Gardner 1991; Huber & Burton 1995, Buldu 2006; Turkmen 2008) detected a male
predominance parallel to the findings clarified in the current study.
So the results of the present study as well as the studies in the related literature indicate that both
females and males do not find that being a female scientist is a stereotypical image in the society. A
student’s image of a scientist influences his or her present and future life; an exclusively male image is
likely to discourage a girl from starting a career in science.
Students’ attitudes towards science have been researched extensively, and some such research
studies report that males are more likely to be interested in science than females. Some report that
females, if interested in science at all, are more likely to be interested in the biological sciences than the
physical sciences, the image of which is strongly male. The primary school experience of girls may have
an important influence on their attitude towards science at the secondary and tertiary levels. Children
acquire an interest in science at an earlier age than most areas of study, and childrens’ interest in science
is established well before secondary school age. Girls and boys enter science classrooms with gender-
related attitudes (Reid & Stephens, 1985; Jones & Wheatly, 1988; Mason, Kahle & Gardner; 1991). Boys
react positively to careers in science, whereas girls tend to reject science-related careers for themselves
and for their future husbands (Mead and Metraux 1957; Lawrenz and Welch, 1983; Jones and Wheatly,
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(P. 289-298)
1988). However, research does suggest that girls are more likely to pursue a scientific career when they
receive positive messages from parents, teachers, counsellors, and peers, when they are exposed to
positive role models, and when they expect to succeed (Jones & Wheatly, 1988; Huber & Burton, 1995).
For example, according to Talton, and Simpson (1986), family variables predicted between 13-39% of
the variance in attitudes toward science, and classroom environment variables accounted for 46-73%.
Of course, many teachers and parents, whose attitudes were formed when they were children, - who
are and very important figures for child’s attitude formation- have become accustomed to patterns of
gender differentiation, which they then take to be normal.
For all the reasons mentioned above, the lack of a strong female presence in science courses as takes
place in the related literature is not surprising. In Turkey, science courses are required for all students
in grades 4-12. In grade 9, a general science course is a required course of all students attending high
school. So in a way this requirement may be used as an opportunity for effecting female students’ attitudes
towards science in a positive way. In grades 10, 11, and 12, students may choose different programs, and
students who are science majors are required to have physics, chemistry, and biology courses.
Students are not influenced only by their personal images they hold for scientists, but also by the
style of science course they experience and by cultural impressions (Farland-Smith, 2009). For example
Chambers (1983), investigated the Anglophone/Francophone culture on the formation of the standard
image of scientists. Rubin and Cohen (2003), conducted their study in order to analyse the images of
scientists and science among Hebrew and Arabic speaking teacher candidates in Israel. In both of the
studies, effects of different cultures clarified. In the same vein a peculiarity of the Turkish language
may also affect Turkish students’ images of scientists. The word for scientist, actually a phrase, is not
gender free. Bilim adamı means scientist, but literally translated into English it means science man. When
administering the DAST to students in 2000 and 2012, the author used a gender neutral phrase, bilim
insanı, which replaces science man with science person.
The more recent images of scientists seem more positive and more realistic. Parallel with the conclu-
sion of Turkmen (2008), who has conducted a study with 287 Turkish fifth graders. In the current study
image of serious and angry scientist (see Figure 4) is disappearing, to be replaced by a younger and
smiling scientist. In that respect text books, may help students to revise their stereotyped images and
develop a better understanding of the normal and productive role of scientists in society. Studies in the
research literature speak to the need for greater emphasis in text books and mass media on the human
aspects of science. Three recent science textbooks (Altıntaş, 2012; Topaloğlu, 2012; Gündoğdu, 2012)
selected for examination contain images of real scientists. For example, in the 8th grade textbook there
are seven reading selections about the work of scientists, complete with photographs; in the 6th grade
text book there are three reading selections with photographs similar to the fifth grade text book . In
contrast, in five text books (Yalçın et al., 1993; Yalçın et al,. 1997; Yalçın, et al. 1998a; Yalçın et al., 1998b;
Yalçın et al., 1998c), selected for examination in 2000 study, which are all endorsed by the Ministry of
Education and all widely used at that time, there was not a single drawing or photograph of a scientist.
Students then had to form their own incomplete and mostly stereotyped images. Textbooks recently
published in Turkey seem to be meeting the need better than earlier text books. Hence the smiling and
more realistic images of scientists produced in the recent study may have been influenced by newer
and better science text books .
Children are full of enthusiasm and curiosity about the work of scientists but seem to lose their
enthusiasm as they continue in school (Flick, 1990; Friedman, 1999). How does this happen? Some part
of the answer resides in the study of attitude and attitude change. Attitudes form through accumulated
experiences over time. They are relatively enduring, but can and do sometimes change. Teachers must
learn how to transform stereotyped images of science and scientists instead of reinforcing them and must
motivate themselves to teach in a non-sexist way (Hilliard, 1975; Mc Cune & Matthews, 1975). During
this process the DAST can be used as a pre- and/or post-test to detect a change of attitude/value from
the beginning to the end of a course or series of courses. The instrument requires no reading or writing
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and takes little time to administer. It can also stimulate

an interesting and productive instructional activity, as
students share and discuss their drawings with their
classmates and their teacher. This kind of activities will
give pupils an opportunity to think about and test their
images about scientists.
In the Turkish educational system, from kindergarten
to 3rd grade, science is integrated with other subjects
under the heading of Life Sciences. In 4th grade and after,
science is taught as a separate subject. It is a centralised
educational system; the same curriculum materials as
text books are used in state supported schools through-
out country. Because of that reason teachers as well as
the textbook authors must be aware of the important
characteristic of scientifically literate citizen as having
positive attitudes toward science/scientists and they must
use the results of related research studies in conducting
practices.
Teachers and curriculum specialists must be sensi-
tive about the attitudes of females related to science
and scientists. In general even if the images of students Figure 4: Angry scientist.
related to scientists were more positive in comparison
to the ones 12 years ago, students still need opportunities for having to develop scientifically literate
attitudes toward scientists. The stereotypical role of women in science is still remains as an important
topic for researchers to investigate.
In the light of the results of the current study as well as the review of the literature described in
this study it is recommended that a wider view of science including;
•• science done by women,
•• an awareness that science activities are not limited with the walls of laboratory, but may
take place in a numerous of settings,
•• an insight of the importance of team work in conducting scientific work, should take place
in formulating science instruction/textbooks.
In that respect the values of science teachers are very important for planning teaching learning
activities which promote opportunities for their students to develop scientific literacy.
Note
This manuscript was presented in London International Conference in Education – LICE 2012, 19-22
November, London
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Received: February 04, 2013 Accepted: April 15, 2013
Ayşenur Yontar Toğrol Ph D., Associate Professor, Boğaziçi University, Department of

Secondary School Science, and Mathematics Education, Faculty
of Education, İstanbul, Turkey.
E-mail: yontar@boun.edu.tr

298
THE EMOTIONS ABOUT
TEACHING AND LEARNING
SCIENCE: A STUDY OF
PROSPECTIVE PRIMARY
TEACHERS IN THREE
SPANISH UNIVERSITIES Abstract. A descriptive and compara-
tive study is made of the emotions that
prospective primary teachers in three
Spanish universities have about teach-
ing and learning the natural sciences,
María Brígido, differentiating between approaches to the
Digna Couso, content of Biology/Geology and Physics/
Chemistry. The study was carried out using
Ciro Gutiérrez, a closed-response questionnaire which
Vicente Mellado was completed by 315 primary education
bachelor’s degree students in the Universi-
ties of Extremadura, Las Palmas de Gran
Canaria, and the Autónoma of Barcelona
(UAB). The results showed that in their
recall of their secondary education, most
of the prospective teachers have posi-
Introduction tive emotions towards learning Biology/
Geology and negative towards learning
Psychology has dealt extensively with affect and emotions. Physics/Chemistry. With respect to their fu-
For many years, however, its study of emotions and feelings was ture teaching in primary education, there
seen as being far removed from education, and even more so from predominated positive emotions towards
the teaching and learning of specific school content. Following Biology/Geology, and negative emotions
Hernández’s theory of cognitive-affective molds (Hernández, 2002), towards Physics/Chemistry, except for the
however, it is today recognized that the cognitive configures the UAB students who reported more positive
affective, and vice versa, and the idea of teaching as an emotional emotions than negative in this latter case.
practice in which cognitive and affective processes take part is fully There was an increase of positive emo-
accepted by researchers and educators alike (Beijaard et al., 2000; tions in their expectations of their future
Shapiro, 2010; Van Veen et al., 2005). teaching of all the science content, and a
As Hargreaves (1998b, p. 558) puts it, “emotions are at the marked decrease in the negative emotions,
heart of education.” Emotions and feelings play a vital role in the relative to the emotions that they had
development of learning, since the subjective and emotional world experienced as students of these subjects
that we each create on top of our external reality gives meaning to in secondary school.
relationships, and helps us understand the place we occupy in the Key words: emotions, preservice primary
wider world. In our particular area, the popularity of such authors as teachers, science education.
Gardner, (2005), Goleman (1996), and Punset (2010) has contributed
to sparking interest in the emotions. Punset (2010) even considers
that neural circuits are more highly developed in the amygdala than María Brígido
University of Extremadura, Spain
in the cortex rather than the converse, so that emotions have more
Digna Couso
influence on the cognitive than the cognitive on the emotional. University Autónoma of Barcelona, Spain
Otero (2006) notes that there is no human action without Ciro Gutiérrez
an emotion that substantiates it and makes it possible. Emotion University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria,
is central to decision making (Punset, 2010), something that both Spain
teachers and pupils have constantly to do in class. For Tobin, (2012) Vicente Mellado
University of Extremadura, Spain
emotions are a central part of action in science learning, and act as a
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PROSPECTIVE PRIMARY TEACHERS IN THREE SPANISH UNIVERSITIES
ISSN 1648–3898
(P. 299-311)
social glue that interconnects interests and individual and collective actions. For pupils, decision mak-
ing becomes especially important when, at the end of their compulsory education, they have to decide
on the direction of their future studies (Lavonen et al., 2008). The decline in vocational careers in science
has become somewhat worrying in many countries (Rocard et al., 2008). It may be related to the adverse
emotional context surrounding science learning in school, in which many pupils have to decide on the
future direction of their careers after having had a propædeutic presentation of the sciences focused on
the transmission of abstract, predominantly cognitive, concepts with little relevance to their lives outside
school (Vázquez & Manassero, 2007).
Despite epistemological progress in the different philosophical orientations concerning the nature
of science (Mellado et al., 2006), in science teaching there has reigned an abusive positivist orientation
that has, in fact, excluded social, cultural, and emotional factors, branding them as unfit or unscientific in
that they oppose the objectivity of science, even though they may be didactically valuable (Alsop & Watts,
2003; Vázquez & Manassero, 2007).
In science education, affective aspects have been investigated far less than cognitive ones. The
four International Handbooks of Science Education have no specific chapter devoted to the emotions in
science, although this aspect is dealt with in some chapters, usually in relation more with attitudes than
with emotions (Bell, 1998; Koballa & Glynn, 2007; Olitshy & Milne, 2012; Simpson et al., 1994; Tobin, 2012;
Wubbels & Brekelman, 1998).
From the initial research line on attitudes (Barmby & Defty, 2006; Blalock et al., 2008; García-Ruiz &
Orozco, 2008; Hong, 2010; Kind et al., 2007; Mumba et al., 2009; Osborne, Simon & Collins, 2003; Vázquez
& Manassero, 2007, 2008, 2011), the study of emotions in the teaching and learning of science emerged
first in conferences and then in science education journals. Now, work focused on this subject is becoming
ever more frequent (Abrahams, 2009; Dos Santos & Mortimer, 2003; Marbá & Márquez, 2010; Otero, 2006;
Ritchie et al., 2011; orgo et al., 2011; Zembylas, 2002, 2004a, 2005).
Constructivism, the predominant theoretical framework in recent decades in the study of conceptual
change and pupils’ alternative ideas, is also making an approach to emotions. Pintrich et al. (1993) question
“cold change”, and argue for the importance of motivation and the emotions as determinants in science
learning. Positive emotional states favour learning, while negative emotional states severely limit the abil-
ity to learn (Vázquez & Manassero, 2007). This could be one of the reasons that some gifted pupils with a
high cognitive IQ fail in their studies. Conceptual change is both cognitive and affective (Thagard, 2008),
and teachers who ignore the affective aspects of learning may limit their pupils’ conceptual change (Duit
& Treagust, 2012). For Vázquez and Manassero (2011), the attitudinal and emotional factors involved in
learning science become increasingly negative with age, so that if no attention is paid to these aspects,
then the possibilities of learning decline progressively rather than improve.
Of particular interest is the study of teachers’ emotions because of their influence on teaching and on
their pupils’ learning. As noted by Garritz (2010b), science teaching is charged with emotions, values, and
ideals that make teachers identify with their profession. In their job, teachers experience a wide range of
emotions that can be influenced by many factors, such as their knowledge, conceptions, attitudes, values,
self-efficacy, self-concept, self-esteem, the teaching context, etc. (Alsop & Watts, 2003). These emotions
not only affect their own personal satisfaction but also the effectiveness of their work (Darder, 2000) since
emotional aspects, which might be seen as irrational from a cognitive standpoint, can influence their ac-
tions. Pupils too generally remember their good teachers for qualities they associate with the affective
domain – kindness, sensitivity, humour, trust, etc. (Korthagen, 2010). There has been, however, relatively
little research into the role affect plays in the life and the classroom behaviour of science teachers (Dos
Santos & Mortimer, 2003).
Prospective teachers have beliefs, attitudes, and emotions towards themselves, towards their pupils,
and towards the teaching and learning of their different subjects which are the result of the many years
they themselves spent in school, and which may influence their future teaching (Mellado et al., 2008).
Their early teaching experiences are full of decisions that had to be made, and of very strong emotional
events. These events may even have been traumatic since this stage is one of especial vulnerability, and
can generate negative emotions such as anxiety, insecurity, irritation, and disappointment. In a study
with a novice science teacher, Ritchie et al. (2011b) find that positive emotions are related to the achieve-
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ment of positive expectations and the failure of negative ones, whereas negative emotions are related to
the failure of positive expectations. Negative emotions in early teaching experiences can fix behavioural
strategies that are aimed at control and survival – strategies which are highly resistant to future change.
For Oosterheert and Vermunt (2001), the regulation of emotions is a functional component of learning
how to teach science. Teacher education constitutes a space in which these issues need to be considered
so that prospective and novice teachers can monitor and improve the impact of their emotions on their
classroom dynamics. As noted by Day (1999), change in teachers is indeed a matter of the head, but it
is also one of the heart, and it will be hard to make changes if they are not compensated affectively and
contribute to increasing the teacher’s personal satisfaction in their work.
While knowledge is associated with the cognitive domain, the literature has had different interpreta-
tions of teachers’ conceptions/beliefs and attitudes. A belief is information that a person accepts as true,
and attitude is a personal psychological tendency that implies approval or disapproval. Beliefs influence
attitudes, and both influence behaviour (Koballa & Crawley, 1985). In science teaching, beliefs have gener-
ally been associated with the cognitive domain, and attitudes with the affective and emotional domain
(Koballa & Glynn, 2007). Vázquez and Manassero (2007), in referring to the emotional-attitudinal context of
teaching, consider the affective component to be the most important feature of attitude. For Dos Santos
and Mortimer (2003), the affective is more general, and subsumes emotions, feelings, and moods.
Many authors concur that emotions are the organism’s automatic responses to external stimuli,
whereas feelings are more permanent. The basic emotions are part of our evolutionary structure as humans,
and are essential for the brain to quickly evaluate stimuli so that the organism can respond accordingly
and adaptively (Damasio, 2005). Although emotions are automatic, Damasio (2010) considers them not to
be deterministic since there is a considerable personalization of emotional responses to stimuli according
to culture, upbringing, etc. – “biology and culture are fully interactive” (p. 439).
There are a variety of taxonomies for the affective domain, emotions, and feelings. In the present
study, we shall be referring primarily to the emotions, although sometimes we shall refer generically to
the affective dimension and to feelings. Of the many definitions of emotions, we adopt that put forward
by Bisquerra (2000: 63):
“Emotions are reactions to the information we receive in our relationships in the environment. The intensity
of the reaction depends on subjective assessments that we make of how this information will affect our
well-being. These subjective assessments will involve prior knowledge, beliefs, personal objectives, percep-
tion of a challenging environment, etc. An emotion depends on what is important to us.” (Translated by
the authors.)
One of the most widely used classifications is that which distinguishes between basic or primary
emotions and secondary emotions. For Damasio (2005), the primary emotions are fear, anger, disgust,
surprise, sadness, and happiness, together with the social emotions sympathy, embarrassment, guilt,
shame, pride, jealousy, envy, gratitude, admiration, indignation, and contempt. But one must not forget
that the conceptions of emotions may differ between cultures, and that there occur intra-cultural changes
over time. The existence of alternative classifications is therefore not at all surprising.
The classification which comes closest to the nature of our study is that presented by Fernández-Abas-
cal et al. (2001). They distinguish three types of emotion. One corresponds to positive, agreeable, emotions
which are short-lasting and mobilize few resources in the person’s response to them; another to negative,
disagreeable, emotions which mobilize many resources for the person to cope with them; and the third
to neutral, neither agreeable nor disagreeable, emotions whose function is to facilitate the emergence of
subsequent emotional states. Bisquerra (2009) considers fear, anger, sadness, disgust, anxiety, and shame
to be negative emotions; joy, love, and happiness to be positive emotions; and surprise to be an example
of a neutral emotion. In their study of prospective science teachers in their initial courses of teacher educa-
tion, Dos Santos and Mortimer (2003) also adopt a positive and negative emotion classification.
The study of the emotions in the context of school science teaching covers both the general aspects
addressed by psychopædagogy, and specific aspects related to the content of the different subjects
taught (Vázquez & Manassero, 2007). Indeed, recent work has stressed the need to differentiate between
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the different subjects of science in analysing the emotions (Van der Hoeven Kraft et al., 2011). Our first
exploratory studies (Brígido et al., 2010) indicated that there are major differences in the emotions of
prospective primary teachers about teaching and learning Physics/Chemistry or Biology/Geology, mostly
negative in the former and positive in the latter. Emotions also influence the formation and evolution of
a teacher’s pædagogical content knowledge, which further adds to the importance of studying the emo-
tions that are related to specific science content (Garritz, 2010b; Kind, 2009; Park & Oliver, 2008; Zembylas,
2004b, 2005).
Another variable that needs to be considered in connection with emotions is gender, since, for in-
stance, Hazari, Tai and Sadler (2007) find that the influence of affective factors differs between boys and
girls. It has been shown that girls have more negative attitudes than boys towards physics and chemistry
(Britner, 2008; Christidou, 2011; Vázquez & Manassero, 2007, 2008). An objective of the present work was
therefore to determine whether there are any differences in the emotions concerning the teaching and
learning of science between men and women prospective primary science teachers.
The Research Problem
In this work, we set out to analyse the emotions of prospective primary teachers about the teaching
and learning of science. Although attitudes influence emotions, and emotions produce changes in at-
titudes (Briñol et al., 2010), the focus of the present study is on emotions, not on attitudes.
In secondary education in Spain, teachers and curriculum subjects are grouped into two separate
departments: Biology/Geology and Physics/Chemistry. Our previous work in this context (Brígido et al.,
2010) indicated that there was a need to differentiate between the content of Biology/Geology and Phys-
ics/Chemistry. One objective therefore was to confirm the influence of such content. The sample was
also expanded to three Spanish universities: the Autònoma of Barcelona, that of Extremadura, located in
two socio-economically different Regions, and that of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, in the Canary Islands,
a Region that differs from the other two in its being insular.
To summarize, the questions addressed in the present work are:
1. What emotions do the prospective primary teachers recall about their learning of Science in
primary school and of Biology/Geology and Physics/Chemistry in secondary school?
2. What emotions do the prospective primary teachers expect to have in their future teaching
of the primary school content of Biology/Geology and Physics/Chemistry?
3. Do the emotions differ according to gender and to the speciality they studied in secondary
school?
Research Methodology
Sample
The participants in the study were 315 undergraduate students in the Primary Teacher Education
courses of three Spanish universities: 56 in the Science Education Faculty of the Universitat Autònoma of
Barcelona (UAB), 188 in the Education Faculty in Badajoz of the Universidad de Extremadura (UEX), and 71
in the Teacher Training Faculty of the Universidad de las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULP). Data were acquired
in the first year of the degree courses in the UEX in the 2009-10 academic year and in the ULP in the 2010-
11 academic year, and in the second year of the degree course in the UAB in the 2010-11 academic year.
During their university course, prospective teachers have to carry out practice teaching in Primary schools.
At the time of data acquisition, however, they had yet to do this Practicum.
By gender, there were 223 (70.8%) women in the sample and 92 (29.2%) men, figures representative
of the greater proportion of women in primary education courses. Most were younger than 20 years old
(62.3%), followed by ages between 21 and 25 (26.8%). Regarding their specialization in secondary educa-
tion, most had studied Humanities and Social Sciences (64.3%), with fewer having studied Science and
Health Sciences (22.2%). The remainder (13.5%) had studied other specialities, and were eliminated from
further analysis in the study as being of little significance for the objectives of the work.
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Data Collection and Analysis Procedures
This work is characterized as being a descriptive exploratory study using data acquired from a ques-
tionnaire. The initial questionnaire consisted of 27 positive and negative emotions, chosen on the basis
of previous work (Bisquerra, 2009; Fernández-Abascal et al., 2001), from which the respondent identified
the emotions that they felt when they were pupils in primary education learning the content of Science,
and in secondary education learning the content of Biology/Geology and Physics/Chemistry. The ques-
tionnaire was completed with the emotions they believe they will experience as future primary school
teachers in teaching Biology/Geology and Physics/Chemistry content. After a pilot study, we eliminated
some emotions and replaced others by synonyms that the students would find more easily understand-
able. We also added “motivation” because, although it might not be considered an emotion, it is known
to be closely related (Bisquerra, 2005), and “boredom” at the suggestion of both instructors and students
during the validation process. The final questionnaire consisted of 24 emotions randomly distributed
into different tables.
The questionnaire was subjected to validity and reliability tests. These comprised an expert assess-
ment, a pilot study with interviews, and a Cronbach’s alpha reliability analysis. This last gave a result of 0.82,
implying “good reliability” according to the intervals of the value given by George and Mallery (1995).
The questionnaires were given collectively within regular class time. There was a relaxed atmosphere
while they were being completed, with excellent collaboration on the part of the students who, in all cases,
showed themselves to be very interested and engaged with the process. The duration of each session
was about 20 minutes.
The raw data were subjected to the necessary processes of removing artefacts, coding (identification
of the participants and their choices on the questionnaire items), and digitization of the records for their
subsequent analysis using the SPSS (Statistical Product and Service Solutions) software package vn 17.0.
Results of the Research
Emotions about Learning Science in Primary and Secondary School
The prospective primary teachers’ recall of their primary school subject of Science consisted of posi-
tive emotions, especially curiosity, enthusiasm, and interest (Figure 1). In contrast, only a small fraction
recalled such negative emotions as frustration, anger, or anxiety. There were no significant differences
between the three universities as determined by an ANOVA, although the ULP prospective teachers
reported a slightly greater percentage of negative emotions than those of the other two universities,
especially nervousness. The UAB students expressed hardly any negative emotions at all.
Figure 1: Percentage prevalence of the emotions in learning Science in primary school.
An ANOVA and Student’s t-test showed there to be no statistically significant differences between
the means by gender or by secondary education speciality studied.
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For the prospective teachers’ secondary education, we distinguished between their recall of the
emotions they felt as pupils in learning Physics/Chemistry and those they felt learning Biology/Geology.
For the Physics/Chemistry content, the emotions they recalled were very negative, the most reported
being tension and nervousness, and the least, tranquillity and pride (Figure 2). An ANOVA showed no
significant differences in positive emotions between the three universities, although the percentage
was greater in the UAB, for whose students there stood out pleasure, satisfaction, interest, and curiosity.
The differences were more significant for the negative emotions, with the lowest percentage for the UAB
students also standing out. For the UEX students, tension, worry, despair, and burden were reported by
over 60%, and fear, nervousness, and boredom by over 50%. For the ULP students, tension exceeded
60%, and fear, anxiety, nervousness, impotence, and burden exceeded 50%, whereas worry was reported
by fewer than 20%. In the UAB case, only tension was reported by 50% and boredom by 40%, whereas,
unlike the other two universities, anger, hate, and burden were reported by fewer than 20%.
Figure 2: Percentage prevalence of emotions in learning Physics/Chemistry at secondary school.
The Student’s t-test and the ANOVA showed significant differences in the means by secondary
school speciality, but not by gender. In particular, the students who had studied Humanities and So-
cial Sciences in secondary education experienced more negative emotions when they were learning
Physics/Chemistry (despair, impotence, frustration, boredom, and burden) than those who had studied
Science and Health Sciences.
On the contrary, the emotions they remembered from their time as secondary pupils when learn-
ing the content of Biology/Geology were mostly positive, especially tranquillity, congeniality, interest,
and curiosity (Figure 3). Of the negative emotions, the most reported were worry, nervousness, and
boredom, all of which, however, were at much lower percentages than the positive emotions. There
were are hardly any significant differences between the three universities. The UAB students presented
slightly a higher percentage of positive emotions and lower of negative emotions, with over 65% of
them noting interest and practically none noting burden.
Figure 3: Percentage prevalence of emotions in learning Biology/Geology in secondary school.
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The Student’s t-test and the ANOVA again showed significant differences in the means by second-
ary education speciality, but not by gender. Which secondary education speciality they had studied,
however, was indeed a significant predictor of the emotions they had experienced learning sciences at
school. When they had been studying Physics/Chemistry, the Humanities and Social Sciences educated
students experienced more negative emotions such as despair and frustration than those who had
taken the Science and Health Sciences path through secondary education. Also, the latter group of
participants reported more positive emotions, such as enthusiasm and interest, than their Humanities
and Social Sciences counterparts.
Emotions about the Future Teaching of Sciences in Primary School
In primary education, science content forms part of a single subject. In the present study, however,
we differentiated content related to Physics/Chemistry from that related to Biology/Geology, asking the
prospective primary teachers to indicate the emotions they thought they would experience when they
had to teach the content of Science related to these two subjects.
Regarding the emotions they expected in their future teaching of Physics/Chemistry content, an
ANOVA showed there to be significant differences between the three universities (Figure 4). The UEX and
ULP students reported mostly negative emotions, especially in the UEX case, with fear, tension, worry,
and nervousness being the emotions most often reported for both universities. In the UAB case, the
emotions the students expected were mostly positive, with only tension and nervousness exceeding
30%, whereas enthusiasm exceeded 40%, and fun, motivation, and interest were around 60%.
Figure 4: Percentage prevalence of emotions expected in the future teaching of Physics/Chemistry

