UNIT I

Introduction D.C. Generator

Principles of Electromechanical Energy Conversion
Why do we study this?
– Electromechanical energy conversion theory is thecornerstone for the analysis of
electromechanical motiondevices.
– The theory allows us to express the electromagnetic forceor torque in terms of
the device variables such as thecurrents and the displacement of the mechanical
system.
– Since numerous types of electromechanical devices areused in motion systems, it
is desirable to establish methodsof analysis which may be applied to a variety of
Electromechanical devices rather than just electricmachines.

Energy Balance Relationships

– Comprises
• Electric system
• Mechanical system
• Means whereby the electric and mechanical systems can interact
– Interactions can take place through any and allelectromagnetic and electrostatic
fields which are commonto both systems, and energy is transferred as a result of
thisinteraction.
– Both electrostatic and electromagnetic coupling fields mayexist simultaneously
and the system may have any numberof electric and mechanical subsystems.

Electromechanical System in Simplified Form:

– Neglect electromagnetic radiation

– Assume that the electric system operates at a frequencyefficiently low so that the
electric system may beconsidered as a lumped-parameter system
• Energy Distribution
– WE = total energy supplied by the electric source (+)
– WM = total energy supplied by the mechanical source (+)
– WeS = energy stored in the electric or magnetic fields whichare not coupled with
the mechanical system
– WeL = heat loss associated with the electric system,excluding the coupling field
losses, which occurs due to:
• The resistance of the current-carrying conductors
• The energy dissipated in the form of heat owing to hysteresis, eddycurrents, and
dielectric losses external to the coupling field
– We = energy transferred to the coupling field by the electricsystem
– WmS = energy stored in the moving member and thecompliances of
themechanical system
– WmL = energy loss of the mechanical system in the form ofheat due to friction
– Wm = energy transferred to the coupling field by themechanical system

•WF = Wf + WfL = total energy transferred to thecoupling field

– Wf = energy stored in the coupling field
– WfL = energy dissipated in the form of heat due to losses within the coupling
field (eddy current, hysteresis, ordielectric losses)

If the losses of the coupling field are neglected, then the field is conservative and
Wf = We + Wm
Force and Torque Calculation from Energy and Co-Energy:

A Singly Excited Linear Actuator

Consider a singly excited linear actuator as shown below. The winding resistance is R. At a
certain time instant t, we record that the terminal voltage applied to the excitation winding is v,
the excitation winding current i, the position of the movable plunger x, and the force acting on
the plunger F with the reference direction chosen in the positive direction of the x axis, as shown
in the diagram. After a time interval dt, we notice that the plunger has moved for a distance dx
under the action of the force F. The mechanical done by the force acting on the plunger during
this time interval is thus

The amount of electrical energy that has been transferred into the magnetic field and converted
into the mechanical work during this time interval can be calculated by subtracting the power
loss dissipated in the winding resistance from the total power fed into the excitation winding as
From the above equation, we know that the energy stored in the magnetic field is a function of
the flux linkage of the excitation winding and the position of the plunger. Mathematically, we
can also write

Therefore, by comparing the above two equations, we conclude

From the knowledge of electromagnetics, the energy stored in a magnetic field can beexpressed
as

For a magnetically linear (with a constant permeability or a straight line magnetization curve
such that the inductance of the coil is independent of the excitation current) system, the above
expression becomes

and the force acting on the plunger is then

In the diagram below, it is shown that the magnetic energy is equivalent to the area above the
magnetization or l-i curve. Mathematically, if we define the area underneath the magnetization
curve as the coenergy (which does not exist physically), i.e.

we can obtain
Therefore,

From the above diagram, the coenergy or the area underneath the magnetization curve can be
calculated by

For a magnetically linear system, the above expression becomes

And the force acting on the plunger is then

Doubly Excited Rotating Actuator

The general principle for force and torque calculation discussed above is equally applicable to
multi-excited systems. Consider a doubly excited rotating actuator shown schematically in the
diagram below as an example. The differential energy and coenergy functions can be derived as
following:

Where

And
Hence

and

Therefore, comparing the corresponding differential terms, we

obtain

or

For magnetically linear systems, currents and flux linkages can

be related by constant inductances as following
(or)

where

The magnetic energy and coenergy can then be expressed as

and

Therefore, the torque acting on the rotor can be calculated as

Because of the salient (not round) structure of the rotor, the self-inductance of the stator is a
function of the rotor position and the first term on the right hand side of the above torque
expression is nonzero for that dL11/dq¹0. Similarly, the second term on the right hand side of the
above torque express is nonzero because of the salient structure of the stator. Therefore, these
two terms are known as the reluctance torque component. The last term in the torque expression,
however, is only related to the relative position of the stator and rotor and is independent of the
shape of the stator and rotor poles.

1. Introduction:
Although a far greater percentage of the electrical machines in service are a.c. machines, the
D.C machines are of considerable industrial importance. The principal advantage of the d.c.
machine, particularly the d.c. motor, is that it provides a fine control of speed. Such an advantage
is not claimed by any a.c. motor. However, d.c. generators are not as common as they used to be,
because direct current, when required, is mainly obtained from an a.c. supply by the use of
rectifiers. Nevertheless, an understanding of d.c. generator is important because it represents a
logical introduction to the behaviour of d.c. motors. Indeed many d.c. motors in industry actually
operate as d.c. generators for a brief period. In this chapter, we shall deal with various aspects of
d.c. generators.
1.1 Generator Principle
An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
An electric generator is based on the principle that whenever flux is cut by a conductor, an e.m.f.
is induced which will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. The direction of
induced e.m.f. (and hence current) is given by Fleming‟s right hand rule. Therefore, the essential
components of a generator are:
(a) a magnetic field
(b) conductor or a group of conductors
(c) Motion of conductor w.r.t. magnetic field.
1.2 Simple Loop Generator
Consider a single turn loop ABCD rotating clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a
constant speed as shown in Fig.(1.1). As the loop rotates, the flux linking the coil sides AB and
CD changes continuously. Hence the e.m.f. induced in these coil sides also changes but the e.m.f.
induced in one coil side adds to that induced in the other.
(i) When the loop is in position no. 1 [See Fig. 1.1], the generated e.m.f. is zero because
the coil sides (AB and CD) are cutting no flux but are moving parallel to it
(ii) When the loop is in position no. 2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the flux and,
therefore, a low e.m.f. is generated as indicated by point 2 in Fig. (1.2).
(iii) When the loop is in position no. 3, the coil sides (AB and CD) are at right angle to the
flux and are, therefore, cutting the flux at a maximum rate. Hence at this instant, the
generated e.m.f. is maximum as indicated by point 3 in Fig. (1.2).
(iv) At position 4, the generated e.m.f. is less because the coil sides are cutting the flux at an
angle.
 (v) At position 5, no magnetic lines are cut and hence induced e.m.f. is zero as indicated by
point 5 in Fig. (1.2).
(vi) At position 6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence the
direction of generated e.m.f. is reversed. The maximum e.m.f. in this direction (i.e.,
reverse direction, See Fig. 1.2) will be when the loop is at position 7 and zero when at
position 1. This cycle repeats with each revolution of the coil.

Fig. (1.1) Fig. (1.2)

Note that e.m.f. generated in the loop is alternating one. It is because any coil side; say AB has
e.m.f. in one direction when under the influence of N-pole and in the other direction when under
the influence of S-pole. If a load is connected across the ends of the loop, then alternating current
will flow through the load. The alternating voltage generated in the loop can be converted into
direct voltage by a device called commutator. In fact,, a commutator is a mechanical Rectifier.

1.3 Action of Commutator

If, somehow, connection of the coil side to the external load is reversed at the same
instant the current in the coil side reverses, the current through the load will be direct current.
This is what a commutator does. Fig. (1.3) shows a commutator having two segments C 1 and C2.
It consists of a cylindrical metal ring cut into two halves or segments C1 and C2 respectively
separated by a thin sheet of mica. The commutator is mounted on but insulated from the rotor
shaft. The ends of coil sides AB and CD are connected to the segments C 1 and C2 respectively as
shown in Fig. (1.4). Two stationary carbon brushes rest on the commutator and lead current to
the external load. With this arrangement, the commutator at all times connects the coil side under
S-pole to the +ve brush and that under N-pole to the ve brush.
(i) In Fig. (1.4), the coil sides AB and CD are under N-pole and S-pole respectively. Note
that segment C1 connects the coil side AB to point P of the load resistance R and the
segment C2 connects the coil side CD to point Q of the load. Also note the direction of
current through load. It is from Q to P.
(ii) After half a revolution of the loop (i.e., 180° rotation), the coil side AB is under S-pole
and the coil side CD under N-pole as shown in Fig. (1.5). The currents in the coil sides
now flow in the reverse direction but the segments C1 and C2 have also moved through
180° i.e., segment C1 is now in contact with +ve brush and segment C2 in contact with
ve brush. Note that commutator has reversed the coil connections to the load i.e., coil
side AB is now connected to point Q of the load and coil side CD to the point P of the
load. Also note the direction of current through the load. It is again from Q to P.

Fig.(1.3) Fig.(1.4)Fig.(1.5)
Thus the alternating voltage generated in the loop will appear as direct voltage across the
brushes. The reader may note that e.m.f. generated in the armature winding of a d.c. generator is
alternating one. It is by the use of commutator that we convert the generated alternating e.m.f.
into direct voltage. The purpose of brushes is simply to lead (take) current from the rotating loop
or winding to the external stationary load.
The variation of voltage across the brushes with the angular displacement of the loop will
be as shown in Fig. (1.6). this is not a steady direct voltage but has a pulsating character. It is
because the voltage appearing across the brushes varies from zero to maximum value and back to
zero twice for each revolution of the loop. A pulsating direct voltage such as is produced by a
single loop is not suitable for many commercial uses. What we require is the steady direct
voltage. This can be achieved by using a large number of coils connected in series. The resulting
arrangement is known as armature winding.

