B.

Tech IV Year I Semester Mechanical-B Academic Year 2018-2019

Unit 5 a
COMPUTER AIDED QUALITY CONTROL (CAQC)
Syllabus: Terminology in quality control, Computer in QC, Contact inspection methods, Non-contact
inspection methods- Optical and Non-optical, Computer aided Testing, Integration of CAQC with
CAD/CAM.

Quality: It can be defined as the degree to which a particular product (or) its various
components meet certain standards specified by the designer.
Quality assurance (QA): It deals with the activities that will maximize the probability
of the product and manufacturing components with design specifications. Quality
Assurance is performed before manufacturing of the product like the selection of a
particular material of a component among various materials etc. QA involves in product
design, manufacture planning, decisions concerned to production equipment, tooling
methods etc.
Quality control (QC): It deals with the activities related to inspection, detection and the
necessary corrective action to be taken to eliminate poor quality of the product and its
components. QC activities are carried out after the manufacturing of the product. These
activities involve planning of inspection procedures, measuring instruments and the
specifications of gauges required for inspection. Quality control is achieved by:
1. Inspection.
i. Control charts:
a. R charts (control chart used to plot the range of each sample).
b. X charts (control charts used to plot the average measured value of a certain quality
characteristics of each of series of samples taken from the manufacturing process).
c. P-chart (or) 100p-chart (control chart for percentage defective in the sample)
d. C-chart (control chart for number of defects in the sample is plotted as a function of
time).
e. S-chart (control chart for standard deviation).
f. np-chart (control chart for number of defectives).
ii. Acceptance sample.
2. Testing.
1. Inspection: It refers to the activity of examining the product to determine if it meets
specified design standards (or) not. Inspection is used to assess the quality of the product
in relation to the design specifications.

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B.Tech IV Year I Semester Mechanical-B Academic Year 2018-2019
i. Control charts: Control charts keep the record over time of one (or) more process
parameters of interest. It consists of a central line indicating the expected quality level of
the process. Upper Control Limit (UCL) and Lower Control Limit (LCL) are the limits
in which process parameter varies. Control charts can be prepared during production
facilitating adjustments in the manufacturing process and if any correction is needed as
per the recorded data.
ii. Acceptance sampling: It involves drawing a sample from a batch of products to assess
the quality level of the batch and decide whether the batch should be accepted (or)
rejected.
2. Testing: Testing is used to evaluate the quality of the product in relation to the
functional aspects of the product. Testing is a procedure in which the part being tested is
observed during the actual operation. The testing procedure can be carried out by using
destructive testing (or) non-destructive testing.
Differences between QC Inspection and QC Testing:
QC Inspection QC testing
1. Inspection in quality control is used to 1. Testing in quality control is used to
examine the quality of a product in relation examine the quality of a product in relation
to the design standards specified for it. to the functional aspects of the item.
2. Inspection is a regular activity in 2. Testing is significant stage of work in
production. product development to prove the
capability of the product.
3. Inspection is done whenever and 3. Testing is done in executing a system
wherever required. with the intent of finding defects.
4. Inspection might be checked with 4. The testing procedure is carried out by
several GO/NOGO gauges (or) they might using destructive testing (or) non-
be measured with a micrometre and other destructive testing methods.
instruments.

Computer Aided Quality Control (CAQC): Computer is used to monitor, control and
to prepare the final reports of the inspection and testing procedures. CAQC is a broad
range of services in the manufacturing organisation which go beyond the simple
inspection process. The typical inputs and outputs into CAQC are shown in fig.