content.
Comparing these results with the emotions experienced when learning these subjects in second-
ary school (Figure 2), one finds a certain correlation between them for all three universities. Neverthe-
less, the negative emotions expected as future teachers were reported less frequently than those the
students recalled from when they were secondary school pupils learning Physics/ Chemistry, and the
positive emotions were reported more frequently.
The Student’s t-test and the ANOVA again showed significant differences in the means by second-
ary education speciality, but not by gender. In particular, the students who had studied Science and
Health Sciences in their secondary education experienced more positive emotions in teaching Physics/
Chemistry content (enthusiasm, motivation, and interest) than those who had studied Humanities and
Social Sciences. The latter, on the contrary, recalled feeling more negative emotions such as fear, ten-
sion, worry, and nervousness.
With respect to their future teaching of Biology/Geology content, the emotions they expected were
mostly positive (Figure 5). Indeed, all the positive emotions surpassed 40%, with motivation, interest,
and curiosity surpassing 60% in all three universities. On the contrary, the emotions they expected to
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hardly ever experience were anger, hate, despair, impotence, frustration, and boredom. In this case, the
ANOVA showed no significant differences between the three universities.
Figure 5: Percentage prevalence of emotions expected in the future teaching of Biology/Geology

content.
Even though the emotions the students recalled from learning Biology/Geology in secondary
school were already mostly positive (Figure 3), there was still a marked increase in the prevalence of
positive emotions in their expectations of their future teaching of this content, and a marked decrease
in the negative emotions.
The Student’s t-test and the ANOVA showed significant differences in the means by both gender
and secondary education speciality. The men students experienced more positive emotions, such as
pride and pleasure. Also, the students who had specialized in Science and Health Sciences in their sec-
ondary education experienced the emotion of pride, an emotion that was not reported by those who
had studied Humanities and Social Sciences.
Discussion
The results show that the prospective teachers experienced mostly positive emotions as primary
school pupils when they were studying Science. This was most pronounced in the UAB students who
recalled hardly any negative emotions when they were learning science in primary school. The ULP
students recalled having experienced a slightly greater proportion of negative emotions than the
other two groups.
The emotions towards science learning they recalled from their secondary education were gen-
erally less positive than for the primary school case. This is consistent with numerous other research
findings that primary pupils usually have interest as well as positive emotions and attitudes towards
science, but that these attitudes diminish as they get older, especially during their secondary educa-
tion (Beauchamp & Parkinson, 2008; Murphy & Beggs, 2003; Osborne, Simon & Collins, 2003; Ramsden,
1998; Vázquez & Manassero, 2008, 2011).
In their recall of their secondary education, there was a major difference between the participants’
emotions towards learning Biology/Geology and towards learning Physics/Chemistry, the emotions
being predominantly positive in the former case, and negative in the latter. This was especially marked
in the UEX and ULP groups of prospective teachers. This is consistent with other work (Brígido et al.,
2010; Solbes, 2011) which has found pupils at the stage of compulsory secondary education to have
negative emotions and feel rejection and disinterest towards the subjects of Physics and Chemistry,
which they find difficult, boring, and of little practical use.
While several studies (Brígido et al., 2010; Britner, 2008; Christidou, 2011; Vázquez & Manas-
sero, 2007, 2008) have found that girls have more negative attitudes than boys towards Physics and
Chemistry, other results indicate that, not only are there no differences by gender, but that girls even
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achieve better academic results in science subjects (Osborne, Simon & Collins, 2003). As in this last
case, in the present study too, gender had no significant influence on the emotions the respondents
recalled when they were learning science during their primary and secondary school years.
Which secondary education speciality they had studied, however, was indeed a significant
predictor of the emotions they had experienced learning sciences at school. When they had been
studying Physics/Chemistry, the Humanities and Social Sciences educated students experienced
more negative emotions such as despair and frustration than those who had taken the Science and
Health Sciences path through secondary education. Also, the latter group of participants reported
more positive emotions, such as enthusiasm and interest, than their Humanities and Social Sciences
counterparts.
The Student’s t-test and the ANOVA showed significant differences in the means by secondary
education speciality. The students who had studied Science or Health Sciences in secondary edu-
cation experienced more positive emotions when they were learning science in secondary school
(congeniality, enthusiasm, satisfaction, interest, curiosity, and motivation) than those who had studied
Humanities or Social Sciences. This result is again coherent with the literature, since many pupils who
choose Humanities and Social Sciences in secondary school feel a profound rejection of the sciences,
especially of Physics and Chemistry (Vázquez & Manassero, 2007).
In their expectations of their future work as primary teachers, there predominated positive emo-
tions towards teaching the content of Biology/Geology, and negative emotions towards teaching
the content of Physics/Chemistry. These negative emotions were principally worry and fear, except
for the UAB students who reported more positive emotions such as motivation and interest. There
was generally some correlation between the emotions remembered as secondary school pupils and
those they believe that they will experience as teachers in the future, although there was an increase
in the positive emotions and decrease in the negative ones in this latter case. While this result is
encouraging, the low proportion of positive emotions related to teaching Physics/Chemistry is still
very worrying, especially in the cases of the UEX and ULP students.
Negative emotions towards the teaching and learning of content related to Physics or Chemistry
constitute a grave problem for the education system. Together with the results of previous studies
about attitudes, such as those of Ribelles, Solbes and Vilches (1995) who describe the difference
between attitudes towards Biology/Geology (more positive) and towards Physics/Chemistry (more
negative), or of other workers (Marbá & Márquez, 2010; Vázquez & Manassero, 2008) who show that
attitudes towards science decline with schooling and that few students are enrolling in Spain in uni-
versity physics or chemistry degree courses, the present results sound an alert of the need to look
deeply into the reasons for this disaffection towards these subjects.
The men students in the present study expected to feel more pride and pleasure in teaching
Biology/Geology content, but there were no significant differences between men and women in
their expectations in teaching Physics/Chemistry. Also, the prospective teachers who had followed
Science and Health Sciences path through their secondary education expected to feel more positive
emotions and fewer negative ones towards the teaching of science subjects than their counterparts
who had studied Humanities and Social Sciences in secondary school.
The prospective teachers of the three Universities experienced mostly positive emotions as primary
school pupils when they were studying science. In their recall of their secondary education, there was
a major difference between the participants’ emotions towards learning Biology/Geology and towards
learning Physics/Chemistry, the emotions being predominantly positive in the former case, and negative
in the latter. The emotions towards science learning they recalled from their secondary education were
generally less positive than for the primary school case. In the present study, gender had no significant
influence on the emotions the respondents recalled when they were learning science during their pri-
mary and secondary school years. However there are significant differences in the means by secondary
education speciality: The students who had studied Science or Health Sciences in secondary education
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experienced more positive emotions when they were learning science in secondary school than those
who had studied Humanities or Social Sciences.
With respect to their future teaching in primary education, there predominated positive emotions
towards teaching the content of Biology/Geology, and negative emotions towards teaching the content
of Physics/Chemistry, except for the UAB students who reported more positive emotions than negative
about teaching Physics/Chemistry. There was more correlation in Biology/Geology than in Physics/
Chemistry between the emotions remembered as secondary school pupils and those they believe
that they will experience as teachers in the future in these contents. However, in both Biology/Geology
and Physics/Chemistry, there was an increase of positive emotions in their expectations of their future
teaching of this content, and a marked decrease in the negative emotions, relative to emotions that they
had experienced as students of these subjects in secondary school. In the present study, gender had no
significant influence on the emotions towards teaching science. There were also significant differences
in teaching science, in the means by secondary education speciality.
These results, together with those of earlier studies, indicate the need to develop programs of
emotional intervention in initial teacher education (Blanco et al., 2010; Koballa et al., 2008). This would
seem to be especially important in subjects like Physics or Chemistry which show themselves to pres-
ent major cognitive and emotional difficulties for prospective primary teachers. Such a program could
help them gain awareness of their possible emotional vulnerability, of their own history as pupils at
school, and of how emotions affect the teaching of different science subjects. The inclusion of emotional
intervention programs specifically designed to address the different content of the subjects they will
have to teach would contribute to their developing, in a metacognitive process, the capacity to act so as
to change and self-regulate those emotions in their own learning, as well as in that of their pupils, and
in their teaching. If, as indicated by Bisquerra and Pérez (2007), academic knowledge is best learned
when the pupils have emotional competences as an underlying support, then it is essential, through
intervention programs that include both the cognitive and the affective, to form teachers who are
themselves emotionally competent, and who know how to diagnose and self-regulate their emotions
(Efklides, 2009; Shoffner, 2009).
The research agenda on emotions in the learning and teaching of science is clearly open, with many
more questions than answers. Further research is needed with larger samples, using both quantitative
and qualitative approaches, to examine the causes of those emotions, and further refining the focus
onto specific content (Physics is not the same as Chemistry, and neither is Biology the same as Geology)
and the different activities and strategies for teaching and learning. There is also a need to consider how
content and different teaching strategies are related to other constructs such as pædagogical content
knowledge, self-efficacy, self-concept, self-regulation, metaphors, etc. (Brígido et al., in press; Mellado,
Bermejo & Mellado, 2012).
Acknowledgements
This work was financed by Research Projects EDU2009-12864 and EDU2012-34140 of the Ministry
of Economy and Competitiveness (Spain), The Government of Extremadura, and the European Regional
Development Fund (ERDF).
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EXAMINING THE LEARNING
EXPERIENCES OF SCIENCE
TRAINING AMONG
TAIWANESE ABORIGINAL
ADOLESCENTS
Abstract. In Taiwan, substantial resources

Ya-Ling Wu,
have been invested in training programs
for Aboriginal adolescents in response
Cheng-Wu Chen
to their poor occupational achievement.
This study examined the relationships
between the learning experiences of sci-
ence training, vocational self-concept, and
Introduction
occupational aspirations among Taiwan-
ese Aboriginal adolescents. Data were col-
Taiwanese Aborigines have lived on the island of Taiwan
lected from a questionnaire survey of 760
for over one thousand years. They were forced to make contact
Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents who
with Euro-American and Han-Chinese people approximately
had successfully completed the science
four hundred years ago, after which they were driven from their
training. The results of this study demon-
original living areas and migrated to higher mountains (Cheng &
strated that the Taiwanese Aboriginal ado-
Jacob, 2008). In 2012, there were 527,250 Taiwanese Aborigines,
lescents’ learning experiences of science
which represents 2.26% of the total population of Taiwan. Of them,
training directly and indirectly influenced
52.96% live in mountain tribal regions (Executive Yuan, 2012).
their occupational aspirations vis-à-vis the
The indigenous people have historically been a socioeconomi-
effect on their vocational self-concept at
cally disadvantaged ethnic minority (Wang, 2009). The average
the individual level, which in turn directly
income of Aboriginal families has been usually lower than that of
influenced their occupational aspirations.
ethnic-majority families. The rate of unemployment and under-
The findings suggest that the science train-
employment among the indigenous people has far exceeded that
ing programs for Taiwanese indigenous
of the majority population, and Taiwanese Aborigines have been
youth may provide sufficient supports in
over-represented in primarily unskilled and low-skilled occupa-
culturally responsive ways to facilitate
tions (Executive Yuen 2012; Wu, 2012). For improving this group’s
these trainees’ vocational self-concept and
employability in response to their poor occupational achieve-
occupational aspirations as well as further
ment, the Taiwanese government has thus invested substantial
to achieve the original goals of the science
resources to offer training programs in applied science especially
training programs.
for Aboriginal youth and also implemented affirmative action
and other parity policies to engage Aboriginal youth in training
Key words: occupational aspiration,
programs (Council of Indigenous Peoples, 2007). In fact, training
science training, Taiwanese Aboriginal
programs aim to equalize the wrongs of society and to empower
adolescents, vocational self-concept.
all disadvantaged trainees (Johnson-Bailey & Cerverto, 2000).
However, little research has explored the implementation and the
Ya-Ling Wu, effectiveness of theses training programs especially for Aboriginal
National Pingtung University of Science & adolescents from these Aboriginal young trainees’ perspective.
Technology, Taiwan
The learning experiences of training, insofar as they pertain to
Cheng-Wu Chen,
National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan Taiwanese Aboriginal youth, are the focus of this study. In the
Department of Maritime Information and present study, learning experiences of science training refers to the
Technology, National Kaohsiung Marine culturally responsive learning experiences of vocational training
University, Taiwan
in applied science among Taiwanese Aboriginal youth.
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TAIWANESE ABORIGINAL ADOLESCENTS
(P. 312-321)
Occupational aspirations, which are the expressed occupational goals that an individual desires
to achieve, can reflect individuals’ past experiences and future social mobility (Rojewski, 2005). Ado-
lescents’ occupational aspirations can significantly predict their adult educational and occupational
choices and achievements (Marjoribanks, 2002; Mau & Bikos 2000). Because occupational aspirations in
adolescence can influence individuals’ occupational achievement and behaviors in career development
(Mau & Bikos 2000; Super, 1990), training programs that fail to account for the occupational aspira-
tions of Taiwanese indigenous young trainees are unlikely to improve their career outcomes (Lowe &
Tassone, 2001). Therefore, there is a critical necessity to examine the occupational aspirations among
Taiwanese Aboriginal youth who participated in science training programs and further to investigate
the effect of their learning experiences of science training on their occupational aspirations.
The vocational self-concept is the comprehensive perception of self related to vocational val-
ues, interests, and experiences. The development of individuals’ vocational self-concept is the key
indicator of their future career maturity (Super, 1990). Training programs aim not only to equip the
trainees with the professional skills and knowledge but also to help them develop their vocational
self-concept to fully participate in occupational development (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2009). Thus,
the vocational self-concept of Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents who participated in science training
programs and the effect of the training on their vocational self-concept are the focus of this study. In
short, four specific objectives are investigated in this study:
•• To identify the learning experiences of science training among Taiwanese Aboriginal
adolescents, including curriculum and teaching, interpersonal relationship, and career
interventions.
•• To explore the vocational self-concept of Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents;
•• To assess the occupational aspirations of Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents; and
•• To examine the relationships between the learning experiences of science training,
vocational self-concept, and occupational aspirations among Taiwanese Aboriginal ado-
lescents.
Theoretical Background and Research Hypotheses
The Developmental-Contextual Model of Career Development as the Study Framework
Since the development of occupational aspirations is the key part of individuals’ career de-
velopment outcomes, the developmental-contextual model of career development by Vondracek,
Lerner, and Schulenberg (1986), was applied as the framework of this study. Drawing on life-span
development theories and contextualist perspectives, the approach conceptualizes development as
“the interaction between a developing individual and the contextual systems” (Vondracek, Lerner, &
Schulenberg, 1986, p.5).
The person as an active producer of the development. The developing individual is embedded in
an interconnected set of contexts, and his/her characteristics play a critical role in his/her own devel-
opment. Individuals provide feedback for themselves or provide a basis for their own development
(Vondracek, 1998).
Contexts contributing to individuals’ development. The contexts consist of multiple systems,
including proximal and distal systems. Proximal systems include the immediate social and material
settings in which the developing individual is situated. Distal systems include factors relating to social
position (e.g., socioeconomic status and ethnicity) which the individual cannot control. The set of
proximal contexts has a direct impact on individuals’ career development, while the distal systems
have an indirect impact that is often mediated by the more proximal contexts (Vondracek, Lerner, &
Schulenberg, 1986).
The dynamic interaction between the individual and the contexts. There is a dynamic and integrated
relationship among multiple levels of analysis. Variables from any of these levels might contribute to
individuals’ development, and no single level of analysis may operate separately (Bronfenbrenner &
Ceci, 1994; Vondracek, Lerner, & Schulenberg, 1986).
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The Relationships among Taiwanese Aboriginal Adolescents’ Learning Experiences of Science Training,
Vocational Self-concept, and Occupational aspirations
Guided by the developmental-contextual model of career development, the present study investi-
gated the relationships among Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents’ learning experiences of science train-
ing, vocational self-concept, and occupational aspirations. In this study, Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents’
learning experiences of science training were viewed as the contextual-level factor influencing their
occupational aspirations, and their vocational self-concept was posited as the individual-level factor
contributing to their occupational aspirations.
While some theoretical literature has demonstrated that training programs influence Aborigines’
career development, many empirical studies have tended to emphasize the structural and physical vari-
ables of training programs, such as size, location, and kinds of program (Gelade & Stehlik 2004), rather
than the essential elements of trainees’ learning, such as curriculum, teaching, interpersonal interac-
tions, and career interventions. Recently, a small number of studies examining these core dimensions
of learning experiences of training have indicated that culturally responsive training programs could
promote the career development of Australian Aborigines and Native Americans (Alliman-Brissett &
Turner, 2005; Craven, et al., 2005). Furthermore, previous studies have shown that supportive learning
experiences of training and education have an important influence on adolescents’ self-concept (e.g.,
Garg, Melnson, & Levin, 2002).
Vocational self-concept is an individual’s perception of his/her self related to work or occupations
and an individual’s occupational aspirations are representative of his/her vocational self-concept (Su-
per, 1990). Some studies have suggested that vocational self-concept is an important determinant of
individuals’ occupational aspirations (Garg et al, 2007; Patton & Creed 2007).
Research Hypotheses
Based on the above-mentioned literature review, the research hypotheses of this study are shown
in Figure 1 and Table 1. Overall, this study aims to test the three hypotheses.
Figure 1: Research hypotheses.
Table 1. The hypotheses to be tested.
H1: Culturally responsive learning experiences of science training positively influence vocational self-concept.
H2: Vocational self-concept positively influences occupational aspirations.
H3: Culturally responsive learning experiences of science training positively influence occupational aspirations.
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Participants
For the purposes of the study, a questionnaire survey was used to collect data, and the study
population consisted of Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents at the age of 15-24 who had completed the
vocational training programs in applied science from 2010 to 2012. Anonymous questionnaires were
distributed to 920 participants in the selected training centers, and 82.6% (N=760) of the questionnaires
were returned and usable. Of the participants, 477 are males (62.8%), and 283 are females (37.2%) with
288 (37.9%) participants at the age of 15-18 and 472 (62.1%) at the age of 19-24 years. Altogether, 214
participants (28.2%) were from 5 centers in the northern region, 113 (14.9%) were from 3 centers in the
central region, 160 (21.1%) were from 4 centers in the southern region, and 273 (35.8%) from 5 centers
in the eastern region. Overall, 73.7% (n=560) of the participants lived in tribal regions, 18.8% (n=143)
lived near the indigenous people in non-tribal regions, and 7.5% (n=57) lived near non-indigenous
people in non-tribal regions.
Instruments and Data Analysis
The scales of the study were adapted primarily from various published sources (e.g., Garg, et al., 2007;
Koksal & Cakiroglu, 2010; Marjoribanks, 2002; Wu & Lou, 2012). Each item of the scales was measured
on a four-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree to 4=strongly agree). A pilot study was conducted on
all the scales, and the item analysis and principal component analysis via Direct Oblimin rotation were
conducted. The Cronbach’s α values for reliability in all scales were higher than 0.70, and the loadings
of all items were greater than 0.50. Thus, all of the scales had good reliability and validity.
Leaning Experiences of Science training were measured by a 19-item scale (α=0.88) which assessed
the participants’ perception of the level of supports their vocational training programs in applied science
provided for them in the culturally responsive ways (e.g., “I have good relationships with my instructors”).
The scale included three subscales: (1) curriculum and teaching (α=0.80): the curriculum and teaching
support provided for the participants in the training programs; (2) interpersonal relationship (α=0.76):
the quality of the participants’ interpersonal relationships in the training; and (3) career interventions
(α=0.79): the career interventions the training programs provided for the participants.
Vocational self-concept was measured using a 8-item scale (α=0.82) to assess the level of each
participant’s perception of self related to jobs or professions. The scale included two dimensions: 1.
self-awareness (α=0.74): the participants’ understanding of their vocational interests, ability, and apti-
tude; 2. vocational awareness: the participants’ understanding of the occupations which they wished
to enter in the future (α=0.74).
Occupational aspirations were measured with a 17-item scale (α=0.82) that assessed the degree to
which the individuals aspired to enter occupations with high socioeconomic status in the future. The
scale included three dimensions: 1. professionalism (α=0.84): the level of professionalism they wish to
achieve; 2. leadership (α=0.88 ): the degree of leadership in the occupation they wish to own; 3. position
(α=0.76 ): the level of the position in the occupation they wish to have .
In this study, SPSS 17.0 was used as the statistic software. Descriptive statistics, one-sample t-test,
dependent-sample one-way ANOVA, dependent-sample t-test, and path analysis of multiple regression
analysis were employed to analyze the data.
Results of Research
Learning Experiences of Science Training
As seen in Table 2, the participants scored 2.84 on the learning experiences of science training
scale, higher than the scale’s median value (2.5), which suggests that the Taiwanese Aboriginal adoles-
cents perceived that they were provided with the moderately high level of supports in the culturally
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responsive ways during their science training (M=2.84, compared to 2.5, t=19.96, p<0.001). Of the three
dimensions, the level of the curriculum and teaching supports was higher (M=2.97) than the level of
the interpersonal relationship supports (M=2.86), and the level of the career intervention supports was
the lowest (M=2.74) (F=992.13; p<0.001).
Table 2. Means, standard deviations and dependent-sample one-way ANOVA of the learning
experiences of science training (N=760).
Dimensions M SD F Post hoc comparison
Learning experiences of science

2.84 0.47
training
1>2; 1>3;2>3
Curriculum and teaching 2.97 0.55
F=992.13*** 1. Curriculum and teaching
Interpersonal relationship 2.86 0.60 2. Interpersonal relationship
3. Career intervention
Career intervention 2.74 0.53

p<0.001
***
Vocational Self-Concept
As seen in Table 3, the participants scored 2.86 on vocational self-concept scale, higher than the
scale’s median value (2.5), which suggests that the Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents had moderately
high level of vocational self-concept (M=2.86, compared to 2.5, t=18.38, p<0.001). Of the two dimensions,
the level of the self-awareness was higher (M=3.00) than the level of vocational awareness (M=2.71)
(t=17.60; p<0.001).
Table 3. Means, standard deviations and dependent-sample t-test of vocational self-concept

(N=760).
Dimensions M SD t Post hoc comparison
Learning experiences of science

2.86 0.54
training 1>2
1. Self-awareness
Self-awareness 3.00 0.62 t=17.60***
2. Vocational awareness
Vocational awareness 2.71 0.54
p<0.001
***
Occupational Aspirations
As seen in Table 4, the participants scored 3.04 on the occupational aspiration scale, higher than
the scale’s median value (2.5), which suggests that the Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents had high
occupational aspirations (M=3.04, compared to 2.5, t=29.20, p<0.001). Of the three dimensions, the
level of position they wished to achieve was higher (M=3.46) than the level of the professionalism they
wished to achieve (M=3.17), and the level of the leadership they wished to get was the lowest (M=2.49)
(F=973.84; p<0.001).
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Table 4. Means, standard deviations and dependent-sample one-way ANOVA of occupational

aspirations (N=760).
Dimensions M SD F Post hoc comparison
Occupational aspirations 3.04 0.51

1>2; 1>3;3>2
Professionalism 3.17 0.61
F=973.84*** 1. Professionalism
Leadership 2.49 0.54 2. Leadership
3. Position
Position 3.46 0.58
p<0.001
***
The Relationships between the Learning Experiences of Science Training,