Fig. (1.6)
1.4 Construction of d.c. Generator
The d.c. generators and d.c. motors have the same general construction. In fact, when the
machine is being assembled, the workmen usually do not know whether it is a d.c. generator or
motor. Any d.c. generator can be run as a d.c. motor and vice-versa. All d.c. machines have five
principal components viz., (i) field system (ii) armature core (iii) armature winding (iv)
commutator (v) brushes [See Fig. 1.7].
 Fig. (1.7) Fig. (1.8)
(i) Field system

The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within which the
armature rotates. It consists of a number of salient poles (of course, even number) bolted to the
inside of circular frame (generally called yoke). The yoke is usually made of solid cast steel
whereas the pole pieces are composed of stacked laminations. Field coils are mounted on the
poles and carry the d.c. exciting current. The field coils are connected in such a way that adjacent
poles have opposite polarity.
The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a magnetic flux that passes through the
pole pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame (See Fig. 1.8). Practical d.c. machines have
air gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm. Since armature and field systems are composed of
materials that have high permeability, most of the m.m.f. of field coils is required to set up flux
in the air gap. By reducing the length of air gap, we can reduce the size of field coils (i.e. number
of turns).
(ii) Armature core

The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles. It
consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that are stacked to form a
cylindrical core as shown in Fig (1.9). The laminations (See Fig. 1.10) are individually coated
with a thin insulating film so that they do not come in electrical contact with each other. The
purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy current loss. The laminations are slotted to
accommodate and provide mechanical security to the armature winding and to give shorter air
gap for the flux to cross between the pole face and the armature “teeth”.
 Fig. (1.9) Fig. (1.10)

(iii) Armature winding

The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a suitable
manner. This is known as armature winding. This is the winding in which “working” e.m.f. is
induced. The armature conductors are connected in series-parallel; the conductors being
connected in series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel paths so as to increase the current.
The armature winding of a d.c. machine is a closed-circuit winding; the conductors being
connected in a symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series of closed loops.

(iv) Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage generated
in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes. The commutator is made of
copper segments insulated from each other by mica sheets and mounted on the shaft of the
machine (See Fig 1.11). The armature conductors are soldered to the commutator segments in a
suitable manner to give rise to the armature winding. Depending upon the manner in which the
armature conductors are connected to the commutator segments, there are two types of armature
winding in a d.c. machine viz., (a) lap winding (b) wave winding.Great care is taken in building
the commutator because any eccentricity will cause the brushes to bounce, producing
unacceptable sparking. The sparks may bum the brushes and overheat and carbonise the
commutator.
(V) Brushes
The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating commutator and
stationary external load circuit. The brushes are made of carbon and rest on the commutator. The
brush pressure is adjusted by means of adjustable springs (See Fig. 1.12). If the brush pressure is
very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and the brushes. On the other hand, if
it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the commutator may produce sparking.

Fig. (1.11) Fig. (1.12)

Multi pole machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a 4-pole
machine has 4 brushes. As we go round the commutator, the successive brushes have positive
and negative polarities. Brushes having the same polarity are connected together so that we have
two terminals viz., the +ve terminal and the - ve terminal.
1.5 General Features OF D.C. Armature Windings
(i) A d.c. machine (generator or motor) generally employs windings distributed in slots over
the circumference of the armature core. Each conductor lies at right angles to the magnetic
flux and to the direction of its movement Therefore, the induced e.m.f. in the conductor is
given by;
𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Where, B = magnetic flux density in Wb/m2
l= length of the conductor in metres
v = velocity (in m/s) of the conductor
(i) The armature conductors are connected to form coils. The basic component of all types of
armature windings is the armature coil. Fig. (1.13) (i) shows a single-turn coil. It has two
conductors or coil sides connected at the back of the armature. Fig. 1.13 (ii) shows a 4-turn
coil which has 8 conductors or coil sides.
 Fig. (1.13)
The coil sides of a coil are placed a pole span apart i.e., one coil side of the coil is under N-pole
and the other coil side is under the next S-pole at the corresponding position as shown in Fig.
1.13 (i). Consequently the e.m.f.s of the coil sides add together. If the e.m.f. induced in one
conductor is 2.5 volts, then the e.m.f. of a single-turn coil will be = 2  2.5 = 5 volts. For the
same flux and speed, the e.m.f. of a 4-turn coil will be = 8  2.5 = 20 V.

(iii) Most of d.c. armature windings are double

layer windings i.e., there are two coil sides
per slot as shown in Fig. (1.14). One coil side
of a coil.

lies at the top of a slot and the other coil side

lies at the bottom of some other slot. The coil
ends will then lie
side by side. In two-layer winding, it is desirable to number the coil sides rather than the
slots. The coil sides are numbered as indicated in Fig. (1.14). The coil sides at the top of
slots are given odd numbers and those at the bottom are given even numbers. The coil sides
are numbered in order round the armature.
As discussed above, each coil has one side at the top of a slot and the other side at the
bottom of another slot; the coil sides are nearly a pole pitch apart. In connecting the coils, it
 is ensured that top coil side is joined to the bottom coil side and vice-versa. This is
illustrated in Fig. (1.15). The coil side 1 at the top of a slot is joined to coil side 10 at the
bottom of another slot about a pole pitch apart. The coil side 12 at the bottom of a slot is
joined to coil side 3 at the top of another slot. How coils are connected at the back of the
armature and at the front (commutator end) will be discussed in later sections. It may be
noted that as far as connecting the coils is concerned, the number of turns per coil is
immaterial. For simplicity, then, the coils in winding diagrams will be represented as
having only one turn (i.e., two conductors).

Fig. (1.15) Fig. (1.16)

(iv) The coil sides are connected through commutator segments in such a manner as to form a
series-parallel system; a number of conductors are connected in series so as to increase the
voltage and two or more such series-connected paths in parallel to share the current.
Fig(1.16) shows how the two coils connected through commutator segments (A, R, C etc)
have their e.m.f.s added together. If voltage induced in each conductor is 2-5 V, then
voltage between segments A and C = 4  2.5 = 10 V. It may be noted here that in the
conventional way of representing a developed armature winding, full lines represent top
coil sides (i.e., coil sides lying at the top of a slot) and dotted lines represent the bottom
coil sides (i.e., coil sides lying at the bottom of a slot).
(v) The d.c. armature winding is a closed circuit winding. In such a winding, if one starts at
some point in the winding and traces through the winding, one will come back to the
starting point without passing through any external connection. D.C. armature windings
must be of the closed type in order to provide for the commutation of the coils.
1.6 Commutator Pitch (YC)
The commutator pitch is the number of commutator segments spanned by each coil of the
winding. It is denoted by YC.
In Fig. 1.17, one side of the coil is connected to commutator segment 1 and the other side
connected to commutator segment 2. Therefore, the number of commutator segments spanned by
the coil is 1 i.e., YC = 1. In Fig. 1.18, one side of the coil is connected to commutator segment 1
and the other side to commutator segment 8. Therefore, the number of commutator segments
spanned by the coil = 8  1 = 7 segments i.e., YC = 7. The commutator pitch of a winding is
always a whole number. Since each coil has two ends and as two coil connections are joined at
each commutator segment,

Fig. (1.17) Fig. (1.18)

Number of coils = Number of commutator segments

For example, if an armature has 30 conductors, the number of coils will be 30/2 = 15. Therefore,
number of commutator segments is also 15. Note that commutator pitch is the most important
factor in determining the type of d.c. armature winding.

1.9 Full-Pitched Coil

If the coil-span or coil pitch is equal to pole pitch, it is called full-pitched coil (See Fig. 1.19). In
this case, the e.m.f.s in the coil sides are additive and have a phase difference of 0°. Therefore,
e.m.f. induced in the coil is maximum. If e.m.f. induced in one coil side is 2-5 V, then e.m.f.
across the coil terminals = 2  2.5 = 5 V. Therefore, coil span should always be one pole pitch
unless there is a good reason for making it shorter

Fractional pitched coil. If the coil span or coil pitch is less than the pole pitch,then it is called
fractional pitched coil (See Fig. 1.20). In this case, the phase difference between the e.m.f.s in
the two coil sides will not be zero so that the e.m.f. of the coil will be less compared to full-
pitched coil. Fractional pitch winding requires less copper but if the pitch is too small, an
appreciable reduction in the generated e.m.f. results

Fig. (1.19) Fig.(1.2)

1.10 Types of D.C. Armature Windings

The different armature coils in a d.c. armature Winding must be connected in series with
each other by means of end connections (back connection and front connection) in a manner
so that the generated voltages of the respective coils will aid each other in the production of
the terminal e.m.f. of the winding. Two basic methods of making these end connections are:
1. Simplex lap winding
2. Simplex wave winding

1. Simplex lap winding.

For a simplex lap winding, the commutator pitch YC = 1 and coil span YS≅ 2 pole pitch.
Thus the ends of any coil are brought out to adjacent commutator segments and the result
of this method of connection is that all the coils of the armature .ire in sequence with the
last coil connected to the first coil. Consequently, closed circuit winding results. This is
illustrated in Fig. (1.21) where a part of the lap winding is shown. Only two coils are
shown for simplicity. The name lap comes from the way in which successive coils overlap
the preceding one.
 2.Simplex wave winding
For a simplex wave winding, the commutator pitch YC≅ 2 pole pitches and coil span =
pole pitch. The result is that the coils under consecutive pole pairs will be joined together
in series thereby adding together their e.m.f.s [See Fig. 1.22]. After passing once around
the armature, the winding falls in a slot to the left or right of the starting point and thus
connecting up another circuit. Continuing in this way, all the conductors will be connected
in a single closed winding. This winding is called wave winding from the appearance
(wavy) o fthe end connections.