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B.Tech IV Year I Semester Mechanical-B Academic Year 2018-2019

Objectives of Computer Aided Quality Control:

1. Improve product quality.
2. Increase productivity in the inspection process.
3. Increase productivity.
4. Reduce Lead time.
5. Reduce wastage due to scrap or rework.
Advantages of Computer Aided Quality Control (CAQC):
1. Inspection and testing can be carried out on 100% basis rather than by sampling
procedures used in traditional quality control.
2. Inspection of the parts are performed during manufacturing only. With the help of non-
contact sensors there is no requirement of stopping, repositioning and making physical
contact with the manufacturing part. Hence, lot of time and effort can be saved.
3. The non-contact sensors are used as feedback elements to the computerized control,
which is capable of making the required adjustments to the process. Variables depending
on the analysis of data collected by the sensors. Such kind of feedback control system
helps in the reduction of scrap losses and improve quality of the product.
4. Along with Computer aided inspection (CAI) and Computer aided testing (CAT), the
use of computer can be made in other areas of quality control and quality assurance.
5. Manual inspection activity is greatly reduced, leading to very few and trained personnel
in the quality control department.
Types of Computer aided quality control:
1. Computer aided inspection (CAI).
2. Computer aided testing (CAT).
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B.Tech IV Year I Semester Mechanical-B Academic Year 2018-2019
Various method of CAI or Automated inspection:
1. Offline inspection.
2. Online inspection.
3. Contact inspection methods
i. Co-ordinate measuring machine
ii. Mechanical probes.
4. Non-contact inspection methods.
i. Non-optical techniques:
a. Electrical field technique:
I. Reluctance.
II. Capacitance.
III. Inductance.
b. Radiation techniques
c. Ultrasonic techniques
ii. Optical techniques
a. Machine vision.
b. Scanning laser beam devices.
c. Photogrammetry etc.
1. Offline inspection: The inspection which is performed away from the manufacturing
process is known as offline inspection. It is suitable for high production runs with shorter
cycle times.

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B.Tech IV Year I Semester Mechanical-B Academic Year 2018-2019
2. Online inspection: The inspection process which is performed while the part is being
manufactured on the machine is known as online inspection (or) real time inspection.
Instrument which are used for online inspection are dependent on the type of
measurements to be made. The measuring (or) gauging technique is performed
simultaneously on the manufacturing parts. Online inspection is advantageous where the
defects in the raw workpieces are disapproved before they are machined, which results in
reduction of scrap and production acquired is better. But the initial cost is high.
3. Contact inspection methods: Contact inspection method will touch the workpieces
with certain devices (like probes) and performs inspections.
i. Co-ordinate measuring machine (CMM): CMM is a flexible measuring device
capable of providing a highly accurate dimensional position along three mutually
perpendicular axes. This equipment is extensively used in the manufacturing industry for
post-production inspection of a large variety of components and assemblies in regular
production. It can also be used for checking the dimensions of various tooling such as jigs
& fixtures, dies, moulds and special tools etc.
CMM are controlled by computers (or) numerical control systems when a
component is to be inspected for its profile and other features, the program (or) coordinate
data is downloaded from the central computer. The systems are capable of transmitting
data from the measuring machine back to the computer.

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B.Tech IV Year I Semester Mechanical-B Academic Year 2018-2019
Components of CMM: The components of CMM are:
1. Precision machine structure: It is the main operating unit of a CMM which can move
the sensor probe to be positioned at the requisite location x-y-z on the part to be measured.
This structure must be very rigid to provide the necessary accuracy for the measurements.
To provide a thermally stable surface for part placement, granite tables are generally used
as bases in most of the CMM's.
2. Probing system: That touch trigger probe is used to collect the basic information such
as x, y, z coordinates of the points, where the probe touches the part to measure a
particular dimension.
3. Machine control unit: It is essentially a computerized system that serves the purpose
of controlling the probe propositioning as well as getting the data in terms of the measured
point sets which are then utilised by the software.
4. CMM software: CMM software allows necessary computations on the point sets that
were measured and communicated to other equipment in the system. It consists of several
applications software depending upon the industry for the purpose of special analysis.
Types of CMM:
1. Cantilever type CMM: In this, a vertical probe moves in the z-axis carried by a
cantilevered arm that moves in the y-axis and it can also move in x-axis (laterally). The
cantilever type CMM is normally limited to small and medium machines. It provides a
relatively large envelope without taking up too much floor space.
2. Column type CMM: This type has a moving table and saddle arrangement, which is
similar to a horizontal boring machine. The column moves only along the z-axis while
the x and y motions are provided by the 2-axis saddle. Its construction provides
exceptional rigidity and accuracy.