Vocational Self-Concept, and Occupational Aspirations
This study used path analysis of multiple regression analysis to examine the relationships between
the learning experiences of science training, vocational self-concept, and occupational aspirations
among Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents.
The assumptions of the regression model were checked. Because the zero-order correlations co-
efficients among the independent variables were all less than 0.32, the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF)
values ranged between 1.037 and 1.230, and tolerance statistics ranged between 0.683 and 0.752, there
was no evidence to suggest that the data suffered from multicollinearity. In other words, there was no
strong correlation between two or more predictors in the regression model. The Durbin-Watson statistic
was also between 1 and 2 (1.68), implying that errors in the regression were independent (Tabachnick &
Fidell, 2007). Standardized residuals were examined to detect the presence of outliers. Three cases were
determined to have standardized residuals between 2.981 and 3.076. Because none of those three cases
had a Cook’s distance (a measure of the overall influence of a case on the model) greater than 1 and the
sample size was large, none of them had undue influence on the regression model (Field, 2005). The
assumptions of normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity were checked by considering standardized
residual scatter plots to examine whether the residuals were normally distributed around the predicted
employability scores. It was discovered that the residuals had a linear relationship with the predicted
employability scores. Overall, all assumptions were therefore met (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).
The regression results showed that the learning experiences of science training had a positive ef-
fect on the vocational self-concept, and explained 38.4% of the variance of the vocational self-concept
(Table 5). The learning experiences of science training and vocational self-concept both had positive
effects on Taiwanese Aboriginal youth’s occupational aspirations, and explained 58.2% of the variance
of the occupational aspirations (Table 6).
Table 5. Multiple regression coefficients for the effect of the learning experiences of science train-
ing on vocational self-concept (N=760).
Predictors R2 F B β
Learning experiences of 0.384 472.321*** 0.301 0.620

science training
***
p <0.001
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Table 6. Multiple regression coefficients for the effect of the learning experiences of science train-
ing and vocational self-concept on occupational aspirations (N=760).
Predictors R2 F B β
Learning experiences of science 0.481 472.321*** 0.896 0.443

training
Vocational self-concept 0.582 182.339*** 0.398 0.405
***
p <0.001
Overall, all of the three hypotheses concerning the relationships between the variables were
supported at the 0.01 significance level (H1: the learning experiences of science training→ vocational
self-concept, β=0.620; H2: vocational self-concept→ occupational aspirations, β=0.443; H3: the learn-
ing experiences of science training→ occupational aspirations, β=0.405). The results showed that, the
participants’ learning experiences of science training positively affected their vocational self-concept;
the participants’ vocational self-concept positively affected their occupational aspirations; through sci-
ence training, the participants’ learning experiences of science training both directly and indirectly and
positively affected their occupational aspirations. The relationships among these variables are shown in
Figure 2. The estimates of the direct and indirect effects of the learning experiences of science training
and vocational self-concept on Taiwanese’ Aboriginal adolescents’ occupational aspirations are shown
in Table 7. Of the two variables, the learning experiences of science training had the greater impact on
Taiwanese’ Aboriginal adolescents’ occupational aspirations (estimate=0.680).
Figure 2: Results of testing the hypotheses.
Table 7. Estimates of the direct and indirect effects of the learning experiences of science training
and vocational self-concept on occupational aspirations.
Casual path Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect
Vocational self-concept→ occupa- 0.443 - 0.443

tional aspirations
The learning experiences of science
training→ occupational aspirations 0.405 0.620*0.443=0.275 0.680
Discussion
The results of this study provided empirical support for the hypotheses of the relationships among
Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents’ learning experiences of science training, vocational self-concept, and
occupational aspirations based on the developmental-contextual model of career development. The
results demonstrated that the learning experiences of science training, a proximal contextual factor,
directly and indirectly influenced the occupational aspirations vis-à-vis the effect on vocational self-
concept at the individual level, which directly influenced the occupational aspirations.
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The results of this study empirically indicated that the supports of science training in culturally
responsive ways had a strong impact on the vocational self-concept and occupational aspirations among
the Taiwanese Aboriginal young trainees. It suggests that it is critically important to provide culturally
responsive supports for Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescent trainees in the science training programs,
including the supports of the curriculum and teaching, interpersonal relationship, and career interven-
tion. However, it is noteworthy that although specialists in multicultural education suggest that the
cultural heritage of ethnic minority groups should be cherished and not act as a barrier to their career
development (Gay, 2000), training centers in Taiwan typically implement the mainstream-centric training
programs for Aboriginal trainees without considering their specific cultural needs (Wu, 2012). Further-
more, the result of the study suggests that the training programs for Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents
should not only emphasize providing the professional knowledge and skills for the trainees but also
pay attention to facilitate their psychological and social capability.
It was found that regarding the learning experiences of science training, the Taiwanese Aboriginal
youth tended to experience less supports of career intervention than those supports of curriculum and
teaching and interpersonal relationship. The previous study also has showed that the training programs
in Taiwan only offer training in professional skills and do not provide either a clear employment path-
way or post-training support. This deficiency hampers the trainees to gain employment after they have
completed their training (Cheng & Gao, 2010). However, the study on the African American adolescents
have indicated that the sufficient and culturally responsive career intervention of training programs
could promote these adolescents’ career development (Alliman-Brissett & Turner, 2005). Therefore, the
science training programs for Taiwanese Aboriginal youth may include more culturally responsive career
intervention, such as the supports of job search.
This study found that the Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents’ vocational self-concept, which was
affected by their learning experiences of science training, had a significant effect on their occupational
aspirations. This result obviously supports the concept that a developing individual, interacting with
contextual systems, plays a crucial role in career development (Vondracek et al., 1986). Compared to
the Han Chinese, Taiwanese Aborigines are likely to maintain a lower vocational self-concept because
of their low educational and occupational achievement (Chiang, 2003). However, this study found that
the Taiwanese Aboriginal youth who had finished the science training programs tended to have mod-
erately high vocational self-concept. This result also supports the positive effect of the science training
programs on Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents’ vocational self-concept.
In this study, it also found that the level of the participants’ self-awareness was higher than that of
their vocational awareness. It suggests that the Taiwanese Aboriginal youth tended to understand their
vocational interests, ability, and aptitude more than the occupations which they wished to enter in the
future. The possible explanation of this result may be that the training programs in applied science for
Taiwanese Aboriginal youth might emphasize the training of professional skills without providing the
sufficient information about the occupations they may choose in the future (Shan, 2010). The acquisition
and possession of vocational information are crucial to the individuals’ occupational preparation (Winch,
2004). Vocational information can allow individuals to determine whether his/her career choices will be
appropriately suited to his/her vocational interests, personality characteristics, and career development
(Grotevant & Durrett, 1980). Individuals have been found to limit their occupational choices by selectively
eliminating various possible occupations based on inadequate or incorrect vocational information, and
it then becomes the reason for rejecting an occupation (Brown, 2002). Thus, in order to facilitate the
employment of Taiwanese Aboriginal young trainees, the training programs for Taiwanese Aboriginal
youth may provide sufficient information about the occupations which the trainees are prepared for.
This study found that the Taiwanese indigenous youth tended to demonstrate the moderately high
level of occupational aspirations. Specifically, in the future occupations, they wished to get the high
positions most while they wished to get the leadership least. This result seems to reflect the naturally
optimistic philosophy of the Taiwanese Aborigines, who enjoy the freedom of their own lives instead
of the governorship of other people’s lives or work (Wang, 2009).
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Conclusions
This study aimed to explore the relationships between the learning experiences of science training,
vocational self-concept, and occupational aspirations among Taiwanese Aboriginal adolescents based
on the developmental-contextual model of career development. The results demonstrated that the
Taiwanese Aboriginal youth’s learning experiences of science training directly and indirectly influenced
their occupational aspirations vis-à-vis the effect on vocational self-concept, which directly influenced
their occupational aspirations. This study represents an important extension of previous research in
that it suggested that Taiwanese Aboriginal youth’s learning experiences of science training had a great
impact on both their vocational self-concept and occupational aspirations.
In fact, training programs aim to equalize the wrongs of society and to empower all disadvantaged
trainees (Johnson-Bailey & Cerverto, 2000). Therefore, the science training programs for Taiwanese
indigenous youth should provide sufficient supports in culturally responsive ways, particularly the sup-
ports of career intervention and the information about the occupations the Aboriginal young trainees
may enter.
Furthermore, cultural competence interventions are needed to facilitate training instructors to
reflect on the value of training programs for indigenous adolescents and to understand their cultures.
Instructors should also be capable of delivering training in ways that recognize the cultures of indigenous
trainees in order to facilitate these trainees’ vocational self-concept and occupational aspirations as well
as further to achieve the original goals of the training programs.
Nevertheless, in this study, the use of only one reporter for all variables in this study may not collect
data that reflect the responses of people contributing to the participants’ learning of training, vocational
self-concept, and occupational aspirations. Additionally, this limitation also raises the possibility of com-
mon method variance (Kline, 2005). To provide the comprehensive understanding of the complexity
of Aboriginal adolescents’ learning and development and minimize the inflated method variance, it is
necessary for further research to include multiple informants in the theoretical model, such as training
instructors and parents.
References
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Taiwan, R.O.C.
E-mail: karin@mail.npust.edu.tw
Website: http://oar.npust.edu.tw/user/1676
Cheng-Wu Chen Researcher, Data Analysis Center, National Cheng Kung University,
(corresponding Tainan, Taiwan 701 R.O.C.
author) Professor, Department of Maritime Information and Technology,
National Kaohsiung Marine University, Taiwan
E-mail: chengwu@mail.nkmu.edu.tw
321
PREDICTING COLLEGE
STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT IN
SCIENCE COURSES
Abstract. Given the worldwide interest in Abdurrahman Ilgan

improving student academic attainment,
it is important to the examine the variables
impacting college students’ achievement.
This research aimed to predict student
achievement in an undergraduate level Introduction
Scientific Research Method Course (SRMC)
offered by Celal Bayar University, Turkey. Student learning in higher education has been the subject of
This quantitative research adopted a intense research for more than two decades, with major findings
descriptive correlation survey design. 198
of this inquiry summarized in several informative monographs
(Biggs, 1999; Dart & Boulton-Lewis, 1998; Marton et al., 1997;
sophomore college students were the
Prosser & Trigwell, 1999; Watkins & Biggs, 1996; as cited in Zeegers,
participants of the study. Multiple linear
2004). One of the key findings from this large body of research is
regression analysis was used to examine
that learning is a complex human activity that cannot be easily
how independent variables such as at- conceptualized by means of a simple model. The factors that can
titudes, competence in teaching methods, impact students’ success in higher education are manifold, but
length of studying time, gender predict they are sometimes categorized as being either personality factors
student achievement in SRMC. The find- (e.g., age, prior experiences, learning styles) or contextual factors
ings showed that selected predictors ac- (e.g., teaching and learning activities, assessment procedures).
counted for 33.4 % of students’ academic Numerous studies have attempted to correlate learning outcomes
achievement in SRMC. Specifically, 23% of in higher education with individual contributing factors; however,
this variance were explained by the total few studies have attempted to elucidate the inter-relationship
study hours; 9.4 % of it originated from
between contributing factors in order to develop a casual model
of achievement (Zeegers, 2004). This research contributes to the
students’ attitudes toward the lesson;
discourse surrounding student learning in higher education insti-
and 2% of it originated from the students’
tutions by focusing on the Turkish context.
perceptions of the necessity and impor-
Academic achievement is the major aim of secondary and
tance of the course. Further, these findings postsecondary education systems. There are numerous factors in
are positioned with respect to the previous the college environment that influence Grade Point Average (GPA)
research on predicting college student and performance across a wide range of academic subjects such
achievement. as prior knowledge of subject, skills, and cognitive abilities (Plant,
Key words: achievement, attitude, college Ericsson, Hill & Asberg, 2004). Research suggests that major fac-
student, science course, study time. tors in academic achievement are parents (family casual factors),
teachers (academic casual factors), and other students (personal
casual factors) (Diaz, 2003).
Given the increasing importance of science and mathematics
in the modern world, there is considerable interest in such courses
Abdurrahman Ilgan offered at the college-level; specifically in the predictors of student
Celal Bayar University, Turkey achievement. Student achievement in the introductory college
level science courses is important. Because little is known about
the factors that predict college science achievement (Gustafson &
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(P. 322-336)
Balke, 1993; House, 1996; Lawson, 1983), this research contributes to this subject that requires further
examination.
As a variable that affects achievement, attitudes represent an individual’s degree of positive or
negative views (or likes or dislikes) of a particular person, place, thing, or event (attitude objects). These
views are made up of clusters of personal beliefs about the attitude object that are acquired mainly
through personal experiences (Matthew et al, 2011). Attitudes are defined as the overall positive or
negative evaluation of the behavior. In general, the more favorable the attitude toward the behavior is,
the stronger is the individual’s intention to perform it (Lipnevich, MacCann, Krumm, Burrus, & Roberts,
2011). Furthermore,
Student attitude towards study is a complex construct. Attitude is a fairly stable emotional tendency
to respond consistently to some specific object, situation, person, or category of people. It has three
components: cognitive core, affective values and behavioral action tendencies. The cognitive aspect of
attitude consists of beliefs and ideas that a person has about the attitude object. The affective component
includes the feelings of like and dislike toward any object, and the behavioral aspect consists of intentions
to respond in a particular way toward the object. (Sarwar, Bashir, & Alam, 2010, p.55).
Academic achievement and student’s attitudes and study habits are closely related. It is necessary
to improve student’s study habits and attitudes to increase student’s academic achievement (Aquino,
2001). A student’s attitude is an important factor in learning science. Positive attitudes towards science
can inspire students to pursue degrees in science and science-related careers (Carey & Shevelson,
1988; Norwich & Duncan, 1990). Literature provides evidence that attitude is an important motivator
of behavior and positively affects the achievement of students (Hussain, 2006). The inspection of the
attitudes that students exhibit toward science is very important since attitudes can influence student’s
educational achievement. These influences can reinforce higher or lower performance (Papanastasiou
& Papanastasiou, 2004). Researchers in science education (e.g., Hammer, 2000; Redish, 2003) have
found that student classroom experience is shaped by a variety of student attitudes and beliefs. Some
researchers (Ma & Xu, 2004; Okpala, 2001; Sarwar, Bashir, & Alam, 2010; Simonson & Maushak, 1996)
found a positive correlation between attitude and academic achievement. Research is also indicates
that students’ expectations are significant predictors of college science performance (House, 1996; Tai
& Sadler, 2001). Furthermore, significant correlations between students’ mathematics attitudes and
their score on mathematics achievement were reported (Klossterman, 1991). Benbow and Stanley
(1982) found that talented students that held positive attitudes toward mathematics, science, and
school were already high achievers.
While examining general attitudes toward school, Lupart, Cannon and Telfer (2004) found that
female students have more positive attitudes than male students. The study of Lupart et. al reported
that girls exhibited a better attitude toward learning for learning’s sake than boys. In total, 73.6 %
of the females either agreed or strongly agreed that they do schoolwork because they like to learn
new things, whereas only two-thirds (66.7 %) of the males responded in this way. A similar conclusion
was reported by Marjoribanks (1987) who found that girls had significantly more positive affective
school attitudes than boys.
Another variable related with academic achievement is the amount of time spent on studying. The
total amount of study time that students report has been often examined as a potential predictor of
school success. Bloom (1974, p. 682) asserted that “all learning, whether done in school or elsewhere,
requires time”. It is conventionally accepted that the more time students spend studying, the better
grades they receive (Plant, Ericsson, Hill, & Asberg, 2004). Maddox (1963, p.14; as cited in Beer & Beer,
1992) asserted that study time and class attendance are important influences on success because
“Failure to attend classes is one obvious cause of poor performance …. Those who frequently cut
class were less likely to get high marks than those who were regular in their attendance”. Lahmers
and Zulauf (2000) found that the amount of time spent studying is also considered a key input, even
though past studies have yielded mixed findings regarding its statistical significance. Capella, Wagner
and Kusmierz (1982) reported a .46 Pearson correlation between GPA and study behavior. Britton
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and Tesser (1991) believed that good organization and goal setting (i.e., planning activities a week
or more in advance) created a more focused approach to studying and more efficient monitoring of
goal accomplishment. They found that self-management practices such as prioritizing tasks were
predictive of college students GPAs. Consistent with Britton and Tesser (1991), Lahmers & Zulauf’s
(2000) reported that both gender and time management were statistically related to GPA. The better
are the students’ time management skills, the higher are the students’ GPAs. Plant et. al. (2004) found
that students who indicated that they studied alone in an environment with less distractors, tended to
perform better both in the current semester and cumulatively, and percentage of classes attended as
a variable related with total amount of time was correlated with the participants’ current and cumula-
tive GPAs. It means that students who attended a higher percentage of their classes had higher GPAs,
consistent with the findings of Schuman, Walsh, Olson, and Etheridge (1985). Hinrichsen (1972) found
that the amount of effective study time (i.e., the number of uninterrupted minutes spent studying)
predicted GPA. In addition, Allen, Lerner & Hinrichsen, (1972) found that the number of interruptions
that students reported during studying was negatively correlated with GPA. These findings suggest
that studying environment is an important factor for high grade in college.
Pintrich and Garcia (1991) found that students who set goals, plan effectively and monitor goal
progress are more likely to achieve higher on knowledge tests than students who fail to engage in
these activities. Zimmerman (1994) suggested that time planning and management training helped
students to better self-regulate their use of study time and contribute to improving their results.
Consistently with the findings of Zimmerman (1994), Van Den Hurk (2006) found that students who
are better time-planners and who have better self-monitoring skills are more efficient in allocating
their individual study time, prepare more appropriately for tutorial group meetings, and score higher
on cognitive tests.
Another variable that affects college students’ achievement is gender. It is widely accepted that
females score higher on average than males on test of verbal abilities and that males score higher
on average than females on tests of mathematical ability (Halpern, 1996; Hyde, Fennema, & Lamon,
1990; Stumpf, 1995). However, these differences are small. The vast majority of the primary research
on gender differences has used small and unrepresentative samples, making it difficult to generalize
findings to the well-defined national populations (Mattehews, Ponitz, & Morrison, 2009). Nowell and
Hedges (1998) found that gender differences in mean and variance are for the most part very small
and have remained stable since 1960, with the possible exception of mean differences in mathemat-
ics and science. Even for the trends in science and mathematics that were statistically significant,
the rate of change is extremely low and certainly not practically significant. Paglin and Rufolo (1990)
suggested that quantitative ability (but not verbal ability) “accounts for the observed male-female
differences in earning and occupational choices of recent college graduates” (p. 123). Murray-Harvey
(1993) used path analysis to predict academic achievement of 423 education and nursing freshman
students. The model explained 44% of the variance in achievement, with metacognitive capability
being the best predictor of academic achievement (β = .45) and a significant contribution from student
gender, age, and approaches to learning.
Research Focus
This research aimed to predict student achievement in Scientific Research Method Course (SRMC)
at an undergraduate level. The dependent variable was the final examination results of the course.
Independent variables were: (1) Gender, (2) Length of studying time (in hours) to success the course
during semester, (3) the importance and necessity of the course perceived by students as a continuous
variable (requested from to participants to score the importance and necessity of the course from 0
to 100), (4) students’ attitudes toward the scientific research method course, (5) students’ attitudes
towards the instructor of the course, (6) students’ perceptions of competence in teaching methods
used for the course. The review of the literature revealed numerous variables affecting academic
achievement of students. Student, course characteristics, and teacher qualities are expected to predict
study time and grades, and also moderate the study time-grade association (Olivares, 2002).
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In the present research, the variables selected as independent variables were directly related
with teaching and/or classroom settings and instructor. Other independent variables were gender
and the length of studying time as previous research suggests that they significantly impact academic
achievement of college students. Family and sociocultural backgrounds of college students may af-
fect their academic achievement. Kaya & Büyükkasap (2005) and Akbayır (2003) reported that the
majority of students enrolled in the college of education in Turkey come from low or middle class.
Therefore, the study assumed that the students participating in this research have similar family and
sociocultural backgrounds. For this reason, family and sociocultural backgrounds of students were
not included in the model.
Another factor affecting academic achievement is intelligence. Students in the sample for this
study were studying in the same department, at the same level, and have enrolled in college after
passing a centralized, high stake, validated and reliable examination. Therefore, the students who
participated in this research were similar in terms of intelligence and academic achievement. That is
why family and sociocultural backgrounds and intelligence were not included as independent vari-
ables. However, the variables selected as independent variables for this research, could be viewed
as a limitation of this study.
The main hypothesis of the research is: gender, length of studying time, the importance and
necessity of the course, student attitude toward the course, students’ attitudes towards the instruc-
tor, and the competence in teaching methods will predict the student achievement at a statistically
significant level.
General Background of Research
The quantitative research method was used for his study. Quantitative research designs were
divided by Creswell (2005) into two broad categories: intervention research and non-intervention
research. The purpose of this non-intervention research was to analyze the relationships among
variables without intervention or manipulation. The model of this research is a correlation design that
does not require random selection of participants and does not manipulate variables or participants.
Correlational designs are appropriate when the researcher is interested in determining to what extent
two or more statistically measurable variables covary (Vogt, 2005). Fraenkel and Wallen (2009) defined
correlational research as a study that aims to determine the degree to which a relationship exists
between two or more variables. Creswell (2005) described two categories of correlational designs:
prediction and explanatory. Prediction correlational studies are appropriate once the relationship
between variables has been established and a researcher is interested in further examining how
one variable influences the others. So, it is possible to say that prediction correlation design is an
appropriate choice for this research. The study goal was to predict student achievement by selected
variables. In this study, the dependent variable is academic achievement of SRMC, whereas the in-
dependent (predictor) variables are (a) students’ attitudes towards the course, (b) students’ attitudes
toward the lecturer, (c) students’ perception of lecturer’s competency in teaching methods, (d) the
time spent to succeed in the course, and (e) students’ perceptions of the necessity and importance
of the level for the course.
Study Sample
The participants in this study were 198 sophomore college students (female=136,
male=62) enrolled in SRMC taught by the researcher at the Department of Primary School Teaching
at Celal Bayar University College of Education in the spring semester of 2012. All sophomore students
(N=198) who enrolled in the SRMC taught by researcher were included in the sample of this research.
In this study, “students’ attitudes towards the course”, “students’ attitudes towards the instructor” and
“students’ perception of the instructor’s competency in teaching methods” were used as independent
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variables related closely with the instructor who taught the course. Adding to the sample the students
of a different instructor could have impacted the statistical results. Therefore, the students of the same
class taught by a different instructor were not invited to participate in this research. The instrument
was administered after the final examination; the participation was voluntary. The students were
encouraged by the instructor to fill in the anonymous survey; the instructor offered clear explanation
to the students that this survey will not affect their grade for SRMC in any way.
Instruments and Procedures
The research instruments aimed to collect the data about: (1) students’ attitudes towards the
course, (2) students’ attitudes towards the instructor and (3) students’ perceptions of the lecturer’s
competency in teaching methods. All the scales were Likert Type. Additional to these instruments,
two more questions were asked addressing the (1) approximate total studying hours during the
semester to succeed in the SRMC and (2) the students’ perceptions of the necessity and importance
of the course for the teaching profession and their future life. The students were requested to give
points from 0 to 100; 0 was not necessary and 100 denoted completely necessary.
The data collection tool was developed based on the related literature and was evaluated for
content and face validity by the experts in the fields of university teaching and the measurement-
evaluation field. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used in this study. Exploratory
factor analysis (Schmitt, 2011) was conducted to examine the construct validity of each scale. Factor
analysis is a technique used to identify or confirm a smaller number of factors or latent constructs
from a large number of observed variables (or items) (Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). Factor loadings
greater than 0.60 are considered high, and above 0.30 are considered moderately high (Kline, 2000).
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used as an extraction method. PCA is one of the most com-
monly known and applied extraction methods (Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). Worthington and
Whittaker (2006) suggest to use Barlett’s test and KMO to examine the adequacy of sample. Tabachnic
and Fidell (2001) suggest that values of 0.60 and higher KMO are required for good factor analysis.
Alpha coefficient and item-total correlation were used to test instrument reliability.
Researchers typically use confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) after an instrument has already
been assessed using exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and they want to know if the factor structure
produced by EFA fits the data from a new sample. Worthington and Whittaker (2006) suggest that
rather than conducting CFA that would ultimately need to be followed by a second CFA, the most
logical approach would be to conduct an EFA followed by a CFA in all cases. Thus, when developing
new scales, researchers should conduct an EFA first, followed by CFA. This research used EFA followed
by CFA to examine the validity of the scales used. The details about the reliability and validity of the
instruments are explained below.
Students’ Attitudes towards the Course Scale (SAtCS)
This scale was developed by the researcher for the purposes of this study. It is a 5 point Likert Type
scale with response options: (1) strongly disagree, (2) disagree, (3) moderately agree, (4) agree, and
(5) strongly agree. SAtCS scale was initially composed of 19 items, 12 of them were positive and 7 of
them were negative. Due to the factor loadings of 3 items being below 0.40 and replacing in different
factor 3 items, a total of 6 items were deleted. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test value was .929 and the
Barlett’s test (<0.000) was significant for SAtCS. According to this result, it can be said that the data
were factorable. The factor loadings of SAtCS (including 13 items, 10 positive and 3 negative) values
ranged from 0.544 to 0.794. Thus, the items had high factor loadings. There was a single factor that
explained 49.2 % of the variance. Item-total correlations of SAtCS values ranged from 0.485 to 0.737.
Therefore, the item-total correlations were in moderate level. Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient
for the SAtCS was 0.911.
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Example items for SAtCS:

I prefer to get different course instead of SRMC.* (* = Negative item).
SRCM covers important and valuable topics.
SRCM will contribute to my working life.
Students’ Attitudes towards the Instructor Scale (SAtIS)
The scale was developed by the researcher. It is 5 point Likert Type scale and the response op-
tions were (1) strongly disagree, (2) disagree, (3) moderately agree, (4) agree, and (5) strongly agree.
SAtIS scale was initially composed of 12 items. All SAtIS items were positive. Due to 3 items having
below 0.40 factor loadings, and replacing in different factor 1 item, a total of 4 items were not included
in the analysis. KMO test value was 0.849 and the Barlett’s test (<0.000) was significant for SAtIS.
Therefore, the data was factorable. The factor loadings values of SAtIS (including 8 positive items)
ranged from 0.606 to 0.771. Thus, the items had high factor loadings. There was a single factor that
explained 49.5% of the variance. Item-total correlations of SAtIS values ranged from 0.526 to 0.683
showing that item-total correlations were moderate; the Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient for
the SAtIS was 0.868.
Example items for SAtIS:

The instructor had a good impression on me.
I want to take one more course from this instructor.
The instructor is open to criticism.
Competency in the Teaching Methods Scale (CTMS)
The students’ perceptions of the instructor’s competency in teaching methods scale was de-
veloped by the researcher for this study. It was a 5 point Likert Type scale and the response options
were (1) strongly disagree, (2) disagree, (3) moderately agree, (4) agree, and (5) strongly agree. CTMS
was initially composed of 14 items. Due to an item factor loading below 0.40 one item was deleted.
KMO test value was .887 and the Barlett’s test (<0.000) was significant for the CTMS. According to
this result, it can be said that the data is factorable. The factor loadings of CTMS (including 13 items)
values ranged from 0.553 to 0.798. Thus, the items had high factor loadings. There was a single fac-
tor explaining 43.06 % of the variance. Item-total correlations of the CTMS values ranged from 0.464
to 0.721. It is possible to say that item-total correlations were moderate. Cronbach’s Alpha reliability
coefficient for the CTMS was 0.884.
Example items for CTMS:

The lecturer used his voice effectively
The course was fulfilled effectively
The student was motivated for the research
The course topics were demonstrated by examples
Results including incremental, absolute, and predictive fit index for confirmatory factor analysis
of the scales used in this research are presented in the Table 1.
According to Kline (2005), a minimum collection of these types of fit indices to report would
consist of (a) the chi-square test statistic with corresponding degrees of freedom and level of signifi-
cance, (b) the RMSEA with its corresponding 90% confidence interval, (c) the Comparative Fit Index
(CFI), and (d) the SRMR.
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Table 1. Results of confirmatory factor analysis of the scales.
Scales
Incremental, Absolute and Predictive Fit Index
SAtCS SAtIS CTMS
Chi-squarre / df tario 2,75 3,46 3,2