Fig. (1.21) Fig. (1.22)

1.11 Further Armature Winding Terminology

Apart from the terms discussed earlier, the following terminology requires discussion:
(i) Back Pitch (YB)
It is the distance measured in terms of armature conductors between the two sides of a coil
at the back of the armature (See Fig. 1.23). It is denoted by YB For example, if a coil is
formed by connecting conductor 1 (upper conductor in a slot) to conductor 12 (bottom
conductor in another slot) at the back of the armature, then back pitch is YB = 12 - 1 = 11
conductors.
 Fig. (1.23)

(ii) Front Pitch (YF)

It is the distance measured in terms of armature conductors between the coil sides attached
to any one commutator segment [See Fig. 1.23]. It is denoted by Y F For example, if coil
side 12 and coil side 3 are connected to the same commutator segment, then front pitch is
YF = 12 - 3 = 9 conductors.

(iii) Resultant Pitch (YR)

It is the distance (measured in terms of armature conductors) between the beginning of one
coil and the beginning of the next coil to which it is connected (See Fig. 1.23). It is denoted
by YR. Therefore, the resultant pitch is the algebraic sum of the back and front pitches.

(iv) Commutator Pitch (YC)

It is the number of commutator segments spanned by each coil of the armature winding.
For simplex lap winding, YC = 1
For simplex wave winding, YC −2 pole pitches (segments)

(v) Progressive Winding

A progressive winding is one in which, as one traces through the winding, the connections to the
commutator will progress around the machine in the same direction as is being traced along the
path of each individual coil. Fig. (1.24) (i) shows progressive lap winding. Note thatYB> YF and
YC = + 1.

(vi) Retrogressive Winding

A retrogressive winding is one in which, as one traces through the winding, the
connections to the commutator will progress around the machine in the opposite direction
to that which is being traced along the path of each individual coil. Fig. (1.24) (ii) shows
retrogressive lap winding. Note that YF> YB and YC = + 1. A retrogressive winding is
seldom used because it requires more copper.

Fig. (1.24)

1.12 General Rules for D.C. Armature Windings

In the design of d.c. armature winding (lap or wave), the following rules may be followed:
(i) The back pitch (YB) as well as front pitch (YF) should be nearly equal to pole
pitch. This will result in increased e.m.f. in the coils.
(ii) Both pitches (YB and YF) should be odd. This will permit all end connections
(back as well as front connection) between a conductor at the top of a slot and one at the
bottom of a slot.
(iii) The number of commutator segments is equal to the number of slots or coils (or
half the number of conductors).
 No. of commutator segments = No. of slots = No. of coils
It is because each coil has two ends and two coil connections are joined at each
commutator segment
The winding must close upon itself i.e. it should be a closed circuit winding.

1.13 Relations between Pitches for Simplex Lap Winding

In a simplex lap winding, the various pitches should have the following relation:

(i) The back and front pitches are odd and are of opposite signs. They differ numerically by
2,
 YB = YB = YF ± 2
YB =YF + 2 for progressive winding
YB =YF 2 for retrogressive winding
(ii) Both YB and YF should be nearly equal to pole pitch.

(iii) Average pitch =(YB + YF)/2. It equals pole pitch (= Z/P).

(iv) Commutator pitch, YC = ± 1
YC = + 1 for progressive winding
YC =  1 for retrogressive winding
(v) The resultant pitch (YB) is even, being the arithmetical difference of two odd numbers
viz., YB and YF.

(vi) If Z = number of armature conductors and P = number of poles, then,

Polr - pitch  Z/P

Since YB and YF both must be. about one pole pitch and differ numerically by 2,

Z
YB = P + 1
Z For progressive winding
𝑌𝐹 = P − 1
 Z
YB = P − 1
Z For retrogressive winding
𝑌𝐹 = P + 1

It is clear that Z/P must be an even number to make the winding possible.

Developed diagram
Developed diagram is obtained by imagining the cylindrical surface of the armature to be
cut by an axial plane and then flattened out. Fig. (1.25) (i) shows the developed diagram of the
winding. Note that full lines represent the top coil sides (or conductors) and dotted lines
represent the bottom coil sides (or conductors).
The winding goes from commutator segment 1 by conductor 1 across the back to
conductor 12 and at the front to commutator segment 2, thus forming a coil. Then from
commutator segment 2, through conductors 3 and 14 back to commutator segment 3 and so on
till the winding returns to commutator segment 1 after using all the 40 conductors.
Position and number of brushes
We now turn to find the position and the number of brushes required. The brushes, like
field poles, remain fixed in space as the commutator and winding revolve. It is very important
that brushes are in correct position relative to the field poles. The arrowhead marked “rotation”
in Fig. (1.25) (i) shows the direction of motion of the conductors. By right-hand rule, the
direction of e.m.f. in each conductor will be as shown.In order to find the position of brushes, the
ring diagram shown in Fig. (1.25) (ii) is quite helpful. A positive brush will be placed on that
commutator segment where the currents in the coils are meeting to flow out of the segment. A
negative brush will be placed on that commutator segment where the currents in the coils are
meeting to flow in. Referring to Fig. (1.25) (i), there are four brushes two positive and two
negative. Therefore, we arrive at a very important conclusion that in a simplex lap winding, the
number of brushes is equal to the number of poles. If the brushes of the same polarity are
connected together, then all the armature conductors are connected in four parallel paths; each
path containing an equal number of conductors in series. This is illustrated in Fig. (1.26). Since
segments 6 and 16 are connected together through positive brushes and segments 11 and 1 are
connected together through negative brushes, there are four parallel paths, each containing 10
conductors in series. Therefore, in a simplex lap winding, the number of parallel paths is equal to
the number of pole
 Fig. (1.25)

(i) (ii)
 Fig.(1.26)

Conclusions
From the above discussion, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(i) The total number of brushes is equal to the number of poles.
(ii) The armature winding is divided into as many parallel paths as the number of poles. If
the total number of armature conductors is Z and P is the number of poles, then,
Number of conductors/path = Z/P
In the present case, there are 40 armature conductors and 4 poles. Therefore, the
armature winding has 4 parallel paths, each consisting of 10 conductors in series.
(iii) E.M.F. generated = E.M.F. per parallel path
= average e.m.f. per conductor ZP
(iv) Total armature current, Ia = P  current per parallel path
(v) The armature resistance can be found as under:
Let l = length of each conductor; a = cross-sectional area
A = number of parallel paths = P (for simplex lap winding)

ρlZ
Resistance of whole winding, R  a

Since there are A (= P) parallel paths, armature resistance Ra is given by:

Resistance per parallel path ρlZ 1
R𝑎 = = ∗
𝐴 aA A

ρlZ
Ra =
aA2

1.14 Simplex Wave Winding

The essential difference between a lap winding and a wave winding is in the commutator
connections. In a simplex lap winding, the coils approximately pole pitch apart are connected in
series and the commutator pitch YC = ± 1 segment. As a result, the coil voltages add. This is
illustrated in Fig. (1.27). In a simplex wave winding, the coils approximately pole pitch apart are
connected in series and the commutator pitch YC ~ 2 pole pitches (segments). Thus in a wave
winding, successive coils “wave” forward under successive poles instead of “lapping” back on
themselves as in the lap winding. This is illustrated in Fig. (1.28).
The simplex wave winding must not close after it passes once around the armature but it
must connect to a commutator segment adjacent to the first and the next coil must be adjacent to
the first as indicated in Fig. (1.28). This is repeated each time around until connections are made
to all the commutator segments and all the slots are occupied after which the winding
automatically returns to the starting point. If, after passing once around the armature, the winding
connects to a segment to the left of the starting point, the winding is retrogressive [See Fig. 1.28
(i)]. If it connects to a segment to the right of the starting point, it is progressive [See Fig. 1.28
(ii)]. This type of winding is called wave winding because it passes around the armature in a
wave-like form.

Fig. (1.27) Fig. (1.28)

Various pitches
The various pitches in a wave winding are defined in a manner similar to lap winding.
(i) The distance measured in terms of armature conductors between the two sides of a coil
at the back of the armature is called back pitch YB (See Fig. 1.29). The YB must be an
odd integer so that a top conductor and a bottom conductor will be joined.
(ii) The distance measured in terms of
armature conductors between the
coil sides attached to any one
commutator segment is called front
pitch YB (See Fig. 1.29). The YB
must be
an odd integer so that a top conductor
and bottom conductor will be joined.Fig. (1.29))
(iii) Resultant pitch, YR = YB + YF(See Fig. 1.29)The resultant pitch must be an even integer
since YB and YF are odd. Further YR is approximately two pole pitches because YB as well as
YF is approximately one pole pitch.
(iv)
YB + YC
Average Pitch YA =
2

When one tour of armature has been completed, the winding should connect to the next
top conductor (progressive) or to the preceding top conductor (retrogressive). In either
case, the difference will be of 2 conductors or one slot. If P is the number of poles and Z
is the total number of armature conductors, then,

P  YA Z  2
Z+2
YA =
P

Since P is always even and Z = PYA ± 2, Z must be even. It means that Z

± 2/P must be an integer. In Eq.(i), plus sign will give progressive winding and the
negative sign retrogressive winding.
(v) The number of commutator segments spanned by a coil is called commutator pitch (YC)
(See Fig. 1.29). Suppose in a simplex wave winding,
P = Number of poles; NC = Number of commutator segments; YC =Commutator pitch.