3. Bridge type CMM: It is similar to the cantilever type. It has support for the outer ends
of the y-axis beam on the base. The bridge construction adds rigidity to the machine. It
provides superior accuracy in measurement.

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B.Tech IV Year I Semester Mechanical-B Academic Year 2018-2019
4. Gantry type CMM: In this, the support of the workpiece is independent of the x and
y axis, both of which are overhead, supported by four vertical columns rising from the
floor. The setup allows to walk along the workpiece with probe. This provision is helpful
for extremely large workpieces.
Working principle of CMM: Coordinate measuring machine (CMM) consists of a table
that holds the path to be inspected in a fixed position. The bridge can move in y-direction
while the probe arm can move on the bridge in x-direction and the probe itself can be
move in z-direction. A movable head is used to hold a sensing probe, which on contact
with the part measures the coordinates of the part with higher level of accuracy.
Specifications of a CMM:
• Measuring range: Manual & motorized along x, y and z axis in mm.
• Positioning accuracy: In microns (Ex: 3+5L/1000)
(where L = Length of the measuring stroke in mm).
• Measuring accuracy: In microns (Ex: 13+20L/1000)
• Table clamping surface: (X*Y) in mm
• Maximum weight: Upto 2 tonnes.
Advantages of CMM:
1. Increase in productivity.
2. Flexibility to check complex parts.
3. Reduced operator error.
4. Greater inherent accuracy and precision.
ii. Mechanical probes: The probes are generally of a ball ended type. However, conical
probes which are most rigid, are convenient to use for determining the position of the
centre of the hole. The touch trigger type has several different probes mounted on it,
which enables measurement in difficult positions under servo motor control. The probe
is carried on a light and flexible mechanism which communicates at that instant with
respect to a reference which are displayed on the indicating unit of the instrument.
Ruby stylus balls are mostly commonly used material in the industry because they
are very hard and wear resistant. Sometimes the balls made of silicon nitride (or)
zirconium are used for heavy duty applications. The stylist stem is generally made of non-
magnetic stainless steel.
4. Non-contact inspection methods: In non-contact inspection method, the part is not
physically contacted by the measuring instrument. Non-contact inspection is performed
by placing the sensor and workpiece away from each other to measure its specific
dimension or gauge.
Advantages of Non-contact inspection over contact inspection:
1. Takes much lesser time for inspection compared to the contact method.
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B.Tech IV Year I Semester Mechanical-B Academic Year 2018-2019
2. It does not require the object under inspection to be stopped and repositioned for
inspection rather it is done when the object is in motion.
3. No mechanical wear of sensing element.
4. No damage to the work part.
5. Reduces potential damage to the working personnel.
i. Non-optical technique:
a. Electrical field technique: The various types of electrical field technique that are
applied are reluctance, capacitance and inductance.
Reluctance transducers are the devices that indicate the presence and distance of
an object from the probe of a ferromagnetic substance. Use of reluctance transducer for
inspection is limited to the objects that are electromagnetic in nature.
A capacitance-based transducer measures the distance of an object from the probe
face, as the capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance between the probe face
and object. This transducer detects a wide variety of materials provided. The material
should be an electrical conductor.
In inductance system, the object is placed in an alternating magnetic field with the
help of an electromagnetic coil. Because of it, small circulating currents known as eddy
currents, create their own magnetic field that starts interacting with the primary field.
Impedance of the coil gets affected by the interaction, measurement and analysis of this
impedance determines the desired characteristics of an object.
b. Radiation techniques: Radiation inspection technique utilizes x-ray radiation
technique where the thickness and other characteristics of an object can be measured
depending on the amount of radiation absorbed by the object. It is used in non-contact
inspection in metal working industries, rolling mills, in steel and aluminium pressure
vessels to inspect weld quality.
c. Ultrasonic techniques: Inspection using ultrasonic technique involves use of very high
frequency sound waves (>20,000 Hz). A probe is used to emit ultrasonic waves and these
waves are made to pass through the object which must be inspected. The waves after
travelling through the object get reflected, this reflected sound pattern is compared with
the sound pattern of an ideal part. If the reflected pattern is within the tolerance limits, the
part is accepted. If it differs significantly from the standard pattern, the part is rejected.
ii. Optical techniques:
a. Machine vision: Machine vision system is also known as microprocessor-based
television and computer vision system which consist a camera, interface system and
digital computer. Camera is used for image acquisition of the object to be inspected under
appropriate lighting. The interface system functioning as a pre-processor digitizes the
image and manipulates it to simplify the comparison process by the digital computer.
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The digital computer analyses the image input by the interface system by
comparing the measured values with the desired values stored in the computer memory
and the result whether the object has passed the inspection test is given as output. Machine
vision system eliminates the tooling and fixtures costs, need for precise positioning and
automation of dimensional and defect verification systems.