Root Mean-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) 0.095 0.11 0.11
Root Mean Square Residual (RMR) 0.056 0.059 0.07
Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI) 0.88 0.91 0.86
Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI) 0.83 0.84 0.80
Nonnormed Fit Index (NNFI) 0.96 0.93 0.94
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) 0.97 0.95 0.95
Researchers (Beauducel & Wittmann, 2005; Marsh, Hau, & Wen, 2004) have commonly interpreted the
range of different cutoff values for fit indices suggested in the structural equation modeling literature: (a)
acceptable fit: root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) ≤ 0.08, standardized root-mean-square
residual (SRMR) ≤ 0.09, and comparative fit index (CFI) ≈ 0.90; (b) good fit: RMSEA ≤ 0.05 (or 90% confidence
interval [CI] of the RMSEA including 0.05), SRMR ≤ 0.09, and CFI ≥ 0.95 Results in the Table 1 show that
SAtCS, SAtIS and CTMMS scales have acceptable incremental, absolute and predictive fit indexes.
Data Analysis
The data gathered by SAtCS, SAtIS, CTMS scales have been analyzed by the SPSS (Version 20).
In order to see how accurately the selected independent variables could predict student academic
achievement in SRMC, Multiple Linear Regression analysis was used. For the gender variable, “female”
was coded as 1, and “male” was coded as 0. The dependent variable was student achievement whereas
the independent (predictor) variables were students’ attitudes towards the course, and toward the lec-
turers, students’ perceptions of the competency in teaching methods, the total amount of time (hours)
spent to succeed in the course, students’ perceptions of the importance and necessity of the course.
The scales were administered after the final examination of SRMC. The index of kurtosis and skewness
for SAtCS and SAtIS scales was between +1 and -1, which is considered excellent. The skewness index
of CTMS scale was -0.86 and kurtosis index of CTMS scale was 1.66, which is considered acceptable
(George & Mallery, 2001). The results for this indicate that parametric statistic procedures to analyze
the data were appropriate.
Results of Research
Basic descriptive statistics about the data collected for this research are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Descriptive statistic for key variables.
Minimum Maximum
Name of the Variables n X SD
Score Score
Academic Achievement for SRMC 198 31 100 64.70 12,66

Total Studying Hours (TSH) 198 1 60 15.73 11.72
The necessity and Importance of the Course (NIC) 198 20 100 71.78 14.72
Attitudes towards the Course (ATC) 198 26 65 44.31 8.53
Attitudes towards the Instructor (ATI) 198 18 45 36.77 5.14
Competency in Teaching Methods (CTM) 198 20 65 50.72 7.34
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As it can be seen from Table 2, academic achievement score and the perception of the necessity
and importance of the course are in moderate level whereas total studying hours during semester to
succeed SRMC does not seem adequate. It seems that undergraduate students in this sample did not
study enough for SRMC. The average mean for attitude towards SRMC (X= 44.31 / 13= 3.41); competency
in teaching methods (X= 50.72 / 13 = 3.9) and the attitudes towards the instructor (X= 36.77 / 9 = 4.09)
were mostly positive.
Initial Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) analysis was used to predict SRMC achievement as a de-
pendent variable while the independent variables were TSH, NIC, ATC, ATI, CTM and gender. The results
of the regression analysis are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. The results of the multiple regression analysis predicting students achievement in
SRMC.
Zero-order
Variable B Std. Error β t p Partial r
r
Constant 33.163 6.549 5.064 0.000
TSH 0.395 0.073 0.348 5.435 0.000 0.480 0.367
NIC 0.132 0.061 0.154 2.168 0.031 0.402 0.155
ATC 0.416 0.123 0.279 3.376 0.001 0.453 0.238
ATI 0.224 0.208 0.091 1.074 0.284 0.203 0.078
CTM -0.220 0.153 -0.128 -1.439 0.152 0.178 -0.104
Gender 0.610 1.609 0.022 0.379 0.705 0.042 0.027
As the results shown in Table 3 demonstrate, the R= 0.593, R2= 0.352 and adjusted R2= 0.331, p=
0.000. Results show that 33 % of the total variance was accounted for by these variables. As it can be
seen from the t test results, TSH, NIC, ATC are significant predictors of SRMC achievement while ATI,
CTM and gender are not.
Stepwise Regression was then used to assess which independent variables made a significant
contribution to predicting the academic achievement in SRMC. Through Stepwise Regression, it was
possible to determine which variables significantly predicted academic achievement of SRMC as well
as to determine how much each variable contributed to the total variance (see Table 4).
Table 4. Stepwise regression analysis for predictors of academic achievement in SRMC.
Std. Adjusted R sq.

Model Predictors B β t p R R2
Error R2 Change
Constant 56.198 1.374 40.91 0.000 0.480 0.230 0.226 0.230

1
TSH 0.544 0.071 0.480 7.636 0.000
Constant 36.614 3.989 9.180 0.000
2 TSH 0.416 0.071 0.367 5.837 0.000 0.569 0.324 0.317 0.094
ATC 0.487 0.094 0.326 5.189 0.000
Constant 31.909 4.391 7.268 0.000
TSH 0.388 0.071 0.342 5.438 0.000
3 0.587 0.344 0.334 0.020
ATC 0.370 0.104 0.248 3.541 0.000
NIC 0.144 0.059 0.168 2.427 0.016
Note: The symbols used in the table are: TSH: Total study in hours, ATC: Attitudes towards the course; NIC: The necessity
and importance of the course perceived by students.
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As it can be seen from Table 4, in the first model, TSH accounted for 22.6 % of the total variance in
academic achievement of SRMC (R= 0.48, R2 = 0.23). In other words, Total Studying Hours (TSH) was the
most effective independent variable to predict the academic achievement in SRMC. There is a moderate
level positive correlation between TSH and academic achievement in SRMC (r = 0,48). This result shows
that the more the students study, the more their academic achievement will increase.
In the second regression model (Table 4), ATC was added to TSH as the predictors of academic
achievement of SRMC. Notably, the variance in academic achievement of SRMC rose from 22.3 % to
31.7 % (R= 0.569, R2= 0.317). It means that ATC contributed to the overall variance an additional 9.4 %.
In this model, the correlation coefficient between TSH and academic achievement in SRCM is positive
and at a moderate level (r = 0.387), while the other independent variable ATC controlled this coefficient
slightly decreasing correlation to (r = 0.345) and remaining at the same significance level. Another cor-
relation coefficient in this model (between ATC and academic achievement in SRMC) is positive and at
a moderate level (r = 0.349) while the other independent variable TSH controlled this coefficient slightly
decreasing the correlation to (r = 0.306) and remaining at the same significance level. It means that if a
student has a more positive attitude, he or she is likely to be a high achiever.
In the third, regression model (Table 4), NIC added to TSH and ATC as predictors of academic achieve-
ment of SRMC. As a result of the final model, the variance in academic achievement in SRMC increased
from 31.7 % to 33.4 % (R= 0.569, R2= 0.334). It means that NIC contributed to the overall variance an
additional 2 %. In this model, the correlation coefficient between TSH and academic achievement of
SRMC is positive and moderate (r = 0.365) while other independent variables ATC and NIC controlled
this coefficient slightly decreasing the correlation to (r = 0.317) and remaining at the same significance
level. Another correlation coefficient in this model between ATC and academic achievement of SRMC
is positive and at a low level (r = 0.247) while other independent variables TSH and ATC controlled this
coefficient slightly decreasing the correlation to (r = 0.206) and keeping the same significance level. The
other correlation coefficient in this model between NIC and academic achievement in SRMC is positive
and at a low level (r = 0.172) while other independent variables TSH and ATC controlled this coefficient
slightly decreasing the correlation to (r = 0.141) and keeping the same significance level.
In the final model of predicting academic achievement in SRMC, the independent variables TSH,
ATC, and NIH were statistically significant while ATI, CTM and gender were non-significant variables. The
regression model was significant [F (3, 193) = 33.74; p < 0.001] and yielded an adjusted R2 of 0.334. Multiple
regression analyses accounted for 33.4 % of academic achievement of SRMC. Thus, the regression equa-
tion for the academic achievement in SRMC is = 31.909 Constant + 0.388 TSH + 0.370 ATC + 0.144 NIC.
Discussion
This research contributes to the discourse surrounding college students academic achievement
initiated by the previous studies by examining different variables as predictors of student attainment.
A research done by Fuligni (1997) to predict academic achievement of adolescents from immigrant
families used these variables as independents: their perceptions of (1) their parents’ aspirations for their
future educational attainment and (2) the academic support they received from their peers, (3) their
subject-specific values (math or English) and (4) their reports of the amount of time they spent studying
each week. Each of these constructs evidenced significant bivariate relations with students’ achieve-
ment. Students’ grade level, gender, language use, and socio-economic status were also included in the
analyses, but their results are not presented as they changed only slightly from the estimates presented
earlier. Fuligni (1997) found that students’ values and study time independently predicted their level of
achievement consistent with result of this research.
Students may seek a satisfactory balance between study time and grades, whereby study time
and grades may be influenced not only by the student characteristics (e.g., cognitive ability), but also
by the course (e.g., difficulty) and teacher characteristics (e.g., grade inflation and teacher effectiveness)
(Olivares, 2002). One of the important earlier studies conducted by Schuman et al. (1985) found a weak,
yet reliable relationship between the reported study time and student grades. Similarly, Michaels and
Miethe (1989) found a small (r = 0.18, p <0.01) relationship between reported study and GPA. Rau and
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Durand (2000) found that the amount of study hours was reliably related to GPA (r = .23, p < 0.001) for
an Illinois State University sample; the real benefits were only seen for students studying over 14 hours
per week (about 25% of the ISU students in the sample). A similar finding was reported by Plant and at al.
(2004) who found that study time emerged as a significant predictor of GPA, indicating that higher study
time was associated with a higher GPA, [F(1, 74) = 5.94, p < 0.02 (b = 0.24)]. When considering cumulative
GPA, the overall amount of study time only emerged as a significant predictor of performance when
the quality of the study environment and scholastic aptitude at the college entry (SAT) were included in
the regression equation. Thus, it appears that the amount of study time may only emerge as a reliable
factor that determines performance when the quality of study time and the students’ SAT scores are
also taken into consideration (Plant et al., 2004). Hurk, Wolfhagen, Dolmans and Vleuten (1999) found
that students who go beyond the learning issues and spend more time on the individual study also
achieve better on the knowledge tests. Reynolds and Walberg (1992) found that instructional time was
one of the greatest predictors of science achievement in grade 11 along with prior achievement, home
environment, and exposure to mass media through reading.
The research by Fuligni and Stevenson (1995) conducted in three locations: Minneapolis (USA),
Taipei (Taiwan) and Sendai (Japan) among students aged 16-17 (grade 11 students) found similar results
in all three locations. The time spend on studying was positively related to the students’ scores, while
the times spent working, watching television, and being with friends were negatively related. When the
researcher regressed on the students’ mathematics scores, a moderate but highly significant percentage
of variance was predicted by the various indices of time use in all three locations. The R2 for Minneapolis
was 0.27; for Taipei, 0.26; and for Sendai, 0.20, all ps were < 0.001. The amount of time spent studying,
as reflected in the significant betas, was related to scores on the mathematics tests in Sendai (0.23) and
Taipei (0.18), but, surprisingly, not in Minneapolis (0.04). In the Turkish context, Ilgan and Kiranli (2008)
found that the length of study time explained 15 % of variance in academic achievement of college
student in the university classroom management course.
The results of this research show that the total amount of study time to succeed in the course
significantly predicted academic achievement of SRCM among college students consistent with related
previous research results (Bachman & Schulenberg, 1993; Fuligni and Stevenson, 1995; Fuligni, 1997;
Schuman et al, 1985; Greenberg & Steinberg, 1986; Hurk, Wolfhagen, Dolmans and Vleuten, 1999; Ilgan
& Kıranlı, 2008), Larson, 1983; Leone & Richards, 1989; Michaels and Mieth, 1989; Plant et al., 2004; Rau
and Durand, 2000), whereas other researchers interested in the relationship between the weekly amount
of the reported study time and grade point average (GPA) for college students found weak or unreliable
relationship (Beer & Beer, 1992; Lahmers & Zulauf, 2000; Schuman et al, 1985).
This research showed that students’ attitudes towards the course served as a predictor of aca-
demic achievement of college students consistent with earlier research from other countries (Hammer,
2000; Hussain, 2006; Ma & Xu, 2004; Okpala, 2001; Papanastasiou & Papanastasiou, 2004; Redish, 2003;
Sarwar, Bashir & Alam, 2010; Simonson & Maushak, 1996) that found a positive correlation between
students’ attitude and academic achievement. Matthew et al. (2011) concluded that the attitude toward
mathematics was the predictor of the mathematic grade and Lipnevich, MacCann, Krumm, Burrus and
Roberts (2011) results showed that attitudes toward mathematics explained between 25% and 32% of
the variance in mathematics achievement among 8th graders in the samples from the USA and Belarus,
consistent with the result of this research. A meta-analysis that investigated the relationship between
the attitudes toward mathematics and mathematics achievement that consisted of 113 original stud-
ies showed a positive relationship between mathematics attitudes and mathematics performance,
with a longitudinal model suggesting that mathematics attitudes actually constitute a causal factor in
mathematics achievement (Ma & Kishor, 1997). Marjoribanks (1987) found that for the middle-status
family group boys’ ability and affective attitudes were related to over 30 % of the variation in math-
ematics scores; for the lower status families, these relations ranged from 15 % to 24%. Alrwais (2000)
found that best predictor of mathematic achievement was the students’ attitude toward mathematics
learning. However, it cannot be concluded that positive attitude always results in high achievement in
mathematics. For example, Kiely (1990, as cited in Atnafu, 2010) showed that on average, a small number
of pupils who were not very good in mathematics obtained high scores in the attitude test. Addition-
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ally to these, Atnafu (2010) found a weak relationship between achievement in algebra and each of
the five components of attitude such as confidence, usefulness, enjoyment, subject that is perceived
as a male domain, and teacher expectations including the attitude toward algebra. The contribution
of all components collectively that is confidence, usefulness, enjoyment, subject that is perceived as a
male domain, and teacher expectations in algebra significantly affected the achievement of students
in algebra. The contribution of confidence was significant on the achievement variable, but the other
components, usefulness, enjoyment, subject perceived as a male domain, and teacher expectations were
not significant predictors of the achievement variable. As discussed above, some researchers found the
relationship between academic achievement and attitudes whereas some did not.
The necessity and importance of how the course was perceived by the students was one of the
predictors of the academic achievement in this research indirectly related to and consistent with the
research done by Simkins, Davis-Kean, & Eccles, (2006) who found that math interest inventory for the
6th grade students was a limited predictor of 10th grade math students. Abu-Hilal (2000) found that
students’ perceptions of the importance of mathematics exerted a significant effect on achievement,
which is consistent with result of this research.
Brophy (1985) emphasized that gender differences in academic achievement were declining and
might eventually disappear. Murray-Harvey (1993) and Zeegers (2004) found that gender had no effect
on academic achievement of college students, which is consistent with the findings of this research.
Additionally, Hacket, Betz, Casas and Rocha-Singh (1992) observed few gender differences among col-
lege students in terms of academic achievement in their research, although women had higher high
school GPAs, college GPAs, or a self-efficacy expectation, which is also aligned with the results of this
research. Similarly to Brophy, Marsh (1989b) provided additional support for the diminishing gender
differences in math and English achievement in a comparison of scores from several large, nationally
representative studies of the U.S. high school students in the 1970s and the early 1980s (as cited in
Marsh & Yeung, 1998).
The research has some limitations. The variables measured as independent variables are not exactly
independent of one another. Another issue is the generalizability of the findings, as this study conducted
at a single institution, in one department and based on a course taught by one lecturer. Therefore, it may
not be fully generalizable to other settings. Furthermore, the variables selected for this study may have
omitted other significant predictors of student attainment that should be accounted for in predicting
student achievement.
Conclusion
As it is stated in the results’ section, the total study hours was the most significant variable that
explained academic achievement of college students in SRMC. As Lahmers & Zulauf (2000) stated fol-
lowing conventional wisdom, the time spent studying is expected to be positively related to academic
performance. But the literature review revealed the association between academic achievements and
studying time was inconsistent.
The study time-grade association literature has provided conflicting findings: some researchers
have found a positive association, others a negative association, and yet others no association between
the study time and grades. The research by Landrum, Turissi & Brandel (2006) conducted among college
students revealed that along with the study time A and B students had different adaptive strategies
of studying than C and D students. Thus, it is not correct to explain studying time as an independent
variable to predict academic achievement excluding studying strategies of students as it is stated in
the Landrum’s et al. study.
Beer & Beer’s (1992) research recorded over six years the number of hours and minutes they spent in
each undergraduate and graduate class and the number of hours and minutes they spent outside of class
reading, writing, and studying for the test and class. The results showed that the class hours correlated
significantly and negatively with grades whereas there were no significant correlation found between
home study hours (M = 38.2; SD = 29.4, n = 45) and grades (M = 3.9, SD= .3, n = 45; r = 0.09, p > 0.05).
Further, Beer and Beer found that both home study and grades were influenced by the number of course
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hours taken per semester. Taking more hours in demanding graduate courses tended to lower GPA.
Schuman’s et al.’s (1985) research revealed a week but marginally significant association between
GPA and hours studied hours. This relation was not strengthened by standardizing for credit hour load
during the term, nor by taking into account the responses to a further question on whether recent
amount of study time had changed as compared to earlier in the term. In addition, there was no other
variable in Schuman’s et al.’s survey that shows association with both hours studied and GPA that its
inclusion in the prediction equation noticeably improved the relation.
Lahmers and Zulauf’s (2000) research revealed that GPA increased only 0.025 points per additional
study hour per week whereas the present research found that academic achievement in SRMC increased
0.388 point per additional study hour during the semester (the highest point was 100 whereas the least
point was 0). For the average student in Lahmers and Zulauf’s study, to rise his or her quarterly GPA by one
letter grade, the estimated coefficient implies that study time would need to be increased by 26 hours.
The research by Landrum et al. (2006) conducted with college students revealed that the examination
of the means indicated that upper-division students studied more than twice of minutes per week (M
= 529.5 minutes, SE = 54) than did lower division students (M = 252.5 min., SE = 17.4). Another result of
this research was that means indicated students who received As (M = 9.6, SE = 0.9) reported studying
significantly more often (twice) than students who received Bs (M = 3.8, SE = 0.8), Cs (M = 4.5, SE = 0.3)
or Ds (M = 4.5, SE = 0.2). There was also the main effect for time (F(1,136) = 11.36, p < 0.005, n2 = 0.08).
Students studied more later (M = 441.4 min., SE = 37) than earlier in the semester (M = 340.7 min., SE
= 26.2). Lahmers and Zulauf’s (2000) research revealed that GPAs and class meeting times were factors
that positively influenced the amount of study time; also, holding a job reduces study time, but only by
0.2 hours for each additional hour.
In this research, ATI was a non-significant variable in explaining academic achievement. one of
the reasons may be that attitude may affect academic achievement in elementary, middle and high
school, but not at the college level. The effect of attitude on achievement may decrease when the grade
increases. This research was conducted with students attending the college of education and have high
responsibility. Due to students’ sense of responsibility they may not be affected by attitudes toward
instructors during the course, especially in midterm and final exams. In addition, the CTM was another
non-significant variable like ATI in this research. Due to taking the course from the same instructor, the
students participated in this research were exposed to same teaching method. Therefore, non-significance
of CTM in predicting academic achievement in SRMC could be supposed an expected result.
Finally to as a result of this study it is possible to suggest for college students in science courses to
increase the academic achievement as following: 1) Students should study more. 2) Attitude of students
towards course should be increased by lecturer during course. 3) Perception of the students about
necessity and importance of the course should be increased by the lecturer during course.
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Received: December 05, 2012 Accepted: May 05, 2013
Abdurrahman Ilgan Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Manisa Celal Bayar University, Faculty of
Education Demirci, Manisa, Turkey.
E-mail: abdurrahmanilgan@gmail.com
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ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF
BIOLOGICAL COGNITIVE
KNOWLEDGE
Miriam Muscat, Abstract. Classroom-based science teach-

ing tends to be dominated by teaching
Paul Pace
that stifles the students’ natural curiosity
and eagerness to discover their surround-
ings. Knowledge makes sense to students
particularly when it is learned within the
context of an authentic experience. Thus
classroom-based science needs to be com-
Introduction
plimented by out-of-classroom activities
which offer direct and relevant informa-
In today’s society, science education has a large responsibility
tion that influences students’ learning.
to promote public understanding of science, prepare students to
Students build new knowledge on already
work in a scientific and technological world and provide scientifi-
existing schema, thus it is important for
cally literate citizens equipped with reasoning and literacy skills
both teacher and students to question
needed by 21st century citizens, able to take informed decisions
and evaluate their knowledge to be able
and deal with scientific issues (Woolnough, 1998). Millar & Osborne
to build on solid grounds. This paper il-
(1998) acknowledge that a reform in the science curriculum and
lustrates examples of meta-cognitive tools
delivery system needs to be implemented so as to meet the needs
(i.e. Vee diagrams and concept maps) used
and demands of a changing world and address and hold the inter-
before and after site-visits to explore the
est of all the students, rather than a little minority who aim to be
contribution of out-of-classroom activi-
future scientists. This paradigm shift involves giving students the
ties to the students’ biological cognitive
opportunity to build their own meaning and understanding of their
development. This research shows that
surroundings through authentic science experiences.
site-visits are a necessary part of science
Rather than rooting science teaching in the classroom, it
learning because they help students devel-
should be acknowledged that learning is not confined to school
op observational and reasoning skills, link
hours but is a continuous and lifelong process. Much of what is
biology to personal life experiences and
learned in formal settings is built on cognitive frameworks con-
contextualise inert classroom knowledge,
structed during informal experiences and these activities affect the
making it more meaningful and easier to
students’ ability at school and their functioning in society (Gerber,
remember.
Cavallo & Marek, 2001).
Access to community resources, such as science centres, Key words: concept maps, meta-cognitive
museums, botanical gardens, libraries and work with non-gov- tools, out-of-classroom activities, site-
ernmental organisations (NGOs) and community organisations visits, Vee diagrams.
offers accurate, current and relevant information that makes sci-
ence more valid and stimulating for the students (Falk & Dierking,
2000). These experiences help students grow into self-confident,
autonomous, socially-minded learners who integrate their personal Miriam Muscat, Paul Pace
and public science knowledge by building on their personal expe- University of Malta, Malta
riences through genuine exploration (Woolnough, 1998; Braund
& Reiss, 2006a).
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Much of the information required in daily life is not textbook bound, but is topic specific and highly
influenced by the individual’s career needs and interests. Given that school is not the primary source of
knowledge for learners and that students can obtain information from a vast array of resources, even
before they start school, out-of-classroom activities play a fundamental role in providing a diverse and
innovative style of learning, by providing direct experiences of concrete phenomena, real objects and
persons, helping students to contextualise scientific knowledge and understanding and contributing
to science learning as schools do.
Brighouse (as cited in May, Richardson & Banks, 1993, p.2) claims that ‘one lesson outdoors is worth
seven inside’. Out-of-classroom activities that complement classroom practice expose students to the
actual world (fieldwork), the presented world (visits to botanic gardens) and the virtual world (watching
videos) (Braund & Reiss, 2006b). This helps give a faithful picture of science at work, scientists in action
and how science can help to solve real-life problems.
Piaget (as cited in Gerber, Cavallo & Marek, 2001) explains that direct experience, cognitive conflict
and social interaction help learners construct knowledge, helping them to interpret the external world
in terms of their current schemas, reinforce existing knowledge and build additional knowledge. Dewey
(1938) gives central importance to direct experience which drives learners to question and investigate.
Interest-triggered learning activities facilitate the transition from lower-order learning like simple
memorisation to higher order cognitive learning strategies needed to tackle abstract concepts (Orion,
1993; Krapp, 2002). Situational interest created on site is emotional in nature and even though it can
have a short term impact on the learner, it can gradually develop into personal interest which facilitates
understanding and integration of concepts that are more long-term (Pavin & Stephenson, 2004; Uitto,
Juuti, Lavonen & Meisalo, 2006).
Learning on site (i.e. learning outside the classroom on chosen premises) is different from learn-
ing in any other setting, due to the unique nature of the experience and the multiple stimuli to which
students are exposed (Falk & Dierking, 2004). The diversity offered during out-of-classroom activities
not only engages learners with different strengths and interests, but it also provides opportunities for
students to learn in multiple modes, reflecting Gardner’s pluralistic view of the mind (1993). Oppenheimer
(1986, p.6) ‘views a science museum as a collection of props that constitute an interlocking web of mini
curricula’, where sensory modes of experience including visual, auditory, tactile, smell and even taste
attract different learning patterns (Borun & Dritsas, 1997).
Each individual’s experience is unique and depends on a collection of factors ranging from the
multiple histories which form the character, behaviour and learning style of the student (Falk, 2004) to
the group interactions on site, prior knowledge, reasons for visiting the site and what is done before
and after the visit. In the words of Falk & Dierking (2002) ‘learning begins with the individual. Learning
involves others. Learning takes place somewhere’ (p.36). These statements capture the contextual
model of learning which consists of 3 overlapping contexts:
1. personal (learner’s background: previous experiences, interests and current understanding
of the topic);
2. physical (layout of the venue and labelling available); and
3. sociocultural (interactions with other people).
The learner’s agenda is dominant in such sites and determines the level of involvement in the activ-
ity. Shortland (1987) argues that clashing students’ and teachers’ agendas make it difficult to reconcile
learning and entertainment and sustains that ‘when education and entertainment are brought together,
education will be the loser’ (p. 213). Falk, Coulson & Moussouri. (1998) counter argue that a mixture
of motivation for education and entertainment provides the most significant learning gains. Intrinsic
motivation evoked by personal interest, the joy of the experience itself and having learners emotionally
involved in the experience provide more cognitive gains than extrinsic motivation like passing an exam
(Salmi 1993 as cited in Braund & Reiss, 2006b; Csikszentmihalyi & Hermanson, 1995).
Out of classroom activities are an effective tool to enhance academic learning not only to break the
monotony of sitting passively reading and writing, but because students are engaged in visual and kin-
aesthetic modalities simultaneously. The more channels are provided for students to connect to personal
experiences the more is long-term memory facilitated (Woerner, 1999). Facing new experiences helps
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each learner retrieve past experiences from memory and reconstruct knowledge making better mean-
ing of past and present concepts (Rennie, Feher, Dierking & Falk, 2003). Learning is a lifelong process;
it does not begin and end with the site-visit itself and students may understand future experiences by
linking them to knowledge acquired on site.
It is wrong to assume that a topic, once covered in class, will be permanently stored in memory
and available in other contexts. In class, most topics are taught in a decontextualised setting and most
of the information given remains meaningless to students. Given that learning is so context-dependant,
out-of-classroom settings provide a means to facilitate the transfer of knowledge to different contexts
so as to relate what is being covered in class to a relevant physical context.
This research explored if out-of-classroom activities complementing classroom practices enhanced