 Number of pair of poles = P/2

If YC P/2 = NC, then the winding will close on itself in passing once around the armature. In
order to connect to the adjacent conductor and permit the winding to proceed,
𝑃
𝑌𝐶 ∗ = 𝑁𝐶 ± 1
2
2𝑁𝐶 ± 2 𝑁𝐶 ± 1 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 ± 1
𝑌𝐶 = = =
𝑃 𝑃/2 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
2𝑁𝐶 ±2 𝑍±2
𝑌𝐶 = = = 𝑌𝐴 (2𝑁𝐶 = 𝑍)
𝑃 𝑃
 𝑌𝐵 + 𝑌𝐹
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑕, 𝑌𝐶 = 𝑌𝐴 =
2
In a simplex wave winding YB, YF and YC may be equal. Note that YB, YF and YB are in terms of
armature conductors whereas YC is in terms of commutator segments.

1.15 Design of Simplex Wave Winding

In the design of simplex wave winding, the following points may be kept in mind:
(i) Both pitches YB and YF are odd and are of the same sign.

𝑍±1
(ii) Average pitch, 𝑌𝐴 = (i)
𝑃

(iii) Both YB and YF are nearly equal to pole pitch and may be equal or differ by 2. If they
differ by 2, they are one more and one less than YA.
(iv) Commutator pitch is given by;
Number of commutator segments ±1
𝑌𝐶 = 𝑌𝐴 - Number of pair of poles

The plus sign for progressive winding and negative for retrogressive winding.
𝑍±2
(v) = 𝑌𝐴
𝑃

Since YA must be a whole number, there is a restriction on the value of Z. With Z = 180,
this winding is impossible for a 4-pole machine because YA is not a whole number.
(vi) Z  P YA 2
𝑍 𝑃𝑌𝐴 + 2
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 = =
2 2

Developed diagram
Fig. (1.30) (i) shows the developed diagram for the winding. Note that full lines represent
the top coil sides (or conductors) and dotted lines represent the bottom coil sides (or conductors).
The two conductors which lie in the same slot are drawn nearer to each other than to those in the
other slot
 i) (ii)

Fig.1.30

Referring to Fig. (1.30) (i), conductor 1 connects at the back to conductor 12(1 + 11)
which in turn connects at the front to conductor 23 (12 + 11) and so on round the armature until
the winding is complete. Note that the commutator pitch YC = 11 segments. This means that the
number of commutator segments spanned between the start end and finish end of any coil is 11
segments.

Position and number of brushes

We now turn to find the position and the number of brushes. The arrowhead marked
“rotation” in Fig. (1.30) (i) shows the direction of motion of the conductors. By right hand rule,
the direction of e.m.f. in each conductor will be as shown.
In order to find the position of brushes, the ring diagram shown in Fig. (1.30) (ii) is quite
helpful. It is clear that only two brushes one positive and one negative are required (though two
positive and two negative brushes can also be used). We find that there are two parallel paths
between the positive brush and the negative brush. Thus is illustrated in Fig. (1.31).
Therefore, we arrive at a very important conclusion that in a simplex wave winding, the
number of parallel paths is two irrespective of the number of poles. Note that the first parallel
path has 11 coils (or 22 conductors) while the second parallel path has 10 coils (or 20
conductors). This fact is not important as it may appear at first glance. The coils m the smaller
group should supply less current to the external circuit. But the identity of the coils in either
parallel path is rapidly changing from moment to moment. Therefore, the average value of
current through any particular coil is the same.

Fig. (1.31)
Conclusions
From the above discussion, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(i) Only two brushes are necessary but as many brushes as there are poles may be used.
(ii) The armature winding is divided into two parallel paths irrespective of the number of
poles. If the total number of armature conductors is Z and P is the number of poles, then,
Number of conductors/path  Z/2
(iii) E.M.F. generated = E.M.F. per parallel path
= Average e.m.f. per conductor x
(iv) Total armature current, Ia = 2  current per parallel path
The armature can be wave-wound if YA or YC is a whole number
1.16 Dummy Coils
In a simplex wave winding, the average pitch YA (or commutator pitch YC) should be a
whole number. Sometimes the standard armature punchings available in the market have slots
that do not satisfy the above requirement so that more coils (usually only one more) are provided
than can be utilized. These extra coils are called dummy or dead coils. The dummy coil is
inserted into the slots in the same way as the others to make the armature dynamically balanced
but it is not a part of the armature winding.
Let us illustrate the use of dummy coils with a numerical example. Suppose the number of slots
is 22 and each slot contains 2 conductors. The number of poles is 4. For simplex wave wound
armature,
𝑌𝐴=𝑍±2 =2×22±2=44±2=11 1𝑜𝑟 10 1
𝑃 4 4 2 2

Since the results are not whole numbers, the number of coils (and hence segments) must be
reduced. If we make one coil dummy, we have 42 conductors and
𝑌𝐴=42 ±2 =11 𝑜𝑟 10
4

This means that armature can be wound only if we use 21 coils and 21 segments. The extra coil
or dummy coil is put in the slot. One end of this coil is taped and the other end connected to the
unused commutator segment (segment 22) for the sake of appearance. Since only 21 segments
are required, the two (21 and 22 segments) are connected together and considered as one.
1.17 Applications of Lap and Wave Windings
In multi polar machines, for a given number of poles (P) and armature conductors (Z), a
wave winding has a higher terminal voltage than a lap winding because it has more conductors in
series. On the other hand, the lap winding carries more current than a wave winding because it
has more parallel paths.
In small machines, the current-carrying capacity of the armature conductors is not critical
and in order to achieve suitable voltages, wave windings are used. On the other hand, in large
machines suitable voltages are easily obtained because of the availability of large number of
armature conductors and the current carrying capacity is more critical. Hence in large machines,
lap windings are used.
Note: In general, a high-current armature is lap-wound to provide a largenumber of parallel paths
and a low-current armature is wave-wound to provide a small number of parallel paths
1.18 Multiplex Windings
A simplex lap-wound armature has as many parallel paths as the number of poles. A
simplex wave-wound armature has two parallel paths irrespective of the number of poles. In case
of a 10-pole machine, using simplex windings, the designer is restricted to either two parallel
circuits (wave) or ten parallel circuits (lap). Sometimes it is desirable to increase the number of
parallel paths. For this purpose, multiplex windings are used. The sole purpose of multiplex
windings is to increase the number of parallel paths enabling the armature to carry a large total
current. The degree of multiplicity or plex determines the number of parallel paths in the
following manner:
(i) A lap winding has pole times the degree of plex parallel paths.
Thus a duplex lap winding has 2P parallel paths, triplex lap winding has 3P parallel paths
and so on. If an armature is changed from simplex lap to duplex lap without making any other
change, the number of parallel paths is doubledand each path has half as many coils. The
armature will then supply twice as much current at half the voltage
(ii) A wave winding has two times the degree of plex parallel paths. Number of
parallel paths, A = 2  plex
Note that the number of parallel paths in a multiplex wave winding depends upon the
degree of plex and not on the number of poles. Thus a duplex wave winding has 4 parallel paths,
triplex wave winding has 6 parallel paths and so on.
1.19 Function of Commutator and Brushes
The e.m.f. generated in the armature winding of a d.c. generator is alternating one. The
commutator and brushes cause the alternating e.m.f. of the armature conductors to produce a p.d.
always in the same direction between the terminals of the generator. In lap as well as wave
winding, it will be observed that currents In the coils to a brush are either all directed towards the
brush(positive brush) or all directed away from the brush (negative brush)
Further, the direction of current in coil reverses as it passes the brush. Thus when the coil
approaches the contact with the brush, the current through the coil is in one direction; when the
coil leaves the contact with the brush, the current has been reversed. This reversal of current in
the coil as the coil passes a brush is called commutation and fakes place while the coil is short-
circuited by the brush. These changes occur in every coil in turn. If, at the instant when the brush
breaks contact with the commutator segment connected to the coil undergoing commutation, the
current in the coil has not been reversed, the result will be sparking between the commutator
segments and the brush.
The criterion of good commutation is that it should be sparkless. In order to have
sparkless commutation, the brushes on the commutator should be placed at points known as
neutral point where no voltage exists between adjacent segments. The conductors connected to
these segments lie between the poles in position of zero magnetic flux which is termed as
magnetic neutral axis (M.N.A)
1.20 E.M.F. Equation of a D.C. Generator

We shall now derive an expression for the e.m.f. generated in a d.c. generator. Let  =
flux/pole in Wb

Z = total number of armature conductors P = number of poles

A = number of parallel paths = 2 ... for wave winding = P ... for lap winding

N = speed of armature in r.p.m.