Machine vision is a system for acquisition of image data, followed by any

processing and interpretation of this data by computer. The operation of a machine vision
is divided into following three functions:
1. Sensing and digitising image data.
2. Image processing and analysis.
3. Interpretation.

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B.Tech IV Year I Semester Mechanical-B Academic Year 2018-2019
Image sensing requires some type of image formation device such as camera and a
digitiser which stores a video frame in the computer memory. The initial step involves
capturing the image of the scene with the vision camera. The light intensities must be
sampled and converted into digital form. Digitising is achieved by an analog to digital
converter.
Image processing is concerned with the sensing of vision data and its interpretation
by a computer. Image processing and analysis require image data reductions and
segmentations. Image interpretation is the manipulation of images using computer
algorithms to enhance, restore and understand the information contained in them.
Applications of machine vision:
1. Flaws in labelling.
2. Verification of presence of components in assembly.
3. Measuring for dimensional accuracy.
4. Checking presence of holes and their features in the component.
b. Scanning laser beam system: Scanning laser beam device uses laser as a light source
because of its coherency and ability to get projected at greater distance without any
diffusion. The principle involved here is the measurement of time lapse rather than light.

A continuous beam of light from a laser is projected on a rotating mirror. Rotating

mirror reflects and sweeps the laser beam across the object under inspection. A light
sensor located at the lens focal Point detects the interruption off the light beam when it
gets blocked by the object. The lapse in time corresponding to the interruption of light
beam by the object is used in measuring the diameter of the object. A microprocessor-
based system counts the time interruption of the scanning laser beam as it sweeps past the
object and makes the conversion from time to linear dimensions.

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B.Tech IV Year I Semester Mechanical-B Academic Year 2018-2019
c. Photogrammetry: The procedure involved in the photogrammetry method is the
extraction of three-dimensional data object of an object from a pair of photographs of the
object taken at different angles. These two photographs are then read by a device called
monocomparator, that finds out the coordinates and position of the object under
inspection. Finally, a computer analysis of the data obtained is done to get the desired
information. Since the process of taking photographs at different angles in conventional
photogrammetry is time consuming.