learning and understanding of biological concepts among sixteen year old students and observed their
attitudes towards sites of biological importance.
The research tools used during this exploratory research included meta-cognitive tools, namely Vee
diagrams and concept mapping, together with class discussions and interviews. Eighteen students took
part in this research. Due to time constraints, only four students were interviewed and each interview
was later transcribed. Interviews and class discussions allowed more indepth understanding of the
students’ cognitive development throughout the process.
The original Vee presented by Gowin was judged difficult to tackle with students; new to this
procedure, thus a simpler version of the Vee, devised by Ahlberg & Ahoranta (2002), was used for this
study (Figure 1). Concepts maps were constructed by the students before and after each site visit and
biological knowledge in both was compared.
The criterion for choosing the sites was mainly based on whether the site’s theme fitted the topic
being tackled in class. A visit to the greenhouses was organised when ‘nutrition in plants’ was tackled
and a visit to the blood bank was linked to ‘transport in humans’.
Dillon (2006 p.110), points out that “to be effective, fieldwork needs to be carefully planned,
thoughtfully implemented and followed up back at school”. Thus, before each site-visit the premises
were visited and the persons in charge (guides) were briefed about the students’ current knowledge,
their misconceptions and the aims of the visit. This helped the guides feel more self-confident with
post-secondary school students and allowed them time to plan beforehand the points that needed to
be addressed during the visit.
Figure 1: Vee diagram used during this research
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In preparation for the implementation of the research methodology, the first scholastic semester
was used to help the students familiarise themselves with concept maps by drawing simple concept
maps related to topics they were familiar with. Data collection started during the second semester and
involved three main stages, which are described below:
Pre-visit Activity
Students were introduced to the focus question and were given the questions forming part of the
planning phase (left-hand side) of the Vee diagram, which included drawing a pre-visit concept map.
Worksheets were collected and a class discussion was carried out to obtain immediate feedback from
the students and four students were interviewed.
Implementation Phase
Each visit was planned for about two hours in the morning; enough for the guide to provide all the
necessary information and tour us around the premises, yet short enough to prevent students getting
annoyed and lose interest due to hunger or tiredness.
Post-visit Activity
A class discussion probing into the students’ feelings and reactions was carried out immediately
after each visit. The students were given the questions forming part of the evaluation phase of the Vee
(right-hand side), which included drawing a post-visit concept map. The same four students were re-
interviewed. The pre and post visit concept map of each student was then compared and analysed.
Research Results
One immediate result observed during the class discussions was that different students were at-
tracted by different aspects of the visit and had varying opinions on issues which emerged from the
visit. In the following section, the development of biological knowledge will be discussed through some
of the students’ concept maps and Vee diagrams.
Students Attitudes towards Site-visits
Prior to experiencing their first visit, none of the students considered an out-of-classroom activity as
a possible source of further information in question 3 of their Vee diagrams (see Figure 10). The majority
of students considered ‘experiments’ as a possible source of information. They explained procedures
that they may have carried out during their secondary education course since no practical work is car-
ried out at intermediate level and these procedures were not mentioned in class. Students could not
suggest other innovative sources of information to learn more about plants. Further discussion in class
led students to broaden their spectrum of ideas and they eventually mentioned ‘asking people at plant
research centres’ and ‘visiting nature reserves’.
For the other visit, students ignored the existence of a blood bank and linked blood donation to
mobile units that travel from village to village. Possible venues suggested by the students to learn more
about blood included visits to hospitals or inviting surgeons to talk about their experiences in class.
After the visits, students explained that direct observations on the premises, watching the processes
‘really taking place’ was better that ‘watching a film’. ‘Living the atmosphere’ on site, ‘watching people at
work’ and using the senses made the topics ‘more interesting and easy to remember’ than sitting passively
in class taking notes. Moreover, certain issues would have been impossible to learn in class. Students
said that the visit to the greenhouses helped them consider the world of plants more positively and
that the guide’s anecdotes – obtained through years of experience – provided insights that could not
be found in books.
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Students’ Images of the Premises
Most of the students’ ideas about both sites were influenced by hearsay, TV episodes of popular
programmes and pictures they watched on internet, books or magazines.
The ideas about greenhouses ranged from their structure to the practices carried out inside them.
Students imagined greenhouses to be ‘always closed’, like a ‘controlled environment where you can adjust
yourself’, where ‘the amount of light can be amplified’, ‘humidity and temperature are controlled’ and where
‘farmers use sensors to increase the carbon dioxide levels’. Some students thought that inside a greenhouse
no pesticides are used since there are no pests; ‘plants grow in rows which can be easily accessed’; ‘different
kinds of fruit can grow out of season’ and that ‘only vegetables are grown’ since flowers ‘would be grown
outside because of pollination and direct sunlight’
The students generally had a negative image of the blood bank. They considered it a kind of
hospital where doctors and scientists work in an impersonal atmosphere, a ‘depressive place’ where the
blood donation process is lengthy and where ‘people have a lot of bruises after giving blood’.
After the visit, the students’ ideas of both premises changed. They realised that greenhouses are
used to grow both vegetables and flowers; that greenhouses can be left open to allow ventilation to
take place and that insects can enter inside the greenhouse to aid pollination. They were surprised at
the friendly atmosphere at the blood bank where ‘they (nurses) welcome you and talk to you, then you can
eat and drink’. Though they remarked that the nurse may have used this activity as a marketing exercise,
they were fascinated by the guides’ enthusiasm describing them as ‘nice and dedicated’, carrying out
their work ‘with passion’ and explaining their job in a ‘friendly and down to earth’ way.
Development of Cognitive Knowledge at the Greenhouses
Comparing the pre and post visit concept maps it was clear that after each visit, new concept and
propositions were included, details were added to already existing concepts while unnecessary state-
ments written in the pre-visit concept map were omitted and misconceptions were often cleared out.
This indicated not only that learning had taken place but that the meaning of already existing concepts
was extended. Concepts that were not new to the students were included and integrated showing that
the visits helped students see links with previously learned knowledge that was previously considered
unimportant.
Prior to the site-visit, the conditions needed by plants to grow, most commonly mentioned by the
students were factors associated with photosynthesis. Joanna (Figure 2) included ‘carbon dioxide’, ‘light’
and ‘water’ but showed difficulty in expressing concepts related to plants. Kevin (Figure 3) tried to add
further detail related to plants from other modules including ‘carnivorous plants’. He added a lot of detail
related to photosynthesis, influenced by the material being tackled in class at that time, including the
raw materials needed, the products and their use by plants and mentioned the ‘Calvin cycle’ indicating
knowledge of the light independent reaction of photosynthesis. He further added details to concepts
such as glucose ‘stored as starch’ and ‘diffusion of gases’. Though most of these concepts were correct,
they did not pertain to the focus question given.
After the visit, students realised that a greenhouse can offer ideal conditions for plants to grow.
Joanna (Figure 4) explained that greenhouses offer plants ‘protection from weather conditions like rain’,
stated that greenhouses ‘protect the plants from heavy rain, tough winds and high temperatures’. In her
concept map she included ‘ventilation’, ‘right nutrients’ and ‘right temperature’ as further conditions
plants need to grow. She distinguished between natural and artificial light which affect the flowering
process and showed awareness of precautions the farmer needs to adopt to ensure suitable conditions
for plants, including the issue of ‘condensation’ which the farmer explained is harmful to plants and the
issue of ‘biological control’ which the farmer explained as preferring to chemical control which can induce
pests to become resistant to pesticides. The idea of sentinel plants fascinated students who had never
thought about this method of controlling pests.
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Figure 2: Joanna’s pre-visit concept map
Figure 3: Kevin’s pre-visit concept map
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The majority of students showed awareness of the importance of a fertile soil, mentioning specific
minerals needed by plants such as ‘phosphates for roots’, ‘potassium for the colour of flowers’ and ‘nitro-
gen for young plants’. Kevin (Figure 5) further introduced the issue of natural fertilisers ‘such as green
manure’ and ‘artificial fertilisers’ whose disadvantage of lasting for ‘one watering’ only was pointed out
by the farmer. Kevin introduced the concept of ‘warmth’ in his concept map showing awareness that a
suitable temperature is needed by plants so that ‘enzymes work faster’. Kevin further developed the idea
of light which can be natural or artificial and which is needed for different periods of time by different
plants. The issue of water was extended to include how water is collected and supplied to the plants.
Kevin observed ‘drip irrigation’ during the visit which he had already heard about.
Development of Cognitive Knowledge at the Blood Bank
Students’ pre-visit concept maps and the questionnaire filled in by the students as part of their
coursework prior to the visit revealed that students had many knowledge gaps and curiosities about
the premises and the blood donation procedure. The students thought that ‘1 litre’ of blood is donated
in ‘beakers’, ‘bottles’, ‘plastic bags’, ‘large bowls’, ‘sterilised bags’, ‘thick bags’ or ‘test tubes’. They were aware
that persons who are ‘sick’, ‘pregnant women’, ‘people on antibiotics’, ‘people with HIV, haemophilia or
anaemia’ or those ‘who have recently done a tattoo’ could not donate blood while others were errone-
ously convinced that people who ‘have tattoos’ or ‘high cholesterol’ cannot donate blood either. Anna
(Figure 6) and Joanna (Figure 7) were aware that blood is tested before given to patients but failed to
give specific tests carried out and also failed to show the types of patients that would need the donated
blood. None of the students showed awareness of blood components and how these are treated and
used for different purposes. Neither did any student show awareness of the procedures taking place at
the blood bank to ensure the safety of both the donors and the recipients of blood.
After the visit, the concepts presented by the students became more specific, the examples given
increased and useless statements added before the visit were removed. Anna (Figure 8) added further
detail about platelet donation which previously she ‘did not imagine this could be done’, showed aware-
ness that blood is separated into its components which have a different shelf life and need to be stored
under different conditions. She gave specific examples of patients that need donated blood and raised
the issue that suspicious blood is further tested and disposed of if not appropriate for the patients.
Anna further added details to the ‘blood bag’ which contains ‘chemicals to prevent blood clotting’. Joanna
(Figure 9) further included details about the safety procedures the nurses in charge carry out to ensure
blood is safe and hygienic, including ‘bar codes’, the ‘questionnaire’ with the donor’s ‘personal information’
which is ‘kept for 10 years’ for further reference. Joanna showed particular interest in the information
given by the guide and added details such as ‘platelets donated by people over 17’ and different levels
of haemoglobin in males and females and included the 4 specific tests that blood, collected in ‘3 test
tubes’ undergoes.
Further detail, not included in the concept maps was included in question 6 of the students’ Vee
diagrams, as shown by the underlined statements in figures 10 and 11. This question offered students
the opportunity to express their new knowledge and information obtained on site more freely, without
being restricted by a focus question. Through the students’ responses, it was evident that each visit
served as a unique experience for each individual student who was attracted to different issues tackled
during the visit and different details observed on site.
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Figure 4: Joanna post-visit concept map
Figure 5: Kevin’s post visit concept map
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Figure 6: Anna’s pre-visit
Figure 7 : Joanna’s pre-visit concept map
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Figure 8: Anna’s post-visit concept map
Figure 9: Joanna’s post-visit concept map
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Figure 10: Joanna’s Vee diagram for the visit to the greenhouses
Figure 11: Joanna’s Vee diagram for the visit to the blood bank
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Post-visit Class Discussions
Students commented that the blood bank visit was more informative and more personally relevant
for them. They appreciated both site-visits as ‘providing extra points and details which might come handy
during the biology exam’ and for ‘broadening knowledge’ so that when writing essays, they could ‘definitely
write more in depth’. The visit to the greenhouses was appreciated by most students as a way of obtain-
ing new knowledge that could be linked to ‘topics related to the environment’ and to ‘Environmental
Science’ and ‘English…because an experience like that will help you broaden your imagination’. It served
students ‘to appreciate more the wonder and the functioning of nature’ and ‘realise that growing plants is
not as easy as most people imagine’.
The post-visit class discussion revealed that each visit helped students learn new processes such
as ‘soil sterilisation’. Allowing them to observe the practices taking place first hand and allowing them
to hear from the farmer’s direct experience helped them to consolidate agricultural issues which they
‘had heard about before but never thought that farmers actually do them’, such as ‘crop rotation’, using
‘green manure’ and ‘drip irrigation’. The farmer’s preference of biological control over chemical control
was a point of discussion for the students. The use of sentinel plants in the greenhouse (used to de-
tect pests before they attack the actual crop) were a source of awe and interest for the students and
were described as ‘plants that serve to protect other plants’ and as ‘organic pesticides. Walking inside the
greenhouse led them to realise that ‘it is really hot inside’ and allowed them to observe how the farmer
provides the appropriate conditions for each type of plant and ‘nurtures the plants…like a baby whom
you have to take care of and give nutrients’.
Observations made during the visit provided students with the confidence needed to actively en-
gage in class discussion about the experience. For example, they expected the greenhouses to be ‘made
of glass’ rather than plastic because glass, although more expensive for the farmer, would constitute a
‘one-time expense’ since it lasts longer and would need less maintenance. They explained that having
bulbs in the greenhouse to control the amount of light at night means that the farmer has to pay for
such conditions. Though these never featured in the concept maps, students mentioned specific names
of flowers such as ‘Gebra’ and ‘Chrysanthemum’ when describing their observations.
Following the visit to the blood bank, the class discussion was characterised by the students’
enthusiasm to discover so much new information about an issue that was so related to their personal
life. They were surprised at the sophisticated and expensive equipment used on the premises and the
accurate and meticulous procedures followed for example, how bags and test tubes are labelled with
bar codes making the procedure as safe as possible. The fact that the donor undergoes a medical test,
must weigh at least 50 kg and must fill in a questionnaire before s/he donates blood, which is kept
confidential and stored for a number of years at the premises in case the donor needs to be traced was
quite new to them. They discovered that blood is thoroughly tested in the interest of both the donor
and the recipient and if tests were inconclusive, the blood was used for research.
Discussion
This research revealed that the classroom tends to be a restricted environment that limits the devel-
opment of biological concepts. Biology teaching needs to be linked to learning infrastructures outside
the school, which provide a network of influences; boosting student motivation to learn, knowledge
acquisition and understanding, attitudes and beliefs (Dierking, 2005). As explained in Falk & Dierking’s
contextual model of learning (2000), students on a site visit were autonomous learners, free to choose
what interested them most, were socially involved and in a more relaxed environment than the classroom.
All these factors positively influence learning. Students had the opportunity to roam about, be creative,
satisfy their curiosities and become actively engaged in the activity by contributing their insights - an
attitude conducive to higher levels of learning.
The methodology used moved away from the transmission model of learning and induced students
to shift from rote memorisation of biological vocabulary and definitions, to more meaningful learning,
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integrating new concepts into pre-existing structures, while experiencing the desire to learn, discover,
question their surrounding and think critically. Rather than filling in worksheets and taking notes - an
approach criticized by Griffin & Symington (1997) for killing the students’ enthusiasm to explore new
environments - students became more autonomous and focused on observing their surroundings. This
approach, unlike traditional learning methods did not aim at rewarding students proficient in memoris-
ing scientific words and definitions but probed into their understanding and application of knowledge
to everyday life. As argued by Mintzes, Wandersee & Novak (1997), throughout the whole procedure,
learning became the responsibility of the learners and their conscious decision to learn meaningfully.
Meanwhile the teacher had the parallel responsibility to provide students with the opportunity to learn
and help them construct meaning and evaluate their understanding, thus acting as a facilitator rather
than a knowledge provider.
Enthusiasm during post-visit discussion was a positive consequence of the visits, yet it evidenced
the lack of class time where students are given the opportunity to talk, discuss and express themselves.
Throughout these activities students had the opportunity to voice their opinions without being assessed
for the exam, thus giving the students ‘the opportunity of a cumulative development of understanding
and interest’ (Rocard, Csermely, Jorde, Lenzen, Walberg-Henriksson & Hemmo, 2007, p.8), in an educa-
tional system which seems to deem their points of view as irrelevant and valuing only a restricted area
of knowledge, which is arid and useless unless the students link it to their personal life experiences.
Learning does not begin and end on site and the visit becomes part of a continuum of learning
experiences. Infact throughout the study, students assimilated each experience within a larger framework,
including past experiences and future aspirations, made connections between the reality they observed
and their background knowledge and personal life experiences. They linked new knowledge to other
subjects studied at school and explained that each visit made sense as it complimented the material being
covered in class. This in turn made them familiar with the topics’ technical vocabulary and prepared them
to observe the real life aspect of the issues tackled on site. Learning is context-specific and it is easier
for the students to make learning more meaningful when inert knowledge - learnt in a decontexualised
classroom environment - is transferred to a more relevant physical context (Falk & Dierking, 2000). This
increases ‘the likelihood of long-term retention of the subject matter’ (Knapp, 2000, p. 72).
Conclusion
Site-visits offer students a vast repertoire of learning opportunities, where they learn biological
knowledge, improve their social skills and develop a more positive attitude towards biology, motivating
them to carry out further research and share their knowledge with family and friends. Out-of-classroom
activities adopted an experiential and holistic learning approach where students observed and discussed
biological issues within the context of their relevance to their daily lives rather than as stand-alone top-
ics. In a contextualised environment, students could easily bridge the gap between inert knowledge
given in class to the real world. Careful planning of each site-visit ensured that the experience was not
interpreted by students as a one-off fun activity, but as a learning experience that connects to, extends
and reinforces classroom practice. Students linked this information to different subjects learned at
school contributing to less compartmentalisation and more meaningful learning. The uniqueness of
out-of-classroom learning environments lies in their offering direct experience with concrete phenom-
ena and processes which cannot be cultivated in the classroom, thus catering for a diversity of learning
patterns and offering students different ways of learning. Site-visits contributed to the production of
more scientifically literate students capable not only to reproduce biological vocabulary in an exam, but
to critically understand issues, reflect upon them and discuss scientific issues. This was observed in all
the students in class, not just in the science-oriented student minority. Such conclusions might indicate
that by linking theoretical knowledge to real-life experiences, site-visits could provide other academic
subjects with opportunities to actively engage students in their learning.
The methodology used throughout the study i.e. a learner-centred strategy, moved away from the
traditional task-oriented activities such as note-taking or filling in worksheets. Students were allowed
to explore their surroundings, in the sequence they liked and focus on issues that interested them most,
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without being restricted by learning targets pre-planned before the visit. Students were free to reflect
and assess their own knowledge, misconceptions or empty gaps. The visits prompted students to ques-
tion and link their pre-existing concepts to new knowledge, making learning more meaningful, whilst
providing their teacher with an opportunity to know the students and tailor each activity according to
their respective needs. Most of the benefits of site-visits are dependent on the contexts within which
teachers function. This particular research was conducted in a setting where although such visits were
not part of the prescribed teaching programme, the teacher had sufficient freedom to adopt this out-
of-school approach. Teachers who lack this physical and curricular freedom would face difficulties in
adopting site-visits – provided that they are not specifically requested by the teaching programme.
This study was limited to a one year study with a small group of students. Further research in this
area could involve following the same group of students and interview them about their experience to
explore the impact of site-visits over time. Moreover, further research with different groups of students
could focus on different student characteristics, in terms of age, gender and subject majors, in relation
to learning on site.
The conclusions drawn from this study suggest that site-visits, complementing classroom practice
should serve as a useful tool for teachers to help students develop an authentic picture of biology. Giv-
ing them an opportunity to observe biology in real world situations contributes to boost their interest
in the subject, identify its relevance to their life, understand its concepts, increase their knowledge thus
making it more meaningful and easier to remember.
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Received: March 12, 2013 Accepted: May 06, 2013
Miriam Muscat B.Ed. (Hons), M.Ed., LLCM, Head of Department for Integrated Science,
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(Centre for Environmental Education & Research), Room 327 - Faculty
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E-mail: paul.j.pace@um.edu.mt
Website: http://www.um.edu.mt/ceer
351
An Investigation of
Mathematics and
Science Questions in
Entrance Examinations
for Secondary
Education Institutions
in Turkey
Abstract. This study aimed to investigate

LDE mathematics and science questions in
Lutfi Incikabi,
terms of cognitive requirements (knowing, Mehmet A. Kurnaz,
applying and reasoning) and structural Murat Pektas
properties (conceptual, algorithmic and
graphical). The methodology adopted in
the current study was document analysis.
The results of this study indicated that LDE
science assessments emphasized conceptu-
al questions, while mathematics questions
were more algorithmic in structure. In addi-
tion, both mathematics and science items Introduction
de-emphasized graphical representations.
In terms of their cognitive requirements, In today’s world, governments allocate significant portions
both science and mathematics LDE items of their budget to education, raising expectations for educational
neglected the cognitive domain of reason- efficiency, which is typically measured through variables such as
ing. Moreover, science questions mostly classroom materials, quality of teaching, quality of educational
met in the intersection of knowing and environment, and students’ beliefs. However, a great deal of em-
conceptual, while mathematics questions phasis has also been placed on determining students’ achieve-
often required students to apply knowledge
ment levels and comparing them from year to year (Berberoglu
on algorithmic questions. This study also
& Kalender, 2005). Responsible for preparing students for life,
concluded that the distribution of question
requirements differed from year to year.
schools must teach and improve abilities like problem solving,
Some implications regarding the results critical thinking, and reading skills. A higher quality social life is
included that implementing a nation-wide promoted in an educational system that produces academically
assessment that neglects graphical repre- qualified individuals. While determining and evaluating achieve-
sentations contradicts the target goal of the ment, countries usually assess their students’ performance through
mathematics and science programs in Tur- standardized national and international examinations. Beside shar-
key. The fact that the LDE was designed to ing the progress of their students and comparing their results at
determine the level of students’ learning yet the international level, most countries, including Turkey, use the
neglects reasoning questions also presents examinations for students transitioning to higher educational
a contradiction to the curricular aims.
institutions, like middle school to high school or high school to
Key words: cognitive requirements, level
college. The limited quota of highly regarded high schools causes
determination examination, mathematics
and science problems, structural properties.
intense rivalry, and systems have been established to identify the
most excellent students.
The level determination examination (LDE) in Turkey is taken
Lutfi Incikabi, Mehmet A. Kurnaz, by eighth grade graduates seeking entrance to secondary educa-
Murat Pektas tion institutions. New teaching and learning programs at primary
Kastamonu University, Kastamonu, Turkey education institutions in Turkey became effective in 2004, and
in the 2007-2008 academic year, a new system was applied to
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(P. 352-364)
secondary education (MoNE, 2007a). The main purpose of the new system was to diminish the burden
of the entrance examination and emphasize the importance of school itself. The old transition system
relied heavily on a placement exam known as Secondary School Placement Exam (SSPE). This test caused
anxiety for students and parents: evaluating three years of work through a 120-minute test was not in
line with evaluation principles of Turkey’s new teaching and learning program, and SSPE only covered
some parts of the curriculum, prompting students to neglect uncovered subjects (MoNE, 2007b).
Many comparative studies have investigated examination systems of different countries. Recent
studies investigated such factors as achievement in examinations (Incikabi, 2012; Koçkar & Gençöz, 2004),
gender related issues (Garner & Engelhard, 1999; Lisle, Smith, & Jules, 2005), reasons for failure (Kim &
Dembo, 2000; Kjellström & Pettersson, 2005; Lukacs & Tompa, 2002), and alignment between curriculum
and examinations (Azar, 2005; Incikabi, 2011a, b; Liang & Yuan, 2008; Özmen, 2005; Saderholm & Tretter,
2008). The results of these studies address compatibility between content of examinations, curriculum
coverage, and classroom instruction, since exam content shapes curriculum by affecting instruction.
According to Kim (2005), differences in distribution of the contents in the assessment may cause poor
performance, since students tend to disregard topics not emphasized by the examinations. Similarly,
Kasanen and Raty (2008) have highlighted how national assessments affect student attitudes towards
lessons by causing them to neglect project and performance activities and practice more on question
types in the tests. Therefore, test specifications gain importance in evaluating education efficiency.
Test specification plays an important role in interpreting international comparisons based on test
scores (Linn, 2003). Over or under-emphasis of certain cognitive processes or topics may be of advan-
tage to some countries (Ben-Simon & Cohen, 2004). Item format also affects achievement (Ben-Simon
& Cohen, 2004). Although early versions of international competencies included multiple choice items,
current competencies employ a variety of formats (multiple choice, structured response, essay) due
to a global demand for authenticity in testing and the desire to assess more complex, higher-order
cognitive processes.
Recent studies of question types (Baştürk, 2011; Coştu, 2007, 2010; Erkan Erkoç, 2011; Kim & Pak,
2002; Maloney, 1994) have indicated that the intensity of graphical, conceptual, and algorithmic questions
in examinations has changed classroom instruction by affecting both students as learners and teachers
as instructors. The studies comparing students’ performances on graphical, conceptual and algorithmic
questions are very few in number compared to those focusing on the performance on conceptual and
algorithmic questions (Coştu, 2007, 2010). Erkan Erkoç (2011) compared pre-service teachers’ scores
on conceptual, algorithmic, and graphical questions and indicated achievement on conceptual ques-
tions. Moreover, Coştu (2007) presented that eleventh-grade students performed better on conceptual
chemistry questions than algorithmic and graphical chemistry questions. In another study Çoştu (2010)
conducted with twelfth-grade students, algorithmic questions were the only question types with high
scores. However, researchers need to initiate studies of national assessments of developing countries
such as Turkey in terms of process requirements applied to international competencies and question
structures.
Based on above literature, this study aimed to investigate LDE mathematics and science questions
in terms of their cognitive requirements (knowing, applying and reasoning) and structural properties
(conceptual, algorithmic and graphical). Being in line with the aim, the following research questions
were to be sought for answers within the scope of the current study:
•• How were various cognitive domains, structural properties, and their intersection distributed
in the mathematics questions of LDE?
•• How were various cognitive domains, structural properties, and their intersection distributed
in the science questions of LDE?
In this study, document analysis was applied to LDE mathematics and science questions. Document
analysis is known as an effective method for systematic review (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007).
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Sample of Research
The target was eighth grade LDE questions. A total of 160 questions from the years from 2009
to 2012 (80 for mathematics and 80 for science) were assessed. During the academic year 2007-2008,
when the new mathematics program became effective, LDE was applied first to sixth and seventh grad-
ers. Thereafter, the secondary institutions selection and placement examination (SSPE) was replaced by
the LDE examination for eighth graders.
Procedures
To interpret the LDE science and mathematics questions, four experts (two in the field of
mathematics education and two in science examination) convened in two groups. All experts had
familiarity and experience with the assessment and its framework. The expert panel members had an
opportunity during the opening session to review, classify, and discuss several practice items in order
to establish a common understanding of classification procedures. The researchers did not develop the
coding themes: they were adapted from the literature (Coştu, 2007, 2010; Erkan Erkoç, 2011; Nakhleh,
1993; Nakhleh & Mitchell, 1993) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2011
mathematics and science frameworks (Mullis, Martin, Ruddock, O’Sullivan, & Preuschoff, 2009). Table 1
presents the coding themes and related behaviors/explanations. During coding, the panel members
coded each question independently. Coders classified items in the most detailed way possible—ideally,
to the objective level, that in cases where items appear to address multiple themes (See Appendix A for
sample LDE items and their codings). The initial coder agreement rate was 85 percent for mathematics
and 87 percent for science. Each item for which the coders did not agree then was discussed until an
agreement was reached on how the item would be coded.
Table 1. Coding categories used in the study.
Categories Sub-categories Behaviours
Conceptual Use conceptual information regarding the given condition in the question
Structural Properties Algorithmic Use algorithmic calculations to reach a numerical value
Graphical Interpret/retrieve information from a graphic
Knowing Recall, Recognize, Compute, Retrieve, Measure, Classify/Order
Cognitive Require- Applying Select, Represent, Model, Implement, Solve Routine Problems
ments (Mathematics)
Reasoning Analyze, Generalize, Synthesize/Integrate, Justify, Solve Non-routine Problems
Recall, Recognize, Define, Describe, Illustrate with Examples, Demonstrate