Eg = e.m.f. of the generator = e.m.f./parallel path Flux cut
by one conductor in one revolution of the armature,

d = P webers Time
taken to complete one revolution,

dt = 60/N second
∅𝑃𝑁
e.m.f/conductor =d/dt = 60

e.m.f. of generator,
Eg = e.m.f. per parallel path
 (e.m.f/conductor)  No. of conductors in series per parallel path
 ∅𝑃𝑁𝑍
𝐸𝑔 =
60𝐴

Where, A=2 for wave winding

A=P For lap winding

1.21 Armature Resistance (Ra)

The resistance offered by the armature circuit is known as armature resistance (Ra) and includes:
(i) resistance of armature winding
(ii) resistance of brushes
The armature resistance depends upon the construction of machine. Except for small machines,
its value is generally less than 1.
1.22 Types of D.C. Generators
The magnetic field in a d.c. generator is normally produced by electromagnets rather than
permanent magnets. Generators are generally classified according to their methods of field
excitation. On this basis, d.c. generators are divided into the following two classes:

(i) Separately excited d.c. generators

(ii) Self-excited d.c. generators
The behaviour of a d.c. generator on load depends upon the method of field excitation adopted.

1.23 Separately Excited D.C. Generators

A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied from an independent external
d.c. source (e.g., a battery etc.) is called a separately excited generator. Fig. (1.32) shows the
connections of a separately excited generator. The voltage output depends upon the speed of
rotation of armature and the field current (Eg = P ZN/60 A). The greater the speed and field
current, greater is the generated e.m.f. It may be noted that separately excited d.c. generators are
rarely used in practice. The d.c. generators are normally of self-excited type.
 Fig. (1.32)

Armature current, Ia = IL
Terminal voltage, V = Eg IaRa Electric
power developed = EgIa
Power delivered to load = Eg Ia I2a R a IaEg Ia R a VIa

1.24 Self-Excited D.C. Generators

A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied current from the output of the
generator itself is called a self-excited generator. There are three types of self-excited generators
depending upon the manner in which the field winding is connected to the armature, namely
(i) Series generator

(ii) Shunt generator

(iii) Compound generator

(i) Series generator

In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in series with armature
winding so that whole armature current flows through the field winding as well as the load. Fig.
(1.33) shows the connections of a series wound generator. Since the field winding carries the
whole of load current, it has a few turns of thick wire having low resistance. Series generators
are rarely used except for special purposes e.g., as boosters.
Armature current, Ia = Ise = IL = I(say) Terminal
voltage, V = EG I(Ra + Rse) Power developed
in armature = EgIa Power delivered to load=
 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼 2 𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝑎 [𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 𝑉𝐼𝑎 𝑜𝑟𝑉𝐼𝐿

Fig. (1.33)

(ii) Shunt generator

In a shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding
so that terminal voltage of the generator is applied across it. The shunt field winding has many
turns of fine wire having high resistance. Therefore, only a part of armature current flows
through shunt field winding and the rest flows through the load. Fig. (1.34) shows the
connections of a shunt-wound generator.

Fig. (1.34)

Shunt field current, Ish = V/Rsh

Armature current, Ia = IL + Ish
Terminal voltage, V = Eg IaRa
Power developed in armature = EgIaPower
delivered to load = VI
(iii) Compound generator
In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of field windings on each pole one is in
series and the other in parallel with the armature. A compound wound generator may be:
(a) Short Shunt in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature winding
[See Fig. 1.35 (i)].
(b) Long Shunt in which shunt field winding is in parallel with both series field and
armature winding [See Fig. 1.35 (ii)].

Fig. (1.35)
Short shunt
Series field current, Ise = IL
Shunt field current, Ish VIseRse
R
sh
Terminal voltage, V = Eg IaRa IseRse
Power developed in armature = EgIa
Power delivered to load = VIL

Long shunt
Series field current, Ise = Ia = IL + Ish
Shunt field current, Ish = V/Rsh
Terminal voltage, V = Eg Ia (Ra + Rse)
Power developed in armature = EgIa
Power delivered to load = VIL
1.25 Brush Contact Drop
It is the voltage drop over the brush contact resistance when current flows. Obviously,
its value will depend upon the amount of current flowing and the value of contact
 resistance. This drop is generally small
1.26 Losses in a D.C. Machine
The losses in a d.c. machine (generator or motor) may be divided into three classes viz (i)
copper losses (ii) iron or core losses and (iii) mechanical losses. All these losses appear as
heat and thus raise the temperature of the machine. They also lower the efficiency of the
machine.

1. Copper losses

These losses occur due to currents in the various windings of the machine.

(i) Armature copper loss = I2a R a

(ii) Shunt field copper loss = Ish2 R sh

(iii) Series field copper loss = Ise2 R se

Note. There is also brush contact loss due to brush contact resistance (i.e.,resistance
between the surface of brush and surface of commutator). This loss is generally
included in armature copper loss.
2. Iron or Core losses

These losses occur in the armature of a d.c.

machine and aredue to the rotation of armature
in the magnetic field of the poles.
They are of two types viz.,
(i) Hysteresis loss (ii) eddy current loss.
(i) Hysteresis loss
Fig. (1.36)
Hysteresis loss occurs in the armature of the d.c. machine since any given part of
thearmature is subjected to magnetic field reversals as it passes under successive poles. Fig.
(1.36) shows an armature.
Rotating in two-pole machine. Consider a small piece ab of the armature. When the piece
ab is under N-pole, the magnetic lines pass from a to b. Half a revolution later, the same
piece of iron is under S-pole and magnetic lines pass from b to a so that magnetism in the
iron is reversed. In order to reverse continuously the molecular magnets in the armature
core, some amount of power has to be spent which is called hysteresis loss. It is given by
Steinmetz formula. This formula is

Hysteresis loss, PhB16max f V watts

Where
Bmax = Maximum flux density in armature
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals

= NP/120 where N is in r.p.m.

V = Volume of armature in m3
 = Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient
In order to reduce this loss in a d.c. machine, armature core is made of such materials
which have a low value of Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient e.g., silicon steel.
(ii) Eddy current loss
In addition to the voltages induced in the armature conductors, there are also
voltages induced in the armature core. These voltages produce circulating currents in the
armature core as shown in Fig. (1.37). These are called eddy currents and power loss due
to their flow is called eddy current loss. The eddy current loss appears as heat which
raises the temperature of the machine and lowers its efficiency.
If a continuous solid iron core is used, the resistance to eddy current path will be
small due to large cross-sectional area of the core. Consequently, the magnitude of eddy
current and hence eddy current loss will be large. The magnitude of eddy current can be
reduced by making core resistance as high as practical.
The core resistance can be greatly increased by constructing the core of thin,
round iron sheets called laminations [See Fig. 1.38]. The laminations are insulated from
each other with a coating of varnish. The insulating coating has a high resistance, so very
little current flows from one lamination to the other. Also, because each lamination is
very thin, the resistance to current flowing through the width of a lamination is also quite
large. Thus laminating a core increases the core resistance which decreases the eddy
current and hence the eddy current loss

Fig. (1.37) Fig. (1.38)

 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎 − 𝐼 2 𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝑎 [𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 𝑉𝐼𝑎 𝑜𝑟𝑉𝐼𝐿

𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 𝑓 2 𝑡 2 𝑉𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

Ke=Constant depending upon the electrical resistance of core and system of units
used

Bmax = Maximum flux density in Wb/m2

f = Frequency of magnetic reversals in Hz
t = Thickness of lamination in m
V = Volume of core in m3
It may be noted that eddy current loss depends upon the square of lamination thickness.
For this reason, lamination thickness should be kept as small as possible.

3. Mechanical losses
These losses are due to friction and windage.
(i) Friction loss e.g., bearing friction, brushes friction etc.
(ii) Windage loss i.e., air friction of rotating armature.
These losses depend upon the speed of the machine. But for a given speed, they are
practically constant.
Note. Iron losses and mechanical losses together are called stray losses.
1.27 Constant and Variable Losses
The losses in a d.c. generator (or d.c. motor) may be sub-divided into (i) constant losses (ii)
variable losses.
(i) Constant losses
Those losses in a d.c. generator which remain constant at all loads are known as constant losses.
The constant losses in a d.c. generator are:
(a) iron losses
(b) mechanical losses
(c) shunt field losses
(ii) Variable losses
Those losses in a d.c. generator which vary with load are called variable losses. The variable
losses in a d.c. generator are:
(a) Copper loss in armature winding ( I2a R a )
(b) Copper loss in series field winding ( Ise2 R se )
Total losses = Constant losses + Variable losses
Note. Field Cu loss is constant for shunt and compound generators.

1.28 Power Stages

The various power stages in a d.c. generator are represented diagrammatically in Fig. (1.39).
A  B = Iron and friction losses
B  C = Copper losses

Fig. (1.39)

(i) Mechanical efficiency

𝐶 Eg Ia
η𝑚 = =
𝐴 Mechanical power input

(ii) Electrical efficiency

𝐶 𝑉𝐼𝐿
η𝑒 = =
𝐵 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎

(ii) Commercial or overall efficiency

𝐶 V IL
η𝑐 = =
𝐴 Mechanical power input

Clearly cme
Unless otherwise stated, commercial efficiency is always understood.