Computer aided testing (CAT): Testing is applied to access the functional performance
of a final product. Computer aided testing is the integration of computer in the testing
procedure with the intention of bringing consistency and accuracy in the testing system.
In CAT, different levels of automation for carrying out the test can be found. At the basic
level, computers can be used just in monitoring and analysing the results where the data
from data acquisition system is fed to the computer followed by the preparation of report
on test results.
However, automation at the higher level involves computer integrated test cells
consisting of a series of testing stations interconnected by material handling systems.
Products flow automatically from the final assembly line to the testing unit through an
interface system. Handling system transfers the product to the available test station. In
the test station, the product will be registered in the proper location and orientation
followed by the attachment of required apparatus to conduct the test. The process of
testing will be monitored by the computer and subsequent analysis of the result is done.
If the product passes the test it will be automatically move to the next assembly line for
final packaging. If the product fails the test, it is transferred for manual inspection
indicating the reason of its failure and in some cases even suggesting the corrective action
to be taken. This type of testing system is recommended when the product is complicated

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B.Tech IV Year I Semester Mechanical-B Academic Year 2018-2019
and produced in greater quantities. Ex: Manufacturing plant of automobile engines,
aircraft engines, integrated circuits etc.
Integration of CAQC with CAD/CAM: Conventional manual inspection methods
requires skill in setting the parts and instruments that is time consuming and monotonous.
This may call for moving the components to the inspection section, which calls for
additional time delays and disruption of the regular production cycle. Hence, it is
desirable that automated inspection is integrated with manufacturing wherein 100%
inspection can be carried out online and the measurements are feedback to enable
adjustments in the manufacturing process to ensure that the product is always within the
design the specifications.
Computer aided quality control (CAQC) offers many important benefits compared
to the traditional quality control. However, additional benefits are possible by the
integration of CAQC with CAD/CAM database. Getting real time data in a manufacturing
enterprise on all aspects of measurements being done helps in monitoring quality control
and assuring quality. This data, when it comes, has to be integrated with the appropriate
software modules to achieve the stated functions. Quality control department can make
use of the production records that are generated in the production monitoring system
which will help in tracing out the reason responsible for poor quality of a particular batch
of production.

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Procedure for integration of CAD/CAM with inspection systems: CAD/CAM
systems are considered as significant for automatic gauging where a product is designed,
manufactured and inspected in one automatic process. The factor which is considered
critical in manufacturing, quality assurance is to examine every part after its production
should be within design tolerance. To achieve a quality product, monitoring at each step
of design and manufacturing process is done constantly.
The co-ordinate measuring machine (CMM) helps in better quality assurance and
the productivity of CMM is improved by interface with CAD/CAM system. The
CAD/CAM interface assists the efforts done with programming in the quality assurance
office, where instant results to changes in engineering can be done and the required
current data to the CMM can be provided. The CAD/CAM-CMM interface consists of
different types of modules:
i. CMM interface: The CMM interface permits to interact with the CAD/CAM database,
which generate a source file that can be transformed to a CMM control data file which is
stored in the CAD/CAM system. The pre-CMM processor displays a warning message,
if statement is not supported by the selected CMM. This permits creation of multiple
CMM control data files from one source files.
ii. Pre-CMM processor: The function of pre-CMM processor is to transform the
language source file, that is produced by CMM interface into language of specific co-
ordinate measuring machine CMM.
iii. Post CMM processor: From CMM-ASCII (ASCII stands for American standard code
for information interchange) output file, the post CMM processor generates wire frame
surface model. Various statements are installed into the ASCII-CMM output file to
control the formation of CAD/CAM entities which includes points, conics, arcs, circles,
lines, analytical surfaces and splines CMM control data file. During the creation of file,
CMM investigate the path motions that are simulated and display on the CAD/CAM
workstation for visual confirmation. A pair of CMM command statement permit the
CMM interface to take benefit of most of the CMM's functional abilities. These command
statements are setup, part datum control, geometric relations, feature construction, output
control, tolerancing etc. These command statements also include feature measurements
like a measurement of lines, arcs, circles, points, conics, planes, splines, analytic surfaces,
sculptured surfaces and tabulated cylinders etc.

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B.Tech IV Year I Semester Mechanical-B Academic Year 2018-2019
Tutorial-VII

1. Define and classify CAQC?

2. Explain the working principle of CMM with neat sketch.
3. Explain about Machine vision system with a neat sketch.
4. Explain about Scanning laser beam system with a neat sketch.
Last date of submission: 10/10/2018

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