Knowing
Knowledge of Scientific Instruments
Cognitive Require- Compare, Contrast, Classify, Use Models, Relate, Interpret Information, Find
Applying
ments (Science) Solutions, Explain
Analyze, Synthesize, Integrate, Hypothesize, Predict, Design, Draw Conclusions,
Reasoning
Generalize, Evaluate, Justify
Data Analysis

The frequency of cognitive domains and structures of the questions, broken down by examina-
tion year, were determined. The interpretation of the analyses is descriptive in nature.
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Results of Research
The results of the current study were introduced with regards to the research problems.
LDE Science Questions
Table 2 shows the distribution of LDE science questions based on TIMMS cognitive domains and
structural properties. The majority (about 89%) were structured conceptually, while 8 percent were
graphical and only a few (about 3%) required algorithmic procedures. Among the cognitive requirements
used, knowing and applying were mostly highlighted, with a slight emphasis on knowing. However,
only one-tenth of the science questions required reasoning, which is the highest order of and the most
complex cognitive domain of all.
Table 2. Distribution of LDE science questions based on TIMSS science cognitive domains and
structural properties.
f %
Conceptual 71 88.75
Structural Properties Graphical 7 8.75
Algorithmic 2 2.5
Knowing 38 47.5
Cognitive Requirements Applying 34 42.5
Reasoning 8 10
Table 3 shows the distribution of dual qualifications (cognitive and structural) across the science
questions in LDE. Almost half were included in the intersection of knowing and conceptual codes,
while about one-third placed in the conceptual-applying combination. In addition, the questions in
the intersection of conceptual-reasoning, probably the most selective questions in the examinations,
covered only one-tenth of the all science items. Moreover, all graphical and algorithmic questions were
limited to the cognitive requirement of applying.
Table 3. Distribution of cognitive domains and structural properties in LED science questions.
Cognitive Requirements
Applying Knowing Reasoning
Conceptual 25 (31.25%) 38 (47.5%) 8 (10.0%)

Structural
Algorithmic 2 (2.5%) 0 0
Properties
Graphical 7 (8.75%) 0 0
Figure 1 shows the percentage distribution of LDE science items across the years in terms of
structural properties and cognitive domains. Among structural properties, only the 2010 LDE included
algorithmic questions. Moreover, conceptual questions were the most represented (more than 75%
per year). Among the cognitive domains, applying and knowing were the most emphasized. Although
reasoning questions were included for the last three years, they were few in number compared to other
domains.
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Figure 1. Percentage distribution of question types and cognitive domains from 2009 to 2012.
LDE science questions’ coverage of learning areas as stated in the science curriculum in Turkey
(MoNE, 2005b) is shown in Table 4. Physical events was the most covered learning area (about 33%)
in the science part of the examinations. Except for one physical-event question coded as algorithmic-
applying, all other physical-event questions were structured as conceptual questions focused on know-
ing and applying.
Table 4. Distribution of LDE items in terms of science content domains.
Learning Areas Qualifications Knowing Applying Reasoning Total (%)
Physical Events Algorithmic - 1 - 26 (32.5)

Graphical - - -
Conceptual 14 11 -
Matter and Change Algorithmic - 1 - 24 (30)
Graphical - 4 -
Conceptual 12 6 1
Life and Living Beings Algorithmic - - - 24 (30)
Graphical - 3 -
Conceptual 7 8 6
The Earth and the Universe Algorithmic - - - 6 (7.5)
Graphical - - -
Conceptual 5 - 1
The learning areas Matter and Change and Life and Living Beings covered 30 percent each of all
science questions. For Matter and Change, LDE questions highly emphasized conceptual questions; there
were few graphical and algorithmic questions. Conceptual Matter and Change questions required know-
ing (mostly), applying (some), and reasoning (only one), whereas graphical and algorithmic questions
only called for applying. Life and Living Beings included only conceptual (mostly) and graphical (few)
questions. Although the conceptual questions had almost equal distribution among knowing, apply-
ing, and reasoning, the graphical questions solely incorporated applying. The Earth and the Universe
was least covered (about 8%) and included only conceptual questions categorized under knowing and
applying cognitive domains.
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LDE Mathematics Questions
The distribution of LDE mathematics questions in terms of TIMSS cognitive domains and struc-
tural properties is shown in Table 5. Three quarters of mathematics questions were algorithmic, while 23
percent were conceptual, and only a few (about 3%) graphical. Among the cognitive requirements used
during the solution process, more than half of the items (about 56%) required applying, whereas about
one-third were categorized as knowing. As with the LDE science questions, few (about 13%) called on
reasoning, the highest order of and most complex cognitive domain.
Table 5. Distribution of LDE mathematics questions based on TIMSS science cognitive domains
and structural properties.
f %
Algorithmic 60 75
Types of Questions Conceptual 18 22.5
Graphical 2 2.5
Applying 45 56.25
Cognitive Domain Knowing 25 31.25
Reasoning 10 12.5
Table 6 shows the percentage distribution of qualifications (cognitive and structural) across the
mathematics questions. Almost half of the LDE mathematics items (about 54%) were categorized in the
intersection of algorithmic and applying, while a few placed in algorithmic-knowing and conceptual-
knowing, each at 15 percent. In addition, questions in the intersection of conceptual-reasoning, prob-
ably the most selective questions, covered only about 6 percent of all mathematics items. Moreover,
no mathematics item with graphical structure required reasoning.
Table 6. Distribution of cognitive domains and structural properties in LDE mathematics ques-
tions.
Cognitive Requirements
Applying Knowing Reasoning
Algorithmic 43 (53.75%) 12 (15%) 5 (6.25%)

Structural Prop-
Conceptual 1 (1.25%) 12 (15%) 5 (6.25%)
erties
Graphical 1 (1.25) 1 (1.25%) 0

The percentage distribution of LDE mathematics items across the years in terms of structural
properties and cognitive domains was presented in Figure 2. Among the structural properties across
all years, algorithmic questions were most represented (more than 60% per year). Although conceptual
questions were included in each LDE, they were few in number compared to algorithmic questions. On
the other hand, few algorithmic questions were included in LDE examinations in 2009 and 2010. Among
the cognitive domains, applying was the most emphasized across the years, followed by knowing. Simi-
lar to the science section, LDE mathematics sections also de-emphasized the reasoning questions that
require a higher order of thinking skills, such as generalizing, justifying, and analyzing.
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Figure 2. Percentage distribution of question types and cognitive domains from 2009 to 2012.
Table 7 shows the percentage distribution of LDE mathematics questions based on the learning
areas as defined by the curriculum in Turkey (MoNE, 2005a). Measurement was the most covered learn-
ing area (about 33 percent). Except for two questions coded as conceptual-knowing and conceptual-
reasoning, all others were algorithmic questions focused on applying (mostly), reasoning (a few), and
knowing (a few) cognitive requirements.

Table 7. Distribution of LDE items in terms of mathematics content domains.
Learning Areas Qualifications Knowing Applying Reasoning Total (%)
Algorithmic 1 21 2
Measurement Graphical - - - 26 (32.5)
Conceptual 1 - 1
Algorithmic 1 1
Geometry Graphical - - - 14 (17.5)
Conceptual 7 1 4
Algorithmic 5 6 -
Numbers Graphical - - - 14 (17.5)
Conceptual 3 - -
Algorithmic - 12 2
Algebra Graphical - - - 14 (17.5)
Conceptual - - -
Algorithmic 5 4 -
Probability and Statistics Graphical 1 1 - 12 (15)
Conceptual 1 - -
Geometry, Numbers, and Algebra covered 18 percent of all mathematics questions. Geometry was
the only learning area that emphasized conceptual questions. There were a few algorithmic geometry
questions, while no geometry question included use of graphical representations. Conceptual geometry
questions required knowing (mostly), reasoning (some), and applying (only one), whereas algorithmic
questions required knowing and reasoning. Numbers included mostly algorithmic questions and some
conceptual questions. Although the algorithmic questions had almost equal distribution across knowing
and applying, the conceptual questions solely called for knowing. Algebra included only algorithmic
questions that required applying (mostly) and reasoning (few). Probability and Statistics was the least
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covered (15 percent) and included mostly algorithmic questions with a few graphical and conceptual
questions. The algorithmic and graphical questions were categorized in knowing and applying, while
the conceptual question required knowing.
Discussion
This study aimed to provide an analysis of the mathematics and science items included in LDE as-
sessments in Turkey based on (a) cognitive requirements (knowing, applying and reasoning) as defined
in TIMSS 2011 and (b) structural properties (algorithmic, conceptual and graphical). The study was
limited to 160 questions from the LDE (80 in mathematics, 80 in science).
An overview of results is provided in Table 8. In terms of distribution of structural properties, LDE
science assessments emphasized conceptual questions, while mathematics questions were more al-
gorithmic in structure. Both mathematics and science items de-emphasized graphical representations.
Van Dyke and White (2004) have stated that graphical interpretation supports abstract thinking skills.
Standard examinations such as LDE need to be designed to involve reading, forming, and interpreting
graphics (Forster, 2004). A number of studies indicate that students have common deficiencies in these
areas (Ates & Stevens, 2003; Beichner, 1994; Berg & Smith, 1994; Kekule, 2008; McDermott, Rosenquist,
& van Zee, 1987; Saglam-Arslan, 2009). For example, in his two-stage study that was first performed
with 480, then 700 students, Kekule (2008) discovered that students describe graphics as an outline
or picture of reality. Berg and Smith (1994) also reported that students perceive graphics as a picture
instead of a symbolic depiction of knowledge.
Table 8. Overview of the results.
Science Questions Mathematics Questions
Emphasized De-emphasized Emphasized De-emphasized
Graphical
Structural Properties Conceptual Algorithmic Graphical
Algorithmic
Knowing
Cognitive Requirements Reasoning Applying Reasoning
Applying
Conceptual-knowing Algorithmic- applying
Dual Qualifications The others The others
Conceptual-applying
Conceptual Graphical Algorithmic Conceptual

Distribution Across Time Knowing Algorithmic Applying Graphical
Applying Reasoning Knowing Reasoning

Both science and mathematics LDE items neglected the cognitive domain of reasoning, which
requires that students analyze, generalize, synthesize/integrate, justify, or solve non-routine problems
(Mullis et al., 2009). Science questions mostly met in the intersection of knowing and conceptual, while
mathematics questions often required students to apply knowledge on algorithmic questions. These
differences in cognitive balances may affect student performance in other competencies (such as
TIMSS) that include more reasoning questions (Ben-Simon & Cohen, 2004). For instance, Çil and Çepni
(2012) observed low performance of Turkish students on questions requiring correlational cognitive
and hypothetical thinking abilities.
This study found that the distribution of question requirements differed from year to year. Some
representation types (such as conceptual in science and algorithmic in mathematics) existed in each as-
sessment, while some (algorithmic in science and graphical in mathematics) were habitually neglected.
A similar misbalance was also evident in the distribution of cognitive requirements by each assessment.
For example, questions requiring reasoning were not included in 2009 LDE science items and were de-
emphasized over the years.
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Conclusions
A general overview of the research findings might lead a conclusion that LDE does not assess
students’ knowledge in terms of the aspects that were investigated in this study. Taking into account
of the complexity of learning process, it is a compulsory need for assessments to interrogate students’
learning from different angles. Since, assessments that highlight only one cognitive procedure or con-
sist of one item type would affect classroom instruction, shape the curriculum (Kim, 2005) and cause
students’ neglecting the other cognitive processes.
Upon consideration of the results of the study, some implications should be taken into account by
policy makers and test/curriculum designers. Following the reform movement, the adjusted curriculum
in Turkey emphasizes using multiple representations in teaching (MoNE, 2005a, 2005b); however, imple-
menting a nation-wide assessment that neglects graphical representations contradicts the target goal.
Moreover, the science and mathematics programs in Turkey put great emphasis on improving students’
problem solving and critical, creative, and reflective thinking in line with the behaviors of the reasoning
domain as used in this study. The fact that the LDE was designed to determine the level of students’
learning yet neglects reasoning questions also presents a contradiction to curricular aims.
The results of this study are beneficial to researchers who investigate national assessments,
as well policymakers and curriculum designers who interpret the results of such exams. Further studies
investigating the test-curriculum-teaching triangle will reinforce the findings of the current study.
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Appendix A
Sample LDE Items
Table 9. Sample codes for selected LDE science items
Qualification
Items
Structural Cognitive
Properties Requirements
Some concepts regarding Natural processes and their definitions are as follows: Conceptual Knowing
• Aftershock
• Foreshock
Concepts
• Intensity
• Magnitude
• The degree of damage on buildings and people
caused by the earthquake.
• Small earthquakes occurring before the main shock. Definitions
• The value of the ground motion measured by seismo-
graph.
Which concept does remain outside when the concepts are paired with their definitions?
A) Aftershock B) Foreshock C) Intensity D)Magnitude

(LDE 2012, p. 15, Q7)
The table shows the running hours (during a month) of a vacuum cleaner having 2000 watt
power and an iron having 2200 watt power:
The running times (hour)
vacuum cleaner iron
1st week 4 2
2nd week 5 -
3rd week 2 5 Algorithmic Applying
4th week - 3
According to table, what was the total electric energy (kwh) consumed by the vacuum
cleaner and the iron during this month?
A) 21 B) 22 C) 42 D) 44
(LDE 2010, p. 15, Q8)
Graphical Applying
The graph shows the change in the evaporation point with regard to the quantity of a pure
substance that is at the point of boiling temperature. What is the numerical value of “?”
given in the graph?
A) (5204/10)·20 B) (5204/10+20)
C) (5204/20) ·10 D) 5204·(10+20)
(LDE 2010, p. 15, Q14)
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Gülay, conducting the experiment given below, records her observations and notes the
results.
My experiment:
Conceptual Reasoning
I have added vinegar on baking powder.
My observations:
Balloon was bulged, cap got warmed, and liquid was obtained in the cap.
My results:
………………….
In this experiment, what result can Gülay reach?

A) Vinegar and baking powder preserved their chemical structure.
B) The amount of baking powder did not change.
C) The vinegar did not react with the baking powder.
D) All liquid that was obtained was vinegar.
(LDE 2010, p. 15, Q10)
Table 2. Sample codes for selected LDE mathematics items.
Qualification
Items
Structural Cognitive
Properties Requirements
Table: Basketball players’ average points per game and average point range
Name of the player Average point per game Point range
Cemil 17 3
Alper 17 15
Hasan 12 15
Ali 12 3
Graphical Knowing
Table shows the average points and point range of the players who played the same
number of game last year. Which player did score more points with the least changing
amount?
Ali B) Hasan C) Alper D) Cemil
(LDE 2009, p. 12, Q16)

A bakery sold a total number of 144 patty and pastry during the day and made 144TL
profit from the sell. How many pastries have been sold if the price for a patty and a
pastry is 50 Kr and 75 Kr, respectively?
Algorithmic Applying
80 B) 64 C) 58 D) 44
(LDE 2009, p. 13, Q19)
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Algorithmic Reasoning
Taking out which cube do not cause change in the surface area of the solid given in the
figure that consists of unit cubes.
1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4
(LDE 2011, p. 11, Q13)

A person who investigates which color car has been mostly sold found out that white
cars were preferred the most. What measure was utilized to reach this conclusion?
Conceptual Knowing
Median B) Mode C) Mean D) Range
(LDE 2011, p. 11, Q16)
Received: March 28, 2013 Accepted: May 29, 2013
Lutfi İncikabi Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Kastamonu University, Kastamonu,

37200, Turkey.
E-mail: lutfiincikabi@yahoo.com
Mehmet A. Kurnaz Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Kastamonu University, Kastamonu,
37200, Turkey.
E-mail: makurnaz@kastamonu.edu.tr
Murat Pektas Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Kastamonu University, Kastamonu,
37200, Turkey.
E-mail: mpektas@kastamonu.edu.tr
364
LEARNING APPROACHES
TO APPLYING ROBOTICS IN
SCIENCE EDUCATION
Abstract. The methodology and ideas

Heilo Altin,
behind educational robotics arise from the
Margus Pedaste 1960s, when the first hardware platforms
together with computers were used in
research studies in schools. Since the
1990s, the market for educational robotics
has grown, and there are many solutions
Introduction
available to use in schools. Despite a wide
variety of platform approaches for using
There has been a growing interest in using robots for science
robots in education, they are still based
education in schools. This paper focuses mainly on robots used
on ideas that are decades old. This study
as tools to teach STEM (science, technology, engineering, math)
evaluates different approaches used
subjects in school, e.g. according to K-12 curriculum (K-12 is a
nowadays to teach with robots. Problem-
shortening of kindergarten through twelfth grade). Robotics used
based, constructionist, and competition-
at universities is mostly object-based, which means that students
based learning are identified as the most
learn robotics with robots. Robotics became an issue of education
common uses of robots under observation.
in the 1960s when Papert introduced the programming language
Each approach is analysed qualitatively
LOGO and the floor turtle—a robot that can execute commanding
based on the published literature. Each has
directions by connecting to a computer (Papert, 1980). Turtle robot
positive and negative properties; though
was able to draw its moving trajectory on the floor and because
none have been studied thoroughly using
of that ability, it was possible to draw trigonometric shapes. Turtle
quantitative methods. Results indicate that
robot was developed in cooperation with Marvin Minsky, who was
all these approaches are used in schools
the first to encourage children in the new MIT Children’s Laboratory
with robots interdisciplinary. The current
to learn to control a small robot (Minsky, 1986). Together they inte-
reasons for using robots are based mostly
grated a control system into LOGO. The target group of educational
on teachers’ and students’ impressions.
robotics was addressed in the 1980s by the Educational Products
However, robotics can be seen as a “tool”
Department in the LEGO Group. Eventually, this department was re-
to create many approaches to science
named LEGO Dacta, whose purpose was to expand the educational
education, such as inquiry learning and
possibilities of LEGO toys. Work on educational toys and especially
problem solving.
robotics increased in 1998 when LEGO Education (formerly LEGO
Dacta) released the educational pioneering concept Mindstorms. Key words: constructionism, constructiv-
The core of Mindstorms was RCX, an intelligent and program- ism, educational robotics, inquiry learning,
mable LEGO brick. The successful start of educational robotics with LEGO Mindstorms, problem solving.
RCX in first decade of the 21st century brought attention to other
companies with educational robotics production, like FischerTeh-
nik Computing, Robotis Bioloid, and Robotis Ollo. In 2007, LEGO
Heilo Altin, Margus Pedaste
Education released the next level of RCX, called NXT. Mindstorms University of Tartu, Estonia
NXT enabled users to use more sensors, newer motors, and more
complicated programming languages like NXT-G and LabVIEW. In
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2013, the next platform, called EV3, was released. Updates included new communication channels such
as WiFi and data recording on SD card. LEGO Mindstorms are not the only programmable toys in the
education market, but they are some of the most used robots. Since the turtle robot there have been
many methodologies used to teach with robots. These approaches are explained below:
•• discovery learning;
•• collaborative learning;
•• problem solving;
•• project-based learning;
•• competition-based learning;
•• compulsory learning.
A review of educational robots history shows that these methodologies are platform driven. Most
of the educational robotics methodologies follow platforms—not vice versa. On the other hand, Sullivan
claimed that most of the educational technology is based on Papert’s theory of constructionism (Sullivan
& Moriarty, 2009). Even from that point of view, usage of this technology in an educational context does
not focus much on methodology. Alimisis (2012) found that the focus in educational robotics should be
shifted from hardware to methodology. Based on the current studies, it can be concluded that robotics
is not widely used in education (Papanikolaou, Frangou, & Alimisis, 2009), and therefore, advantages of
robotics could be applied more (Bredenfeld, Hofmann, & Steinbauer, 2010).
Among many previously listed methodologies used to teach robotics, competition-based learning
has been the most effective way of getting students to apply math, physics, and other subjects through
robotics (Giannakopoulos, 2009). Competition-based learning is a methodology where learning outcomes
are achieved through competitions. It has been successfully applied in several studies in the context of
technology-enhanced science education (Pedaste & Sarapuu, 2006; Pedaste, Mäeots, Leijen, & Sarapuu,
2012). However, the competitions are only directed to a limited group of learners as robotics competi-
tions are rather expensive to organise and the number of participants is limited financially. Because of
that limitation, it is necessary to find effective ways of using robotics in classrooms by all learners in the
fields of science (especially physics), technology, and engineering. In this case, the advantages of robot-
ics can be applied to a much wider audience. These new methodologies that enable the use robots in
classrooms are important. Students’ interest in robotics is an important factor in the learning process
and in achieving learning outcomes. If robotics is neither a part of a general curriculum nor a method
or tool for acquiring outcomes of a curriculum, the effect is minimised. So robotics ought to be included
in the curriculum in both ways—as a learning object and tool to learn other subjects.
These theory- and practice-based ideas for implementing robotics as a tool in curriculum-based
education need further study. This research proposes a theoretical and methodological model of applying
robotics through the inquiry approach to learning physics. For that we analyse most of the methodolo-
gies used to teach with robots. Modern model of educational robotics platform is described and its best
use through inquiry learning is found. Two research questions are set up:
•• What methods and platforms of robotics have been used in science education?
•• Which new trends could be integrated to use robots as a tool in science education?
To answer the research questions, a literature review was conducted. Relevant research was se-
lected and an analysis and synthesis was conducted on that. The articles were searched in the Thomson
Reuters (ISI) Web of Knowledge, EBSCO, and Google Scholar databases. During the first stage of the
search (see Table 1), the publishing period was set from 2000 to 2013 and the following keywords were
used: (educational OR education) AND (robotics OR robots OR LEGO) AND (school OR K-12). Some re-
sults were not actual articles but rather commercial one-page reports on new robotics platforms. This
was especially common in results from the EBSCO database. So the number of results from EBSCO was
much higher than from ISI or Google Scholar. The next stage was to analyse all search results by title. If
a title was confusing, the abstract was reviewed to identify whether the article discussed an educational
robotic tool and robots used in schools as a part of a curriculum or extracurricular activity. During the
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third stage, articles were assessed in detail. To the final analysis were included only papers that met the
following criteria:
•• robots used as tools to teach science education, not the object itself;
•• learning with robots through direct contact, not over the Internet;
•• the study revealed quantitative or qualitative feedback.
Table 1. Number of Articles Found After Each Stage Applied in the Search Process.
Results after the Results after the Results after the

Database*
first stage second stage third stage
Thomson Reuters (ISI) Web of 50 12 3

Knowledge
EBSCO 261 20 2
Google Scholar 29 6 3
*Several duplicate articles were returned by all databases, the results in the third stage are unique.
Research Results
Eight research papers were selected for analysis to answer the research questions formulated in
the current study. The overview of these articles is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Overview of the Articles Selected for the Analysis.
Thomson Reuters (ISI) Web of Authors Methodology described