Now,
 𝐶 output 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 −𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
η𝑐 = = =
𝐴 input 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
1.29 Condition for Maximum Efficiency
The efficiency of a d.c. generator is not constant but varies with load. Consider a shunt generator
delivering a load current IL at a terminal voltage V.
Generator output = V IL

Generator input = Output + Losses

= V IL + Variable losses + Constant losses

 VIL Ia2R a WC


= 𝑉𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠𝑕 2 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑊𝑐 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠𝑕 )

The shunt field current Ish is generally small as compared to IL and therefore, it can be neglected.
 Generator input = VIL I2L R a WC

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐼𝐿
𝜂= =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿 2 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑊𝑐

1
= 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑎 𝑊
1+ + 𝑉𝐼𝑐
𝑉 𝐿

The efficiency will be maximum when the denominator of above Equation is minimum i.e.,

𝑑 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑎 𝑊𝑐
+ =0
𝑑𝐼𝐿 𝑉 𝑉𝐼𝐿
𝑅𝑎 𝑊𝑐
+ =0
𝑉 𝑉𝐼𝐿 2
 𝑅𝑎 𝑊𝑐
𝑜𝑟 =
𝑉 𝑉𝐼𝐿 2

𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝐿 2 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑊𝑐

Hence Variable loss = Constant loss

( 𝐼𝐿 ≈ 𝐼𝑎 )

The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency is given by;

𝑊𝑐
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝑎

Fig. 1.40

Hence, the efficiency of a d.c. generator will be maximum when the load current is such that
variable loss is equal to the constant loss. Fig (1.40) shows the variation of efficiency with load
current.
 UNIT II
Performance of DC Machines
2.1 Principle of Operation:
DC motor operates on the principle that when a current carrying is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a mechanical force give n by F = BIL newton. Where „B‟ = flux density
in wb/𝑚2 ', „I‟ is the current and „L‟ is the length of the conductor. The direction of force can
be found by Fleming‟s left hand rule. Constructionally, there is no difference between a DC
generator and DC motor.

Figure 2.1
Figure 2.1 shows a multipolar DC motor. Armature conductors are carrying current downwards
under North Pole and upwards under South Pole. When the field coils are excited, with current
carrying armature conductors, a force is experienced by each armature conductor whose
direction can be found by Fleming‟s left hand rule. This is shown by arrows on top of the
conductors. The collective force produces a driving torque which sets the armature into rotation.
The function of a commutator in DC motor is to provide a continuous and unidirectional torque.
In DC generator the work done in overcoming the magnetic drag is converted into
electrical energy. Conversion of energy from electrical form to mechanical form by a DC motor
takes place by the work done in overcoming the opposition which is called the „back emf‟.

2.2 BACK EMF:

Back emf is the dynamically induced emf in the armature conductors of a dc motor when
thearmature is rotated. The direction of the induced emf as found by Flemings right hand rule is
in opposition to the applied voltage. Its value is same as that of the induced emf in a
DCGenerator i.e. is

This emf is called as back emf𝐸𝑏 ‟The work done in overcoming this opposition is converted into
mechanical energy.
2.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF BACK EMF:
Figure 2.2 shows a DC shunt motor. The rotating armaturegenerating the back emf𝐸𝑏 ‟is like a
battery of emf𝐸𝑏 ‟connected across a supply voltage of „V‟ volts.

If 𝐸𝑏 is large, armature current will be less and vice versa. Hence 𝐸𝑏 acts like a governor i.e., it
makes the motor self- regulating so that it draws as much current as required by the motor.

2.4 VOLTAGE EQUATION OF A MOTOR:

Figure 2.2
2.5 CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM POWER:
2.6 TORQUE:
Torque is the twisting moment about an axis. It is measured by the product of the force and the
radius at which the force acts. Consider a pulley of radius „r‟ metre acted upon a circumferential
force of „F‟ newton which causes it to rotate at „N‟ rotations per second (r.p.s) as show in Figure.
2.3

Figure 2.3
2.6 (i) ARMATURE TORQUE OF A MOTOR:
2.6 (ii) SHAFT TORQUE (TSH):
Some of the torque developed in the armature will be lost in supplying the iron and
friction losses in the motor. The torque which is available for doing useful work is known as
shaft torque „Tsh‟. The horse power obtained by using the shaft torque is called as Brake Horse
Power (BHP).

SPEED OF A DC MOTOR:
Speed regulation: is defined as the change in speed from No-load to full load when the rated load
on the motor is reduced to zero, expressed as a percentage of rated speed.

2.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTORS:

There are three important characteristics.
1. Armature torque vs Armature current;𝑇𝑎 vs 𝐼𝑎 (Electrical_characteristics)_
2. Speed vs armature current characteristic
3. Speed vs torque N vs𝑇𝑎 (Mechanical characteristics)
2.7 (i) CHARACTERISTICS OF SHUNT MOTORS
by dark line in figure 2.4, Shunt motors should never be started on heavy loads, since it draws
heavy current under such condition.

2.8 Performance curves of DC shunt motor

Figure 2.7
The four essential characteristics of shunt motor i.e., torque, speed, current and efficiency
plotted as a function of horse power are known as performance curves of the motor, shown in
figure 2.7 Shunt motor has a definite No-load speed hence can be used where a load is suddenly
thrown off with field circuit remaining close. The drop in speed from No-load to full load is
small and hence referred to as constant speed motor. The efficiency curve is usually of the same
shape for all motors and generators. It is advantageous to have an efficiency curve which is fairly
flat and the maximum efficiency near to full load. Certain value of minimum current is required
even when the output is zero as the input under No-load condition has to meet the losses within
the machine.
The shunt motor is also capable of starting under heavy load condition but the current drawn by
the motor will be very high compared to DC series motor.

As the series motor draws only one and half times the full load current

2.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES MOTORS:

At light loads,𝐼𝑎 nd hence is∅ small. But as 𝐼𝑎 increases; 𝑇𝑎 ncreases as the square of the current
up to saturation. After saturation∅ becomes constant, the characteristic becomes a straight line as
shown in Figure 2.8. Therefore a series motor develops a torque proportional to the square of the
armature current. This characteristic is suited where huge starting torque is required for
accelerating heavy masses.
Ex. Hoists, electric trains, etc.
This characteristic is shown in figure 2.9(a). Change in𝐸𝑏 for various load currents is small.
𝐸𝑏
Hence may be neglected. Therefore the speed is inversely proportional to flux, because N∝ ∅

When the load is heavy, 𝐼𝑎 is large and speed is low. When the load is low, current and hence flux
will be small. Therefore speed becomes dangerously high. Hence a series motor should never be
started without load on it.
2.10 PERFORMANCE CURVES OF DC SERIES MOTOR

The performance curves of DC series motor are shown in Figure 2.10. The machine is so
designed that it is having maximum efficiency near rated load.

For a given input current, the starting torque developed by a DC series motor is greater than that
developed by a shunt motor. Hence series motors are used where huge starting torques are
necessary. Ex. Cranes, hoists, electric traction etc. The DC series motor responds by decreasing
its speed for the increased in load. The current drawn by the DC series motor for the given
increase in load is lesser than DC shunt motor. The drop in speed with increased load is much
more prominent in series motor than that in a shunt motor. Hence series motor is not suitable for
applications requiring a constant speed.
2.11 COMPOUND MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS:
Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics are required and in
addition the load is likely to be removed totally such as in some types of coal cutting machines or
for driving heavy machine tools which have to take sudden deep cuts quite often. Speed will not
become excessively high due to shunt winding and the motor will be able to take heavy loads
because of series winding. Differential compound motors: Series field opposes the shunt field;
therefore the flux is decreased as the load is applied to the motor. This results in the motor speed
remaining almost constant or even increasing with increase in load.

Figure 2.11

Summarizing,
𝑁
1. Lies between shunt (∅ = constant) and series (∅ ∝ 𝐼𝑎 )characteristics as shown in figure
𝐼𝑎

2.11
Used in rolling mills where light and heavy loads are thrown on the motor
1.30 Armature Reaction and Commutation:
In a d.c. generator, the purpose of field winding is to produce magnetic field (called main
flux) whereas the purpose of armature winding is to carry armature current. Although the
armature winding is not provided for the purpose of producing a magnetic field, nevertheless the
current in the armature winding will also produce magnetic flux (called armature flux). The
armature flux distorts and weakens the main flux posing problems for the proper operation of the
d.c. generator. The action of armature flux on the main flux is called armature reaction.
it was hinted that current in the coil is reversed as the coil passes a brush. This
phenomenon is termed as commutation. The criterion for good commutation is that it should be
sparkles. In order to have sparkless commutation, the brushes should lie along magnetic neutral
axis. In this chapter, we shall discuss the various aspects of armature reaction and commutation
in a d.c. generator.
1.31 Armature Reaction
So far we have assumed that the only flux acting in a d.c. machine is that due to the main
poles called main flux. However, current flowing through armature conductors also creates a
magnetic flux (called armature flux) that distorts and weakens the flux coming from the poles.
This distortion and field weakening takes place in both generators and motors. The action of
armature flux on the main flux is known as armature reaction.
The phenomenon of armature reaction in a d.c. generator is shown in Fig. (1.41). Only
one pole is shown for clarity. When the generator is on no-load, a smal1 current flowing in the
armature does not appreciably affect the main flux 1 coming from the pole [See Fig 1.41 (i)].
When the generator is loaded, the current flowing through armature conductors sets up flux 1.
Fig. (1.41) (ii) shows flux due to armature current alone. By superimposing 1 and 2, we obtain
the resulting flux 3 as shown in Fig. (1.41) (iii). Referring to Fig (1.41) (iii),
it is clear that flux density at; the trailing pole tip (point B) is increased while at theleading pole
tip (point A) it is decreased. This unequal field distribution produces the following two effects:
(a) The main flux is distorted.
(b) Due to higher flux density at pole tip B, saturation sets in. Consequently, the increase in
flux at pole tip B is less than the decrease in flux under pole tip A. Flux 3 at full load is,
therefore, less than flux 1 at no load. As we shall see, the weakening of flux due to
 armature reaction depends upon the position of brushes
(c) The demagnetizing effect of armature mmf reduces the total flux per pole. The reduction
in about 1 to 5% from no load to full load.

Fig. (1.41)

1.32 Geometrical and Magnetic Neutral Axes

The geometrical neutral axis (G.N.A.) is the axis that bisects the angle between the
centre line of adjacent poles [See Fig. 1.42 (i)]. Clearly, it is the axis of symmetry
between two adjacent poles.