Knowledge
A constructivist methodology for teacher Alimisis, D (Alimisis, Dimitris); Frangou, Constructivist (project-based learning)
training in educational robotics: the TER- S (Frangou, Stassini); Papanikolaou,
ECoP course in Greece through trainees’ K (Papanikolaou, Kyparissia)
eyes
Teaching programming with robots: a case Maya Sartatzemi, Vassilios Dagdilelis, Problem solving
study on Greek secondary education Katerina Kagani
Design, story-telling, and robots in Irish Fred G. Martin, Deirdre Butler, Wanda M. Compulsory/story telling
primary education Gleason
EBSCO Authors Methodology described
Collaborative learning in an educational Brigitte Denis, Sylviane Hubert Collaborative learning

robotics environment
Robotics and discovery learning: pedagogi- Florence R. Sullivan, Mary A. Moriarty Discovery learning
cal beliefs, teacher practice, and technology
integration
Google Scholar Authors Methodology described
Robotics teaching in primary school educa- Dilek Karahoca, Adem Karahoca, Hüseyin Project based, collaborative learning
tion by project- based learning for supporting Uzunboylu
science and technology courses
The botball educational robotics program: Cathryne Stein Competition-based learning
engineering outreach for middle school, high
school, and college students
Enhance understanding of science concepts Daoquan Li, Insook Han, Seokmin Kang, Problem solving
with technology-based learning tools (pro- Carol Lu, John Black
gramming and hand-held device) in a LEGO
robotics elementary after-school classroom
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Learning Approaches Applied in Robotics Education
Approaches applied in the educational robotics context reflected in the articles found in the
current study:
•• discovery learning;
•• collaborative learning;
•• problem solving;
•• project-based learning;
•• competition-based learning;
•• compulsory learning.
All these approaches follow the ideas of constructionism introduced by Papert and constructivism
derived from Piaget’s work (Papert, 1980). These are methodologically slightly different, but they could
be thought of as a roof methodology that hosts many other methods used in the educational robot-
ics context. For example, project-based learning is the implementation of constructivism (Frangou,
2009). Distinguishing between constructionism and constructivism requires a detailed knowledge of
both methods and processes of knowledge construction. Constructionism by Papert was developed
in the 1960s when Papert thought of the turtle as a good guide for pupils starting to learn math and
numbers. The floor turtle robot was later replaced with a virtual turtle on the computer screen. One
of the reasons was that virtual turtle was more accurate in its movement. Turtle did not follow an
exact path due to errors. This was demotivating and confusing to the students if they did not get
what was expected, even if they did everything correctly. Mechanical feedback of programming was
lost and replaced with visual feedback. Papert’s educational use of computers was to affect the way
people think, learn, and access knowledge. LOGO fulfilled the goals as a tool for learning concepts
like planning, problem solving, and experimentation.
Constructivist learning was used to help children to learn with computers (Papert, 1980).
Constructivist theories according to Piaget states that people construct their knowledge based on
experiences gained from real world and linked to personal pre-knowledge (Piaget & Garcia, 1991).
Papert noted that computers play an important role in knowledge construction as tools to learn
math and other subjects. Papert’s idea of learning with LOGO was discovery-oriented. It means that
LOGO enables the discovery of students’ ideas through a personal search. On the other hand, Becker
(1987) emphasised that the LOGO effect is raised when students are individually tutored. The same
has been found in applying discovery or inquiry learning in science education. The discovery learn-
ing approach has been replaced by guided discovery or later with inquiry learning to increase the
effect of the learning process. The effectiveness of solving problems through the discovery or inquiry
learning approach depends on various characteristics of the learners and should be supported ac-
cordingly (Pedaste & Sarapuu, 2006). Inquiry learning will also be introduced in this section while it
has emerged from the approaches applied earlier in robotics education and it is seen a promising
new approach for combining these.
Discovery learning
Sullivan and Moriarty (2009) conducted an experiment with teachers to use the discovery learn-
ing approach with robots. According to their description, the discovery method takes more time than
other methods described here. Problems arose based on the discovery approach. As it was open and
almost guidance free, it was difficult for the teachers to stay away from struggling pupils without giving
direct guidance because pupils were free in their search and were supposed to find out how “things
work” by themselves. Teachers were expected to use the Socratic method, which does not give direct
answers to inquiries but rather guides students towards their own answers. In many cases, pupils
had problems with simple things, like getting the robot to move. This experiment caused frustration
among teachers as they did not have fast progress and felt helpless. In some cases, teachers did not
know the answers, so the discovery approach was replaced with collaborative learning. However,
despite negative feedback, Sullivan and Moriarty (2009) claimed that the discovery approach could
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be effective even when teachers cannot witness an actual increase in pupils’ mental functioning and
resulting stability due to new knowledge. The discovery approach takes more time than normal in
the context of the curriculum.
Collaborative learning
Collaborative learning could be organised in combination with any other approach used in edu-
cational robotics if pupils are allowed to communicate during the learning process. Denis and Hubert
(2001) focused on collaboration to develop common robotics education projects along with problem
solving theory. Their goal was not to only acquire knowledge of robotics but also to develop strategic
and dynamic skills. Educational robotics was a tool to achieve collaborative learning. Denis and Hubert
targeted collaboration within groups of two to four and distributed cooperation between learners.
They noted that collaboration is defined as actors sharing the same goal of task realisation. Based
on their approach, distributed cooperation includes subtasks with a common goal first distributed
among different actors. Groups usually have two members, and one is responsible for hardware and
the other for software by agreement. Collaboration in that context means sharing knowledge, skills,
and strategies between groups. Hubert and Denis stated that collaborative learning reduces the gap
between teachers and pupils as the educator will be involved in learners’ interactions. When teach-
ers do not know the answers, they are often on the same knowledge level with pupils and will learn
with them. This creates a community that shares information, which enhances educational robotics
(Denis & Hubert, 2001).
Problem solving
Sartatzemi, Dagdilelis, and Kagani (2005) performed a study on using robots to teach program-
ming. The aim was related to the knowledge and skills of problem solving and the design of algo-
rithms. Robots first did what their users commanded, not what was expected. The process involved
problem solving. Jonassen (2000) called it debugging. Sartatzemi, Dagdilelis, and Kagani (2005)
noted that professional programming languages offer many complex statements. Understanding
these statements requires some pre-knowledge. When facing problems, users tend to focus on the
use of language rather than focus on the actual problem. The authors noticed that students test their
solutions to the problem with the execution of the program on the robot. The robot reflects their
commands, and the students see if the problem is solved. If the problem still exists, it is not the same
state as before. A new program created a new situation, which students take as a new starting point
for further trials, or they retrieve their last changes in the program and return to a previous state.
After that, they try out a new solution.
So the use of robots could be considered a learning methodology for novice programmers to
develop debugging skills as when debugging on a computer. This is derived from constructionism
and the physical reflection of the program in the real world. Learning with physical objects enhances
a learner’s cognition. Sartatzemi, Dagdilelis, and Kagani (2005) concluded that Mindstorms were easy
for students to understand and control. We find this rather important because students expect im-
mediate results t when handling other types of ICT tools (e.g., mobile phones and computers). This is
in accordance with comparing experiences from workshops with intuitive robotic kits. Students get
frustrated while dealing with robots when they struggle with problems related to lack of knowledge
about the programming environment (rather than programming itself ) (Sartatzemi et al., 2005).
Project-based learning
According to Karahoca, Karahoca, and Uzunboylu (2011), project-based learning (PBL) tasks
are assigned to students organised in teams for group work. Tasks could involve investigation or are
based on searches for problems. Collaboration is also supported in this type of work as students try to
refine questions, think critically, collect and analyse data, draw conclusions, and share their findings
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with others. These authors combined PBL with collaborative learning to organise science courses in
electrical circuits (Karahoca et al., 2011). They divided students into groups and assigned each team
a coach. The classes followed a learning scenario consisting of eight stages of PBL. Several teams did
not complete the electronics project. The average rate of completion over four teams was 68%. Some
of the problems with PBL were derived from collaboration. Communication and dividing work within
teams was crucial. Karahoca, Karahoca, and Uzunboylu (2011) noted that in some teams, curious and
enthusiastic students did most of the work. Groups with better communication and enthusiastic
students had more ideas and better results. So teamwork is important in the context of PBL.
PBL was also used to train teachers on the TERECoP project (Alimisis, Frangou, & Papanikolaou,
2009). It was an implementation of constructivist learning theory targeting teachers’ use of the method-
ology. Teachers teach students as they were taught in training—not as they were told (Arlegui & Pina,
2009). This methodology was applied in teacher training during three meetings, and each meeting
played an important role in the context of PBL. The fourth and fifth meetings developed teachers’ own
projects, and the evaluated results were tested on the students. PBL (exploration, experimentation,
and creation features) used in training was a positive experience.
Competition-based learning
Another approach to teaching STEM subjects (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math)
with robots is competition-based learning (CBL). Students take part in robotics competitions. They
prepare for the competition by building hardware and software. This process involves debugging as
students will face problems. While trying to find a solution to the problem, students have to obtain
or regain knowledge from subjects like math, physics, programming, and science subjects. Prepar-
ing for competition could be generally motivating as participants are motivated by the competi-
tion. Knowledge and skills obtained through this learning method are memorised and understood
better than with fact-based learning (Papert, 1993). Competition-based learning has been the most
effective way of getting students to apply math, physics, and other subjects through robotics (Gian-
nakopoulos, 2009).
An example of CBL is the Botball Educational Robotics Program in the United States, which in-
volves designing, building, and programming robots to get middle and high school students to apply
knowledge from science, technology, math, and engineering (Stein, 2004). In this competition, teams
include 5-15 or more students. The Botball approach consists of many stages: research, workshop,
designing, building, and programming projects, finalizing through competitions, and conference.
Botball first targeted only middle and high school students but later targeted university students.
Organisers aimed to offer challenges to university students through hands-on engineering. A survey
conducted on Botball participants reflected that Botball affected career choice for one third, and most
of them (94%) wanted to continue in a career in a technical or engineering field.
Compulsory learning
The work done in the field of robotics education is mainly still on the “interest level” and is not
widely used as a part of compulsory education in general schools (Barbero, Demo, & Vaschetto, 2011).
Although there are some positive examples of robotics being used in school curricula, these are
mainly pilot studies. One of these studies conducted from 2002 to 2003 in Sweden (Hussain, Lindh,
& Shukur, 2006) demonstrated several positive effects of using robotics in a classroom on the cogni-
tive development of grade 5 students. They found that it was difficult to confirm the hypothesis of
LEGO generally having a positive effect on student cognitive development. More studies should be
done to draw conclusions with high validity (Hussain et al., 2006). Robots were compulsory in the
curriculum. Robots were used eight hours a month. Activities were related to ordinary schoolwork,
in which teachers integrated robotics with their lessons, such as math and technology. In this study,
compulsory learning was one possible reason for a more negative attitude towards LEGO robots.
Another example of using robots as a compulsory part of education is in Ireland, where in coopera-
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tion with MIT Media Laboratory, four Irish Primary Schools used Mindstorms in children’s technology
projects (Martin, Butler, & Gleason, 2000). Robotics was included in the curriculum to teach technologi-
cal concepts. Eight projects were organised in the classroom, and the traditional curricular content was
studied through creative expression. Authors concluded that children conceived and implemented
successfully skills and knowledge of crafts, mechanics, sensing, control, and programming.
Inquiry learning
Inquiry learning cab be seen as a new promising approach to increase the applicability of robot-
ics in learning science. Inquiry learning has its roots in scientific discovery learning (Bruner, 1961). It
is a highly self-directed constructivist approach of learning and discovering through experiments or
observation (De Jong & Van Joolingen, 1998). However, the effect of inquiry learning does not de-
pend only on the actual level or support of students’ transformative inquiry skills but also on the level
and support of students’ regulative skills (Mäeots, Pedaste, & Sarapuu, 2008). Students have to plan,
monitor, and evaluate their processes of identifying problems, formulating research questions and
hypotheses, planning and carrying out experiments, analysing and interpreting results, and drawing
conclusions. In a virtual environment, the immediate responses of programs can give feedback and
support to the students to help them be effective learners in inquiry settings. Robots, however, can
provide students with immediate visualised and tactile feedback that would even increase the at-
tractiveness of inquiry learning – it helps to build a blended learning situation from computer-based
and real activities.
Robotic Systems for Science Education
Out of all educational robotic platforms, according to Alimisis (2012), it is not important what
exact platform is used in a classroom. The focus should be on the methods that are used while learning
with robots. Educational robotic platforms should be built using logic (Figure 1). Robots are mainly
composed from three functional elements and in some part act as humans. Sensors are for sensing
the environment; decisions are made on the basis of that information by the brain function, and there
are also motors as actuators for interacting with the environment.
A similar structure has been used in the context of science studies, which could provide input
for robotics in the future. For example, the latest work with artificial muscles is promising to displace
motors in the future (Kruusamae et al., 2010). An actuator’s function has moved towards accurate
controlling of motor rotation. Sensors available for educational robots allow robots to sense the
environment beyond human senses (Beetz, 2008). The simple movement of turtle has expanded.
Robots have more complicated sensors while motor functions remain on a basic level. There has been
much research towards getting robots to act more naturally in terms of coordination and motion
principle (Zhang, Liu, Chu, & Guo, 2008). There are also examples of using robots in visual simulation
(Abiyev, Ibrahim, & Erin, 2010). Using a simulation is cheaper and more accurate, but according to
constructionism theories, where users enhance their cognition with objects they can feel with their
senses, visualisation uses fewer senses than real, physical objects. There is another method in robotics
education between physical contact and visual simulation – remote/virtual lab. It enables users to
control the robot over the internet (Sell & Seiler, 2012).
Complicated robotic solutions that try to act more like humans are developed with textual pro-
gramming environments. For beginners starting to program a robot like NXT, programming is not the
primary objective. The key purpose is to get the robot moving and to understand its brain-sensor-
motor function. That is one reason why programming is made simple and visual for beginners. For
developing their programming skills, more complicated environments can be used. When it comes
to learning programming, robots can make it easier to understand (“LEGO Education,” 2013).
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Figure 1: The schema of educational robotic systems. Robots consist of sensors, controllers and
actuators that interact with the environment through information collection and actions
(based on Alimisis, 2012).
Sartatzemi, Dagdilelis, and Kagani (2005) described how they researched ninth and tenth grades
(14- to 16-year-olds) and the effect of Robolab programming with LEGO MINDSTORMS RCX. They dem-
onstrated that the understanding and correct use of the basic programming concepts was easier with
robotic systems. But these concepts (such as the creation and use of random numbers) were difficult for
novice programmers to understand, whereas for others (such as repetition structures), nothing could
be declared with certainty. It could be concluded that use of robots for learning programming has bet-
ter outcomes on students programming skills compared to learning programming in traditional only
computer based way.
New Approaches to Applying Robots in Science Education
New methods of using robotics in science education are still related to hardware capabilities and
methodological possibilities. RCX, the first widespread LEGO Educational product, was designed ac-
cording to constructionism. NXT and EV3 (LEGO Educational robotics platforms) mainly enhance RCX’s
hardware capabilities but still rely on constructionism.
Relating the hands-on aspect to pupils’ interaction with the programmable construction materials
means that the pupils’ individual knowledge develops continuously in building constructions of LEGO
products. In situated cognition (theory that states knowing is inseparable from doing), the importance
of the situation or the context of learning is emphasised. Individuals participate and become absorbed
in social and cultural activities. Learning is a part of these activities, which contributes to the meaning-
ful knowledge of its carrier. Communication is a key concept as it mediates the individual and his/her
context (social situation).
There have been discussions about two main methodologies of applying educational robotics.
Becker (1987) emphasised the importance of testable consequences in research on LOGO in discus-
sions of advantages and disadvantages. Becker examined two types of research methodologies: the
treatment methodology and computer criticism. Several researchers, including Becker (1987), stressed
that the main evidence showing that LOGO can produce measurable learning outcomes when used in
discovery classes has been obtained in situations like individual tutoring. They confirmed that in normal-
sized classes, the evidence clearly showed the need for direct instruction in the concepts and skills to
be learned from LOGO, as well as further direct instruction to enable students to generalise what they
have learned to other situations. But this is in complete opposition to Papert’s concept of the discovery
approach to LOGO. Pea (1985) argued about human mental functioning and the two roles of a computer.
The choice of the role of computers was between an amplifier of cognition and a re-organiser of human
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minds. This problem is applicable to the LEGO environment. The issue is whether tutoring should be
close to students or more intuitive to allow students to work more independently.
Robotics also supports students’ self-reflection (see Runnel, Pedaste, & Leijen, 2013). As students
program a robot to complete a task, they are putting themselves into a situation where the robot is
acting. Students are trying to “think” like a robot and reflecting on their thoughts on how a task should
be completed. In particular, they should apply all reflection activities: describing of their work, critiqu-
ing and evaluating it, and discussing it from different perspectives. Robots and collaborative teams of
students can provide support in this process.
In conclusion, the results of the analysis of the reviewed articles about using robots in education
showed the advantages of applying robotics in the context of inquiry learning. However, in previous
studies, there has been no strong evidence of the development of students’ regulative skills. There is
statistically significant improvement in transformative inquiry skills that depend on the regulative skills,
but the regulative skills have not been significantly increased as a result of various treatments (Mäeots,
Pedaste, & Sarapuu, 2009). But different advantages in supporting the development of regulative
inquiry skills can be seen in the case of robotics. The programming environment can act as a medium
for planning the actions of a real robot that can easily be monitored by a learner, and the outcome or
success of the learning process can be evaluated by analysing the movements of the robot. So robotics
has real potential for solving problems of virtual environments and developing students’ regulative
inquiry skills.
Discussion
As there are few quantitative studies conducted in the field of educational robotics, it is difficult
to come to conclusions about the effectiveness of the methodology applied to robotics in educational
settings. Quantitative analysis does not always provide evidence of using robots (Benitti, 2012). Generally,
the results of studies on using robotics in classrooms are positive, but they emphasise the need for further
study. Hussain et al. (2006) concluded that it is difficult to confirm the hypothesis that LEGO has a gener-
ally positive effect on cognitive development. Their studies indicate that certain positive effects can be
shown for groups/categories of students. Pedersen (1998) argued that the teacher’s role in achieving the
positive results in K-12 is a crucial one. It is the teacher who also has considerable influence over the way
in which these tools are received by the pupils. Beisser (2006) found that both genders are thriving in the
Lego/Logo environment, and both groups view computer use as important for completing schoolwork
and for future job or career roles. The teacher’s role is not seen as important only while using robots, but
when using any information and communication technologies (ICT) tools in science education. Robotics
is in some ways also a part of ICT used in schools. ICT covers a wide range of techniques, instruments,
and methods that allow users to obtain, transmit, reproduce, and obtain information (Martinez, 2000).
Robots address similar principles, and as an extension of computers, they collect information from the
environment, make decisions, and act (sensor-controller-actuator systems). This process is based on a
student’s algorithmical thinking; students make robot do what they want through programming. ICT
technologies and robotics have a similar effect on student skills (Kim, Choi, Han, & So, 2012). Applying
ICT technologies in schools depends on teachers and their abilities (Cavas, 2011).
Learning with robots is currently more project-based (Arlegui & Pina, 2009). Students solve real-life
technological problems because they are interesting and motivating. This assesses students’ think-
ing and problem solving skills, but more studies are needed to decide whether robotics should be a
compulsory aid for school subjects rather than an instrument that applies pedagogical methods and
increases motivation.
Another way of motivating students to use robotics and is competitions, which are great motiva-
tors but sometimes do more harm. Based on experience with the World Robot Olympiad (WRO, 2009)
competition, students are strongly motivated by competition (Giannakopoulos, 2009). Robotics’ teams
and robotics’ tasks are similar to those in sports such as football or basketball. The robotics’ courts and
the competition rules were very close to students’ favourite sports.
One example of using competitions to teach robotics in Estonia is a robotics introduction pro-
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gramme where three to four university students take the necessary equipment and go to schools to let
the children try out programming robots. Usually 45 minutes is allocated to teaching programming and
completing a small task of moving a robot around obstacles. The methodology used to complete the
task is mainly trial and error. More successful are those students who follow this path of separating the
track into smaller objectives. Others who try to complete the task completely with one programming
cycle via computer will not complete the task as quickly as others. In the end, there is always a compe-
tition between students. The idea of a competition is motivating but may result in disappointment if
students do not succeed as expected.
Another example of demotivation derives from the FIRST LEGO League (FLL) competition (FIRST
LEGO League, 2013). As the accuracy of NXT robots is not at the level expected by the robot game field
in FLL, students are disappointed when the robot does not achieve the same goals in the competition
field compared to the situation on the home field. It is unclear if this disappointment decreases interest
in robotics even when competition is in the last step in CBL learning or whether it discourages further
participation. From competitions to more curriculum-oriented learning, Giannakopoulos (2009) elicited
from the introduction of robotics in high school education that a curriculum of robotics could involve
the students in activities where theory and knowledge from math, informatics, and physics are applied.
In this way, robotics’ lessons could support traditional lessons or be elective course using multimedia
such as networks or computer applications. The similarity of robotics to informatics and its use in the
field of applying real algorithms renders robotics a very useful tool that could be used for understand-
ing various lessons. The use of robotics in programming lessons helps students to understand and use
correctly primary programming concepts (Sartatzemi et al., 2005).
As programming itself would be a narrow outcome for educational robotics, robotic resources
should be evaluated to support other subjects such as physics. Studies on robotics supporting phys-
ics should show effects and outcomes of using LEGO kits for that purpose. Robotics is in this case not
an object; it is an instrument for learning physics. It may be difficult to use robotics in all domains of
a physics curriculum, but there are topics that are difficult for students for which LEGO could be used
as an experimental tool. These topics in Estonia can be retrieved from the national examinations in
physics. There are many misconceptions in physics among students (Krikmann, Susi, & Voolaid, 2004).
Such topics include impulse, Newton II law, and fluctuation (waves). Educational robotics could be one
suitable methodology to support learning in these domains.
The development of inquiry skills (transformative and regulative) should be a new target of applying
robotics. If robotics and inquiry learning have both shown their efficiency in developing problem-solving
skills, a combination of these approaches could contribute to even better learning outcomes. Further
empirical study is required (see Figure 2). Educational robotics has been mostly used in the context of
extracurricular activities and has not changed much in the last thirty years. Inquiry learning has been
heavily involved but not often applied in schools. Methods of engaging inquiry learning in schools are
being researched. Robotics as a tool and inquiry learning as a method would create, according to the
theoretical discussion, a powerful and mutually beneficial synergy.
Figure 2: How inquiry-based curriculum and extra-curricular robotics education could benefit from
a merge.
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In general, in the approach of inquiry-based robotics education, LEGO robots access human knowl-
edge similarly to LOGO computer language. LEGO Mindstorms are more advanced in technology and
allow students to reflect their thoughts on a more complicated level than simple movement. Using more
sensors to detect environment beyond human senses could be a promising support for STEM subjects.
Through hands-on learning, students construct their knowledge and link it with pre-knowledge because
robots give new meaning. Robots support constructivist learning but the question of tutoring remains.
Future studies are needed to clarify how learning with robots should be supported and to what extent
the students should have the freedom to discover robots more independently. LEGO Mindstorms with
close tutoring will help students link their work on robots with the real world and better understand
real world processes. This type of tutoring requires more teachers with comprehensive knowledge in
science and technology generally, but particularly in robotics science.
Most robotics education approaches should not be used alone as these methodologies support and
enhance each other. Collaborative or inquiry learning could help students share information, knowledge,
and experiences and improve learning outcomes. All these methodologies rely on constructivism and
therefore can be easily combined. Nearly all the methodologies have positive and negative properties,
but educators have to find the best way to react to these by combining them to meet today’s educational
needs. More research is necessary to make a decision on how these approaches should be combined.
Qualitative judgment of teachers and students based on experience in applying robotics in education
is scientifically not strong evidence. So both application of the approaches described in the current
analysis as well as their combination should be supported with much stronger empirical results.
Conclusion
Educational robotics is used widely in schools. The main reasons for using robots are found in the
qualitative statements by teachers and students. There are few quantitative studies showing the ef-
fectiveness of using robots and even those few often conclude by stating the need for further studies.
Thus, there is not enough quantitative evidence for applying robots in curricula to achieve educational
goals. However, the educational robotics market is saturated with different robotic platforms as many
companies see a possibility to earn profits in education.
In the context of science education these platforms could have wide applicability but in this case
a review of successful methods is needed. Based on the literature found in the current analysis, the fol-
lowing approaches have been used in educational robotics: discovery learning, collaborative learning,
problem solving, project-based learning, competition-based learning, and compulsory learning. All
robotic platforms on the market could be used with this variety of approaches developed since 1960’s.
More or less, these approaches have remained same and they have to face the need of modern society.
For instance, discovery learning is one of the approaches used for educational robotics, but it is very time
consuming and therefore expensive. Students nowadays expect fast results and when teachers cannot
give them direct answers, they get bored and frustrated. These approaches need reshaping towards the
context of modern society. Some approaches are developed from previous approaches because of a
changing educational world. Inquiry learning is considered to be one of the new approaches in science
education that improves students’ inquiry skills. However, it is not implemented very widely in classrooms.
As a result of the current study there is proposed a way to use robotics as a tool for learning physics
through experiments that are set up according to inquiry learning stages (setting research questions,
hypothesizing, planning experiments, collecting data, analysing, making conclusions). Physics is just
one example in the current study, robotics and inquiry learning could be used in other STEM subjects
as well. The applicability of inquiry learning in using robots in different domains needs further study.
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Heilo Altin MSc, PhD Student, University of Tartu, Faculty of Science and
Technology, 1 Nooruse Street, 51009 Tartu, Estonia.
E-mail: heiloaltin@gmail.com
Margus Pedaste PhD, Professor, University of Tartu, Faculty of Social Sciences and
Education, 1a Salme Street, 50103 Tartu, Estonia.
E-mail: margus.pedaste@ut.ee
377
A MULTIDIMENSIONAL
MODEL FOR THE
EXPLORATION OF
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF
SOCIAL NETWORKING
WEBSITES AS PERCEIVED
BY STUDENTS
Abstract. The rapid expansion of social Alexandru Balog,