Fig. (1.42)
(i) The magnetic neutral axis (M. N. A.) is the axis drawn perpendicular to the mean
direction of the flux passing through the centre of the armature. Clearly, no e.m.f. is
produced in the armature conductors along this axis because then they cut no flux. With
no current in the armature conductors, the M.N.A. coincides with G, N. A. as shown in
Fig. (1.42).
(ii) In order to achieve sparkless commutation, the brushes must lie along M.N.A.

1.33 Explanation of Armature Reaction

With no current in armature conductors, the M.N.A. coincides with G.N.A. However, when
current flows in armature conductors, the combined action of main flux and armature flux shifts
the M.N.A. from G.N.A. In case of a generator, the M.N.A. is shifted in the direction of rotation
of the machine. In order to achieve sparkless commutation, the brushes have to be moved along
the new M.N.A. Under such a condition, the armature reaction produces the following two
effects:
1. It demagnetizes or weakens the main flux.
2. It cross-magnetizes or distorts the main flux.
Let us discuss these effects of armature reaction by considering a 2-pole generator (though the
following remarks also hold good for a multipolar generator).
(i) Fig. (1.43) (i) shows the flux due to main poles (main flux) when the armature
conductors carry no current. The flux across the air gap is uniform. The m.m.f.
producing the main flux is represented in magnitude and direction by the vector OFm in
Fig. (1.43) (i). Note that OFm is perpendicular to G.N.A.
(ii) Fig. (1.43) (ii) shows the flux due to current flowing in armature conductors alone (main
poles unexcited). The armature conductors to the left of G.N.A. carry current “in” ()
and those to the right carry current “out” (•). The direction of magnetic lines of force
can be found by cork screw rule. It is clear that armature flux is directed downward
parallel to the brush axis. The m.m.f. producing the armature flux is represented in
magnitude and direction by the vector OFA in Fig. (1.43) (ii).
(iii) Fig. (1.43) (iii) shows the flux due to the main poles and that due to current in armature
conductors acting together. The resultant m.m.f. OF is the vector sum of OFm and OFA
as shown in Fig. (1.43) (iii). Since M.N.A. is always perpendicular to the resultant
m.m.f., the M.N.A. is shifted through an angle . Note that M.N.A. is shifted in the
direction of rotation of the generator.
In order to achieve sparkless commutation, the brushes must lie along the M.N.A. Consequently,
the brushes are shifted through an angle  so as to lie along the new M.N.A. as shown in Fig.
(1.43) (iv). Due to brush shift, the m.m.f. FA of the armature is also rotated through the same
angle . It is because some of the conductors which were earlier under N-pole now come under
S-pole and vice-versa. The result is that armature m.m.f. FA will no longer be vertically
downward but will be rotated in thedirection of rotation through an angle  as shown in Fig.
(1.43) (iv). Now FA can be resolved into rectangular components Fc and Fd.
 Fig. (1.43)
(a) The component Fd is in direct opposition to the m.m.f. OFm due to main poles. It has a
demagnetizing effect on the flux due to main poles. For this reason, it is called the
demagnetizing or weakening component of armature reaction.

(b) The component Fc is at right angles to the m.m.f. OFm due to main poles. It distorts the
main field. For this reason, it is called the cross-magnetizing or distorting component of
armature reaction.
It may be noted that with the increase of armature current, both demagnetizing and distorting
effects will increase.
Conclusions
(i) With brushes located along G.N.A. (i.e.,  = 0°), there is no demagnetizing component of
armature reaction (Fd = 0). There is only distorting or cross-magnetizing effect of armature
reaction.
(ii) With the brushes shifted from G.N.A., armature reaction will have both demagnetizing and
distorting effects. Their relative magnitudes depend on the amount of shift. This shift is
directly proportional to the armature current.
(iii) The demagnetizing component of armature reaction weakens the main flux. On the other
hand, the distorting component of armature reaction distorts the main flux.
The demagnetizing effect leads to reduced generated voltage while cross-magnetizing effect
leads to sparking at the brushes.

1.34 Demagnetizing and Cross-Magnetizing Conductors

With the brushes in the G.N.A. position, there is only cross-magnetizing effect of armature
reaction. However, when the brushes are shifted from the G.N.A. position, the armature reaction
will have both demagnetizing and cross-magnetizing effects. Consider a 2-pole generator with
brushes shifted (lead) m mechanical degrees from G.N.A. We shall identify the armature
conductors that produce demagnetizing effect and those that produce cross-magnetizing effect.
The armature conductors om on either side of G.N.A. produce flux in direct opposition to
main flux as shown in Fig. (1.44) (i). Thus the conductors lying within angles AOC = BOD =
m at the top and bottom of the armature produce demagnetizing effect. These are called
demagnetizing armature conductors and constitute the demagnetizing ampere-turns of armature
reaction (Remember two conductors constitute a turn).
 Fig.( 1.44)

(ii) The axis of magnetization of the remaining armature conductors lying between
angles AOD and COB is at right angles to the main flux as shown in Fig. (1.44) (ii).
These conductors produce the cross-magnetizing (or distorting) effect i.e., they
produce uneven flux distribution on each pole. Therefore, they are called cross-
magnetizing conductors and constitute the cross-magnetizing ampere-turns of
armature reaction.
1.35 Calculation of Demagnetizing Ampere-Turns Per Pole (ATd/Pole)
It is sometimes desirable to neutralize the demagnetizing ampere-turns of armature
reaction. This is achieved by adding extra ampere-turns to the main field winding. We
shall now calculate the demagnetizing ampere-turns per pole (ATd/pole).

Let Z = total number of armature conductors

I = current in each armature conductor
= Ia/2 ... for simplex wave winding
= Ia/P ... for simplex lap winding
m = forward lead in mechanical degrees
Referring to Fig. (1.44) (i) above, we have,
Total demagnetizing armature conductors

4𝜃𝑚
Total number of armature conductors in angles AOC and BOD = ×𝑍
360

Since two conductors constitute one turn,

2𝜃𝑚
tal number of turns in these angles = × 𝑍𝐼
360

2𝜃𝑚
 demagnetizing amp-turns per pair of poles = × 𝑍𝐼
360

𝜃
 demagnetizing amp-turns/ poles == 360
𝑚
× 𝑍𝐼

i.e,
 𝑚𝜃
𝐴𝑇𝑑 per pole =360 × 𝑍𝐼

1.36 Cross-Magnetizing Ampere-Turns Per Pole ATc/Pole)

We now calculate the cross-magnetizing ampere-turns per pole (ATc/pole).
Total armature reaction ampere-turns per pole
𝑍/2 𝑍
= x I = 2𝑃 x I (Q two conductors make one turn)
𝑃

Demagnetizing ampere-turns per pole is given by;

𝑚 𝜃
Demagnetizing amp-turns/ poles == 360 × 𝑍𝐼 (found above)

𝑍 2𝜃𝑚 1 2𝜃𝑚
 Cross-magnetizing conductors /pole = 𝑃 - Z × =Z −
360 𝑃 360

1 2𝜃𝑚
 Cross-magnetizing ampere-conductors/pole= ZI −
𝑃 360

1 𝜃
 Cross-magnetizing ampere-conductors/pole = ZI 𝑚
− 360
2𝑃

(remembering that two conductors make one turn)

1 𝑚𝜃
𝐴𝑇𝑐 per polen = ZI − 360
2𝑃

Note:
For neutralizing the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, an extra number of turns may
be put on each pole

𝐴𝑇𝑑
No. of extra turns/pole = - for shunt generator
𝐼𝑠𝑕
𝐴𝑇𝑑
= - for series generator
𝐼𝑎

1.36 (a) Detrimental effects of armature reaction:

(1) Distortion of main field flux
It gives rise to 3 deterimental effects.
(i) Rise in iron losses
 (ii) Poor commutation and
(iii) Sparking
(2) Net reduction of the main field flux influences the cost of the main field flux.
(i)iron losses: These losses depended on the maximum value of flux density in teeth and
interpole shoes. Distorting main field flux, increases the flux density in teeth iron losses at
full load is abiut 1.5 times no load value.

1.36(b) Methods of limiting the effects of Armature Reaction:

(i) High reluctance pole tips:

1. At the time of construction we use chamfered poles. These poles have larger air gap on
the tips and smaller air gap at the center. These poles provide non uniform air gap. The
effect of armature reaction is more near to edge of poles and negligible near the center of
poles.
2. If air gap is kept non uniform i.e., larger air gap at the edge (pole tip) and smaller near the
center of the pole and then armature flux near the pole tip decreases and armature
reaction decreases.
(i) By laminated pole shoe:
 We insear laminated objects in the pole. By having laminated pole shoe the reluctance in the
armature flux path increases. Hence the armature flux gap gets reduced.

(ii) By reduction in Armature flux:

The effect of armature reaction is reduced by creating more reluctance in the path of
armature flux. This is achieved by using field pole laminations having several
rectangular holes punched in them. It gives high reluctance in the path of armature
flux. Due this armature cross flux reduces whereas main field remains almost
unaffected.

(iii)By havig strong magnetic field:

During the design of dc machine it should be ensured that the main field m.m.f. if
sufficiently in comparison with full load armature flux. Greater the main field, lesser will
be the distortion.
(iv) Inter Poles
(v) Compensating winding
These two methods are explained in below in detail.