networking websites is raising several Costin Pribeanu,
issues regarding the influence on the Vincentas Lamanauskas,
individual and social behavior of users. It
Violeta Šlekienė
is without doubt, that social networking
websites are a phenomenon of a contem-
porary society, which has to be explored
in various aspects. It is only because SNW
Introduction
are becoming more and more important
for the whole society, especially for the Social networking websites are continuously expanding and
youth, after all, they undoubtedly change changing in order to satisfy the various needs of their users. Their
the world. Their penetration is observed popularity is constantly growing. However, it does not mean,
in various society life spheres. Education that the usage of SNW is only a positive phenomenon. Possible
is not an exception. It can be stated, that negative aspects of this phenomenon are more often discussed
SNW change educational processes. How- in various layers of society. It is quite natural in this sense, that
ever, the main question is: how change? every phenomenon has both positive and negative sides. Re-
Can they harm, or maybe on the contrary – searchers draw attention to the fact, that real-life networking
cannot replace virtual networking on the Internet (Romiszowski,
help in terms of education. Having carried
2009), thus it is necessary to think about proper design in terms
out empiric research, a hierarchical and
of usability and proper surveillance of such networks. The re-
multidimensional measurement model
search studies of the latest years draw attention to various type
was developed to explore the negative of negative aspects: psychological, behavior changes (Buffardi,
effects of these websites. The model has Campbell, 2008; Braun, 2013), information distribution, manage-
been tested on one sample and cross ment and usage problems (Hugl, 2011), personal information
validated on another sample. It has been safety (Kist, 2008) and other. Safety risks should be mentioned as
stated, that SNW negative effects is a mul- a very negative aspect (e.g., such as sexual predators who target
tidimensional construct, having several minors and cyber bullies) (Brady, 2008). Thus, several mentioned
facets that describe distinct aspects. aspects obviously show, that the use of SNW has lots of negative
Key words: measurement models, science sides – from purely psychological to technological, social, and
education, social networking websites, even to economic outcomes. SNW spread even more “entangles”
the internet and other ICT users into virtual world, increases cer-
university students.
tain addictions. After all, negative outcomes are different; their
expression among different age and even sex consumers is dif-
Alexandru Balog, Costin Pribeanu
National Institute for Research and Develop- ferent. Everyday use of SNW can become a hardly controlled and
ment in Informatics – ICI Bucharest, Romania involuntary habit. The final outcome of this is the use of SNW not
Vincentas Lamanauskas, according to the need, but because of the formed habit. Active
Violeta Šlekienė participants in social networks spend the biggest part of their
University of Šiauliai, Lithuania time „borrowing” it from sleep, sport, from communication in real
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world and so on. Children and teenagers, spending the majority of their time in virtual space, don’t
use it up for the improvement of real communication skills and learning activities either. The survey
of 15-74 year-old Lithuanian citizens, carried out on the initiative of research agency RAIT in 2011
showed, that 48.8% of that age group country citizens have already registered in social networks. And
more than 34% of respondents asserted to be visiting the most popular social network in Lithuania
“Facebook” (http://www.veidas.lt/socialiniai-tinklai-prarasto-laiko-beieskant).
Thus, it is unreal to expect, that the use of social networking websites will decrease or they com-
pletely will not be used. In terms of education, it is much more important to find a balance between
ordinary instruments used in educational process and devices based on the newest 21 st century
technologies. The other aspect is to constantly observe the negative phenomena and find ways how
to neutralize or at least to significantly decrease possible negative effect. From this standpoint, the
research of possible negative effects using SNW is urgent.
In a recent study, Lamanauskas et al. (2012) presented the results of a survey to ascertain how
Lithuanian university students use social networking websites, how they value them, what opinion
they have about various social networking websites, and what they know about them.
The goal of this study is to further analyze the survey data collected in Lithuania in order to
explore the negative effects of these kinds of websites. We hypothesized that the negative effects is
a multidimensional construct having several facets that describe distinct aspects.
Related Work
A recent study showed that university students highly value social networking websites (La-
manauskas et al, 2013). SNW can be useful for communication and leisure time, finding friends, com-
municating with them, acquiring knowledge and getting the newest information from the whole
world.
Analyzing SNW usage questions in natural science education it is necessary to notice, that in the
latest years the attention is mostly concentrated to positive usability aspects, practically not analyz-
ing possible negative effects. It is understandable, because it is a conditionally new phenomenon in
educational practice. In fact, a lot of research studies only draw attention, that negative effects are
plausible; however they do not analyze them more exhaustively. Rapid SNW change is another impor-
tant aspect, which is practically not discussed. Even such networks as Facebook, Google+ and others
are constantly being improved, functional supply is expanding. Therefore, to analyze only generally
the use of such networking websites is not sensible. Some functions offered by such networking web-
sites can be very effective in terms of education, and the other quite the opposite. It is natural, that
a very big part of scientific studies are devoted to one of the most well-known networking websites
– Facebook (Bosch, 2009; Mazman, & Usluel, 2010; Hsu-Wan Chen, 2010; Kirschner, & Karpinski, 2010;
Rambe, 2012; Irwin, Ball, Desbrow, & Leveritt, 2012). Taiwanese researchers accentuate, that using
social networking in science teaching, useful resources are able to be shared and updated in a col-
laborative way (Hsu-Wan Chen, 2010). Palestinian researchers state, that SNW are a perfect instrument
seeking to increase pupils’ interest in natural sciences, to expand natural science literacy (Battrawi,
Muhtaseb, 2012). However, they also notice, that SNW integration with the other recourses devoted
to natural science education, remains problematic. On the other hand, the authors draw attention
that the problem how to ensure the quality of the posted information remains topical and has to be
analyzed exhaustively. Australian researchers, having analyzed facebook usage in the university study
process, acknowledge this networking website as a proper educational instrument, however express
a doubt, that it is still unclear if and how Facebook can enhance student learning outcomes (Irwin,
Ball, Desbrow, & Leveritt, 2012). Speaking in a wider context, natural science literacy of the society
is very important as well. SNW give a lot of this field information in various formats – visual material,
forums, discussions and so on. One of the main drawbacks mentioned by the researchers is enlisting
non-expert citizens in scientific debate that may represent inaccurate or biased representations of
knowledge, and other issues (Scalone, 2011). Representing closer relationship between science and
society, especially supplying society with the newest science knowledge, the researchers acknowledge
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SNW significance and advantages, but also draw attention to such moments as certain financial and
time investments (Racaniello, 2010). This can be interpreted as indirect SNW use drawbacks in natural
science education. Generally speaking, privacy, real friendship, taking up time and miscommunication
are the most important challenges facing education through the social networking (Zaidieh, 2012).
Moreover, some researchers express a very negative position in respect of SNW, asserting, that they
could ruin the future of teenagers and children and it had a very bad impact on education (Tariq,
Mehboob, Khan, & Ullah, 2012). It is obvious, that cultural differences of the countries can determine
such point of view as well.
It is fairly obvious, that the use of SNW has negative moments as well, which are not analyzed
exhaustively. This can be clearly seen from the accomplished research results. (Wilson, Fornasier,
White, 2010). Speaking about the cognitive ability development, SNW positive influence is doubtful
(Alloway, Horton, Alloway, Dawson, 2013).
Nevertheless, in spite of existing both known and unknown negative effects, the use of SNW,
teaching natural science subjects, is inevitable. Most SNW are perfectly integrated with the other ICT
and fit well both in comprehensive school and university studies. The researchers emphasize, that
young people must be educated to participate responsibly, ethically, and safely, because in this way
their digital citizenship is being developed (Wang, Shiang-Kwei, Hsu Hui-Yin, Green, 2013).
Research Model
In this study, a multidimensional and hierarchical model measuring the negative effects of social
networking websites is proposed, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The research model.
This model describes three dimensions of the construct PNE (Perceived Negative Effects) which
was conceptualized as a second order construct. Each dimension (distinct aspect) was conceptual-
ized as a first order construct.
PNE-S refers to the negative social effects of these websites: distract people from reality, estrange-
ment, dehumanize the society, encourage people estrangement, encourage young people to suicide
(Reid, 2009; Junco, 2011; Meintel, 2012).
PNE-C refers to the negative effects of the communication in virtual environment: sharing
personal information with unknown people, less socialization, and less direct relations (Krakovsky,
2004; Perkins, 2008).
PNE-T refers to the negative effects on teenagers; behavior, health, and ability to concentrate
(Pociūtė, Krancaitė, 2012; Forest, Wood, 2012).
The questionnaire items measuring the usefulness of social networks are detailed in Appendix 1.
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Samples and Data Analysis
In this study two independent samples were analyzed. Data from the first sample was used for
establishing the factor structure and for scale testing. Data from the second sample was used to
cross-validate the structure derived from the first sample.
The 11 items from the questionnaire were positively phrased and measured on a 5-point Likert-
type scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The data was analyzed with SPSS
16.0 for Windows, according to the recommendations from the literature (Hair et al., 2006).
The first sample consists of 202 university students from technical faculties. After dropping a
response with excessive missing data, 201 usable responses were obtained (response rate 99,5%).
Then the sample was examined for the presence of outliers. Only two distinct univariate outliers
with z-scores of 3.35 were identified (no multivariate outliers).
Also the normality of each of the 11 variables was investigated in terms of skewness and kurtosis.
With one exception, the values were all within the robustness threshold [-1, +1] for normality (Hair et
al., 2006). Mean scores ranged from 2.00 to 3.51, with standard deviations from 0.77 to 1.04.
The working sample has 201 observations from which 163 males (81.1%) and 38 females (18.9%).
Most respondents have previous experience with social networks.
The second sample comes from science education faculties. 169 questionnaires were returned.
After dropping responses from incomplete questionnaires and those with excessive missing data,
163 usable responses were obtained (response rate 96.4%).
Three distinct univariate outliers and four multivariate outliers above the critical value were
identified. After examining the data and carrying out several verification tests and analysis of results,
one case was eliminated.
The data were investigated in terms of its skewness and kurtosis. With two exceptions, the val-
ues were all within the robustness threshold [-1, +1] for normality as suggested by Hair et al. (2006).
All mean scores are greater than 2.0, with a range of 2.43–3.61 and the standard deviations ranged
from 0.61 to 0.99.
The working sample has 162 observations from which 20 males (12.3%) and 142 females (87.7%).
Most respondents have previous experience with social networks. The size of each sample is accept-
able, according to the literature (Hair et al., 2006).
Analytical Procedures
In order to assess the proposed scale, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using structural equation
modeling (SEM) approach was conducted. The models were analyzed using the AMOS 7.0 software
using a covariance matrix as input and maximum likelihood estimation method. Each construct was
modeled as a reflective construct accounting for its indicators.
To analyze the measurement models and assess whether a second-order is plausible, various fit
indices can be compared (Koufteros et al., 2009). The overall fit of a model can be tested by using the
chi-square statistic. Although the chi-square (c2) statistic provides the best inferential test of overall
model fit, it has been found sensitive to sample size and normality. Consequently, it is necessary to
rely on other goodness of fit indices (Byrne, 2001). The following goodness-of-fit measures were used
in this study (Hu & Bentler, 1999): normed chi-square (χ2/df ), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), Comparative
Fit Index (CFI), Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR), and Root Mean Square Error of Ap-
proximation (RMSEA) .
The next step was to assess the convergent and discriminant validity (Koufteros et al., 2009).
Convergent validity can be assessed by examining the loading and their statistical significance
through t-values, the item reliability, the construct reliability (composite reliability), and the average
variance extracted. To be considered adequate, the factor loadings of all standardized items should
be greater than 0.50, ideally exceed 0.7 and t-values greater than |2| at 0.05 level. Item reliability
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indicates the amount of variance in an item due to the underlying construct rather than error and
it should be greater than 0.50. The composite reliability (CR) measures the internal consistency on
the indicators measuring given construct and should be at least 0.70 or 0.60 (Hair et al., 2006). The
average variance extracted (AVE) measures the amount of variance that is captured by the construct
in relation to the amount of variance due to measurement error and it should be greater than 0.50
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981).
Within the context of higher-order modeling, the first-order factors are expected to be highly
correlated. When constructs are highly correlated, discriminant validity may be difficult to support
(Koufteros et al., 2009).
Research Results
Study 1 (N=201)
In this study two alternative measurement models were tested. The first model (M1) hypothesizes
three correlated first-order factors, as shown in Figure 2. The second model (M2) includes one second-
order construct and three first-order factors with corresponding indicators, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 2: Three first-order correlated factors (M1).
The results for Model M1 indicate an acceptable level of fit of the proposed model with these
data (χ2=52.268, df=41, p=0.112) and other indices indicated a good fit with χ2/df=1.275, TLI=0.969,
CFI=0.977, SRMR = 0.046, RMSEA=0.037. The examination of the standardized residuals values of the
covariance matrix has shown that these don’t exceed the value of |2.58|, and there is no need for re-
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specification. Also, the inspection of the modification indices and the completely standard expected
change has shown that it does not appear to be a reason for re-specification.
The correlations between first-order factors are high, with values ranging from 0.75 to 0.80. As
argued by Koufteros et al. (2009) in instances where first-order factors exhibit moderate correlations,
a measurement model specification such as the one represented by our model, would be advisable.
The results provided acceptable support for convergent validity. All standardized factor loadings were
statistically significant (t-values > 1.96), and ranged from 0.41 to 0.71. With the exception for NES2 and
NES6, other factor loadings were above the minimally acceptable threshold of 0.50. The item reliability
(R2) values are above the suggested standard of 0.5 (Hu & Bentler, 1999) only for NES1.
The composite reliability (CR) of each construct is above the minimum level of 0.60. This sug-
gests that the items are sufficiently representative on their respective construct. The value of average
variance extracted (AVE) are marginally acceptable.
Although several items did not meet the cut-off, these were retained considering that they were
important indicators and the content validity associated with these items was high. This was also
because other estimate such as factor loading and composite reliability remained satisfactory. Fur-
ther, deleting these items would leave fewer items on some construct that might lead to subsequent
identification problem (Byrne, 2001; Hair et al., 2006).
data (χ2=52.268, df=41, p=0.112) and other indices indicated a good fit with χ2/df=1.275, TLI=0.969,
CFI=0.977, SRMR = 0.046, RMSEA=0.037.
Figure 3: Three first-order factors, one second-order factor (M2).
For second-order constructs with reflective dimensions, the convergent validity of the indica-
tors of the first-order factors (dimensions) can be assessed as previously described for first-order
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measurement model. Estimates of item validity and reliability are not sensitive to the addition of a
second-order factor. Conclusions concerning the validity and reliability of the items would be the
same. The second-order model has the additional advantage of provide estimates of the validity and
reliability of the dimensions.
Further empirical support for convergent validity and for acceptance of the second-order factor
model is found in the magnitude and significance of estimated parameters as well as the amount of
variance explained (Koufteros et al., 2009).
All standardized factor loadings (the gamma coefficients) of the first-order factors on the second-
order factor are large and exhibit high t-values at the 0.001 significance level. Specifically, the results
indicated that PNE-T (γ = 0.91, t-value = 8.32) was the strongest dimension of the second-order factor
(PNE), followed by PNE-C (γ=0.88, t-value=5.07), and PNE-S (γ=0.86, t-value=6.45). These results suggest
that the users evaluate the social network on the confirmed three dimensions, but they also viewed the
social network as a higher-order factor that captured a meaning common to all the dimensions.
The reliability of each dimension was evaluated by examining the squared multiple correlation
(SMC). The SMC values are above the suggested standard of 0.50 (0.74 PNE-S, 0.77 PNE-C, and 0.82
PNE-T) and indicate that more than half of the variance in the each dimension is due to the second-
order construct.
The construct reliability (CR) for the second-order construct is 0.908, above the minimum rec-
ommended level of 0.60. This suggests that the dimensions are sufficiently representative on the
second-order construct. The value of average variance extracted (AVE) for second-order construct
is 0.777, above the minimum level of 0.50. These results suggest that, on average, the majority of
the variance in the first-order dimensions is shared with second-order construct and thus provide
evidence of convergent validity.
Study 2 (N=162)
The models M1 (three correlated first-order factors) and M2 (one second-order construct and
three first-order factors) were tested with the second sample.
data. Although the χ2 test is significant (χ2=59.731, df=41, p=0.029) all other indices indicated a good
fit with χ2/df=1.457, TLI=0.950, CFI=0.963, SRMR=0.052, RMSEA=0.053. The examination of the stan-
dardized residuals values and the inspection of the modification indices have shown that there is no
reason for re-specification.
The model showed a clean three-factor structure, with all items loading significantly onto their a
priori dimension. The results also provided support for convergent validity, as all factor loadings were
statistically significant, with critical t values ranging from 4.47 to 7.86 (p<.001) and the standardized
factor loadings values ranging from 0.40 to 0.85. The correlations between first-order factors are high,
with values ranging from 0.62 to 0.80.
The composite reliability (CR) of each construct is above the minimum level of 0.60, ranging from
0.64 to 0.79. The value of average variance extracted (AVE) for PNE-T (0.59) is above the suggested
standard of 0.50 and the values of AVE for PNE-S (0.39) and PNE-C (0.38) are marginally acceptable.
Although several items did not meet the cut-off, these items were retained considering that they
were important indicators and the content validity associated with these items was high (Hair et al.,
2006).
The results for Model M2 also indicate a good level of fit with sample data (χ2=59.731, df=41,
p=0.029) all other indices indicated a good fit with χ2/df=1.457, TLI=0.950, CFI= 0.963, SRMR = 0.052,
RMSEA=0.053.
All standardized factor loadings (the gamma coefficients) of the first-order factors on the second-
order factor are large and exhibit high t-values at the 0.001 level. Specifically, the results indicated
that PNE-C (γ = 0.98, t-value = 6.78) was the strongest dimension of the second-order factor (PNE),
followed by PNE-S (γ=0.81, t-value=6.89), and PNE-T (γ=0.77, t-value=6.25). The reliabilities of the
three dimensions PNE-S, PNE-C, and PNE-T were .66, .96, and .59, respectively.
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For the second-order construct, CR is 0.893 and the value of AVE is 0.737. This suggests that the
dimensions are sufficiently representative on the second-order construct and most of the variance in
the first-order dimensions is shared with the second-order construct. In turn, this provides evidence
for the convergent validity.
Discussion
Analysis results confirmed the raised research hypothesis and proved that Social network (SN)
negative effect is a multidimensional construct, having several facets that describe distinct aspects.
Constructed PNE model revealed that both sample respondents, having participated in the
research, very highly value negative effect made by Social networks in all three dimensions (PNE-S,
PNE-C and PNE-T). Both Technology and Education science faculty representatives, being active Social
network users, discern a considerable negative influence both on socialization and on communication
in virtual space, on teenagers’ behavior, concentration and so on. They are very strongly convinced,
that SN distract people from reality, weaken real relationship between people, encourage people‘s
estrangement, even encourage them to suicide. Besides, spread of personal and not only personal
information to unknown people raises a big concern. These results correlate well with the earlier re-
search studies (Lamanauskas et al., 2012), which showed, that consumers have little knowledge about
how personal information is used, which is stored in social networking websites. This is obviously
connected with the person’s rights and ethical things. Even 55% of the respondents do not know how
SN use published personal and other type of information. This shows, that the problem earlier raised
by the researchers, remains urgent. Brydolf (2007) states, that it is very important to find a certain
balance between the use and possible risks using SNW.
Comparing both sample results, some differences can be discerned in SN evaluation. From the
results one can see, that in the group of Technology faculty respondents (sample 1), the effect on
teenagers (PNE-T) factor has the strongest expression. Then follow communication in virtual space
(PNE-C) and socialization (PNE-S) factors. In the group of respondents from Educology faculties (sample
2) factors ranged as follows: communication in virtual space (PNE-C), socialization (PNE-S) and effect
on teenagers (PNE-T) factors. It follows, that technology faculty students are mostly concerned with
SN negative effect on teenagers’ health and behavior and think, that SN make negative influence
on students’ grades and their ability to concentrate. Communication in virtual space and spread of
information to unknown people are of a big threat. People‘s estrangement, breaking-off from reality,
society‘s dehumanization are less accentuated. Whilst Educology faculty representatives, acknowl-
edging, that SN make a negative influence on teenagers‘ health, behavior, ability to concentrate and
accentuating SN influence on people‘s estrangement, breaking-off from reality, still the biggest threat
discern in the communication in virtual space and information spread to unknown people.
Such difference in the evaluation of SN negative effect can be determined by various reasons.
Belonging to a certain social group (according to faculty, future speciality), learning and free time
peculiarities, the style of communication with contemporaries and adults, make quite a big influence
on attitude and value system formation. J. Holand (Spokane, 1996) states, that not the interests are
which determine the choice of profession, but personality‘s own features, his social environment. Ac-
cording to the author, similar people choose similar professions. On the other hand, samples, taking
part in the research are not equivalent in terms of sex. The first sample (Technology faculty) comprised
81 % of male and 19 % of female. The second one (Educology faculties) on the contrary, even 88 % -
of female and only 12 % of male. It is natural to think, that sex also could have influence on opinion
differences. As earlier research studies show (Lamanauskas et al., 2012), girls more than boys tend
to communicate in SN, more than boys they pay attention to learning and information exchange in
virtual environment. Therefore, it can be thought, that girls (Education faculties), communicating more
in virtual space, discern more negative outcomes of such communication as well. They are also more
concerned with information spread among unknown people. Whilst boys (Technology faculty), being
more rational, notice the biggest danger of SN in teenagers’ health, behavior and concentration.
It is obvious, that both positive and negative effect of SN on every personality and on the whole
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society is not a univocal phenomenon. Therefore, its evaluation can‘t be univocal either. It is determined
by different reasons, which need to be distinguished and investigated more exhaustively.
In this study two alternative measurement models were tested. The first model (M1) hypoth-
esizes three correlated first-order factors and the second model (M2) one second-order construct
and three first-order factors with corresponding indicators. Having carried out estimation with one
sample and cross validation with a second sample, it was obtained that both alternative models M1
and M2 indicate a good level of fit with sample data. Based on the obtained results, it can be stated,
that social network (SN) negative effect is a multidimensional construct, having several facets that
describe distinct aspects.
Carried out analysis revealed, that both sample respondents, having participated in the research
very highly value negative effect made by Social networks according to all three dimensions (PNE-S,
PNE-C and PNE-T), at the same time discerning SN as a higher order factor, giving general meaning to
all dimensions. University students, being active Social network users discern a considerable negative
influence both on socialization and communication in virtual space, on teenagers’ behavior, concen-
tration and so on. They are very strongly convinced that SN distract people from reality, weaken real
relationship between people, encourage people’s estrangement, even encourage to suicide. Besides,
spread of personal and not only personal information to unknown people is of a big concern.
There are inherent limitations since the study is exploratory and the questionnaire was primarily
targeted to the usage of social networking websites. Future work will focus on the development of a
new evaluation instrument in order to target more dimensions of the usefulness of social networking
websites, particularly in the science education area.
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Appendix 1: Constructs and items.

Item Description
NES1 SN websites distract people from reality

NES2 SN websites earn a lot of money using free personal information
NES3 SN websites can encourage the youth for suicide
NES4 SN websites dehumanise society
NES5 SN websites encourage people estrangement
NES6 Staying in SN websites is more fashionable than useful
NEC1 Constant staying in virtual environment causes damage to person‘s socialization
387
ISSN 1648–3898
(P. 378-388)
Item Description
NEC1 Communication in virtual space will never substitute direct peoples‘ relations
NEC2 Most people belonging to SN websites don‘t know, who they share information with about themselves,their
hobbies and life
NET1 Information conveyed by SN websites can have negative influence on teenagers‘ behaviour and health
NET2 SN websites make negative influence on pupils‘ marks and ability to concentrate
Received: April 30, 2013 Accepted: June 15, 2013
Alexandru Balog PhD, Senior Researcher I, National Institute for Research and
Development in Informatics – ICI Bucharest, Bd. Maresal
Averescu No. 8-10, 011455, Bucharest, Romania.
E-mail: alexb@ici.ro
Costin Pribeanu PhD., Senior Researcher, National Institute for Research and
Development in Informatics, 8-10, Maresal Al. Averescu,
011455, Bucharest, Romania.
E-mail: pribeanu@ici.ro
Website: http://rochi.ici.ro/pribeanu/index.htm
Vincentas Lamanauskas PhD., Professor, Natural Science Education Research
Centre, University of Siauliai, 25-119 P.Višinskio Street, LT-
76351, Siauliai, Lithuania.
Phone: +370 687 95668.
E-mail: lamanauskas@lamanauskas.puslapiai.lt
Website: http://www.lamanauskas.puslapiai.lt
Violeta Šlekienė PhD., Associate Professor, Head of Department of Physics,
Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Šiauliai, 19 P.
Visinskio Street, LT-77156 Siauliai, Lithuania.
Phone: +370 41 595721.
E-mail: violeta@fm.su.lt
Website: http://www.su.lt/ This e-mail address is being
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388
ISSN 1648–3898
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Vol.12, No.

The International Journal of the Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

Published since 2002 Address:

ISSN 1648–3898 © Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

COGITO ERGO SUM HOMOMACHINE?

THE EFFECTS OF INQUIRY SUPPORTED BY ARGUMENT MAPS ON SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

TURKISH STUDENTS’ IMAGES OF SCIENTISTS

THE EMOTIONS ABOUT TEACHING AND LEARNING SCIENCE: A STUDY OF PROSPECTIVE

EXAMINING THE LEARNING EXPERIENCES OF SCIENCE TRAINING AMONG TAIWANESE

PREDICTING COLLEGE STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT IN SCIENCE COURSES

THE IMPACT OF SITE-VISITS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIOLOGICAL COGNITIVE

An Investigation of Mathematics and Science Questions in Entrance

LEARNING APPROACHES TO APPLYING ROBOTICS IN SCIENCE EDUCATION

A MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL FOR THE EXPLORATION OF NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL

INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

Problems of psychology in the 21st Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

Quality Issues and insights in the 21st Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

COGITO ERGO SUM HOMOMACHINE?

Figure 1: 4 pillars of the education system.

Figure 2: School system and innovative pedagogies.

Figure 3: Efficiency of teaching process.

•• representation of knowledge and teaching/learning process,

Figure 4: Do we think differently? (Kurzweil, 2005).

Received: June 11, 2013 Accepted: June 25, 2013

Gül Ünal Çoban Abstract. Situating arguments as a

Science Education and Prospective Science Teachers

Assumptions and Limitations

Data Collection Tools

Science Process Skills Test

Epistemological View Questions

Treatment in Control Group

Treatment in Experimental Group

Construction of Argument Maps

Preparation for Experimental Group

0 Irrelevant answer or no answer. (0 point)

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics related to SPST and EVQ scores.

Experimental Group Control Group

Pre Post Pre Post

Table 3. Significance of test correlations between dependent and independent variables.

PRE-SPST 1 0.191 0.283* -0.094

All the assumptions of MANCOVA (normality, homogeneity of regression, equality of variances,

df F Sig. Eta Squared Observed power

POST-SPST 1 8.7 0.005 0.134 0.83

Conclusions and Implications

Received: January 10, 2013 Accepted: April 11, 2013

Ayşenur Yontar Toğrol

Introduction Abstract. This study analyses the draw-

Table 1. Grade, and gender distribution of the sample.

Instrument and Analysis of Drawings

Figure 1: Smiling scientist. Figure 2: Happy scientist.

Table 2. Analysis of drawings-frequency of indicators.

Crazy Hair 118 23

Wearing Lab Coat 78 15

Table 3. Comparison of frequencies of indicators.

Bald 105 20 130 29

Figure 3: Woman scientist working with time machine.

Table 4. Comparison of frequencies of gender.

Male 356 68 321 73

Conclusions and Implications

and takes little time to administer. It can also stimulate

Received: February 04, 2013 Accepted: April 15, 2013

Ayşenur Yontar Toğrol Ph D., Associate Professor, Boğaziçi University, Department of

The Research Problem

Data Collection and Analysis Procedures