1.37 Compensating Windings

The cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction may cause trouble in d.c. machines
subjected to large fluctuations in load. In order to neutralize the cross magnetizing effect of
armature reaction, a compensating winding is used A compensating winding is an auxiliary
winding embedded in slots in the pole faces as shown in Fig. (1.45).
 Fig. 1.45
The direction of current through the compensating conductors in any one pole face will be
opposite to the direction of the current through the adjacent armature conductors [See Fig. 1.45].
Let us now calculate the number of compensating conductors/ pole face. In calculating the
conductors per pole face required for the compensating winding, it should be remembered that
the current in the compensating conductors is the armature current Ia whereas the current in
armature conductors is Ia/A where A is the number of parallel paths.
Let Zc = No. of compensating conductors/pole face
Za = No. of active armature conductors
Ia = Total armature current
Ia/A = Current in each armature conductor

 Zc Ia ZaIAa

Za
or Zc =
A

The use of a compensating winding considerably increases the cost of a machine and is justified
only for machines intended for severe service e.g., for high speed and high voltage machines.

1.38 AT/Pole for Compensating Winding

Only the cross-magnetizing ampere-turns produced by conductors under the pole face are
effective in producing the distortion in the pole cores. If Z is the total number of armature
conductors and P is the number of poles, then

𝑍
No. of armature conductors/pole = 𝑝

Z
No. of armature turns/pole =
2P
Z Pole arc
No. of armature turns under pole face = 2P x Pole pitch
If I is the current through each armature conductor, then,
ZI Pole arc
AT/pole required for compensating winding = x
2P Pole pitch
Pole arc
= Armature AT/pole x Pole pitch
1.39 Commutation
Fig. (1.46) shows the schematic diagram of 2-pole lap-wound generator. There are two parallel
paths between the brushes. Therefore, each coil of the winding carries one half (Ia/2 in this case)
of the total current (Ia) entering or leaving the armature.
Note that the currents in the coils connected to a brush are either all towards the brush (positive
brush) or all directed away from the brush (negative brush). Therefore, current in a coil will
reverse as the coil passes a brush. This reversal of current as the coil passes & brush is called
commutation.

Fig. (1.46)
The reversal of current in a coil as the coil passes the brush axis is called commutation.
When commutation takes place, the coil undergoing commutation is short-circuited by the brush.
The brief period during which the coil remains short-circuited is known as commutation period
Tc. If the current reversal is completed by the end of commutation period, it is called ideal
commutation. If the current reversal is not completed by that time, then sparking occurs between
the brush and the commutator which results in progressive damage to both.

(i) Ideal commutation

Let us discuss the phenomenon of ideal commutation (i.e., coil has no inductance) in one coil in
the armature winding shown in Fig. (1.46) above. For this purpose, we consider the coil A. The
brush width is equal to the width of one commutator segment and one mica insulation. Suppose
the total armature current is 40 A. Since there are two parallel paths, each coil carries a current of
20 A

Fig. (1.47)

(i) In Fig. (1.47) (i), the brush is in contact with segment 1 of the commutator. The
commutator segment 1 conducts a current of 40 A to the brush; 20 A from coil A and 20 A
from the adjacent coil as shown. The coil A has yet to undergo commutation.
(ii) As the armature rotates, the brush will make contact with segment 2 and thus short-circuits
the coil A as shown in Fig. (1.47) (ii). There are now two parallel paths into the brush as
long as the short-circuit of coil A exists. Fig. (1.47) (ii) shows the instant when the brush is
 one-fourth on segment 2 and three-fourth on segment 1. For this condition, the resistance
of the path through segment 2 is three times the resistance of the path through segment 1
(Q contact resistance varies inversely as the area of contact of brush with the segment). The
brush again conducts a current of 40 A; 30 A through segment 1 and 10 A through segment
2. Note that current in coil A (the coil undergoing commutation) is reduced from 20 A to
10 A.

(iii) Fig. (1.47) (iii) shows the instant when the brush is one-half on segment 2 and one-half on
segment 1. The brush again conducts 40 A; 20 A through segment 1 and 20 A through
segment 2 (Q now the resistances of the two parallel paths are equal). Note that now.
Current in coil A is zero.

(iv) Fig. (1.47) (iv) shows the instant when the brush is three-fourth on segment 2 and one-
fourth on segment 1. The brush conducts a current of 40 A; 30 A through segment 2 and 10
A through segment 1. Note that current in coil A is 10 A but in the reverse direction to that
before the start of commutation. The reader may see the action of the commutator in
reversing the current in a coil as the coil passes the brush axis.
(v) Fig. (1.47) (v) shows the instant when the brush is in contact only with segment 2. The
brush again conducts 40 A; 20 A from coil A and 20 A from the adjacent coil to coil A.
Note that now current in coil A is 20 A but in the reverse direction. Thus the coil A has
undergone commutation. Each coil undergoes commutation in this way as it passes the
brush axis. Note that during commutation, the coil under consideration remains short-
circuited by the brush.
Fig. (1.48) shows the current-time graph for the coil A undergoing commutation. The horizontal
line AB represents a constant current of 20 A upto the beginning of commutation. From the
finish of commutation, it is represented by another horizontal line CD on the opposite side of the
zero

(vi) line and the same distance from it as AB i.e., the current has exactly reversed. The way
in which current changes from B to C depends upon the conditions under which the coil
undergoes commutation. If the current changes at a uniform rate (i.e., BC is a straight
line), then it is called ideal commutation as shown in Fig. (1.48). under such conditions,
no sparking will take place between the brush and the commutator.

(vii) Practical difficulties

The ideal commutation (i.e., straight line change of current) cannot be attained in
practice. This is mainly due to the fact that the armature coils have appreciable inductance. When
the current in the coil undergoing commutation changes, self-induced e.m.f. is produced in the
coil. This is generally called reactance voltage. This reactance voltage opposes the change of
current in the coil undergoing commutation. The result is that the change of current in the coil
undergoing commutation occurs more slowly than it would be under ideal commutation.
This is illustrated in Fig. (1.49). The straight line RC represents the ideal commutation
whereas the curve BE represents the change in current when self-inductance of the coil is taken
into account. Note that current CE (= 8A in Fig. 1.49) is flowing from the commutator segment 1
to the brush at the instant when they part company. This results in sparking just as when any
other current-carrying circuit is broken. The sparking results in overheating of commutator-brush
contact and causing damage to both.
Fig. (1.50) illustrates how sparking takes place between the commutator segment and the brush.
At the end of commutation or short-circuit period, the current in coil A is reversed to a value of
12 A (instead of 20 A) due to inductance of the coil. When the brush breaks contact with
segment 1, the remaining 8 A current jumps from segment 1 to the brush through air causing
sparking between segment 1 and the brush.
 Fig. (1.49) Fig. (1.50)
1.40 Calculation of Reactance Voltage
Reactance voltage = Coefficient of self-inductance x Rate of change of current
When a coil undergoes commutation, two commutator segments remain short-circuited by the
brush. Therefore, the time of short circuit (or commutation period Tc) is equal to the time
required by the commutator to move a distance equal to the circumferential thickness of the
brush minus the thickness of one insulating strip of mica.
Commutation period(Tc) : It is defined as the time measuredfrom the instant the brush is fully
on bar1, to the instant the brush is fully on bar2.

Let Wb = brush width in cm; Wm = mica thickness in cm

v = peripheral speed of commutator in cm/s

Wb Wm
 Commutation period, Tc seconds
v

The commutation period is very small, say of the order of 1/500 second.
Let the current in the coil undergoing commutation change from + I to  I (amperes) during the
commutation. If L is the inductance of the coil, then reactance voltage is given by;
2𝐼
self induced or reactance voltage = L × 𝑇 (for linear commutation)
𝐶

2𝐼
=1.11 L × 𝑇 (for sinusoidal commutation)
𝐶

The sum of the two emf‟s one due to self flux of the coil and the other due to the mutual flux of
the neighboring coils is called reactance voltage.
The magnitude of reactance voltage is approximately proportional to the armature core length,
coil pitch of the winding and square of the number of turns per coil. Reactance voltage can be
minimized by using
(a) Small length of armature core by resorting to multipolar design
(b) Chorded – armature coils
(c) Smallest no of armature turns per coil.
1.41 Methods of Improving Commutation
Improving commutation means to make current reversal in the short-circuited coil as sparkles as
possible. The following are the two principal methods of improving commutation:
(i) Resistance commutation
(ii) E.M.F. commutation
We shall discuss each method in turn.
1.42 Resistance Commutation
The reversal of current in a coil (i.e., commutation) takes place while the coil is short-circuited
by the brush. Therefore, there are two parallel paths for the current as long as the short circuit
exists. If the contact resistance between the brush and the commutator is made large, then current
would divide in the inverse ratio of contact resistances (as for any two resistances in parallel).
This is the key point in improving commutation.
This is achieved by using carbon brushes (instead of Cu brushes) which have high contact
resistance. This method of improving commutation is called resistance commutation.
Figs. (1.51) and (1.52) illustrates how high contact resistance of carbon brush improves
commutation (i.e., reversal of current) in coil A. In Fig. (1.51) (i), the brush is entirely on
segment 1 and, therefore, the current in coil A is 20 A. The coil A is yet to undergo
commutation. As the armature rotates, the brush short-circuits the coil A and there are two
parallel paths for the current into the brush. Fig. (1.51) (ii) shows the instant when the brush is
one-fourth on segment 2 and three-fourth on segment 1.

Figs. (1.51) and (1.52) illustrates how high contact resistance of carbon brush improves
commutation (i.e., reversal of current) in coil A. In Fig. (1.51) (i), the brush is entirely on
segment 1 and, therefore, the current in coil A is 20 A. The coil A is yet to undergo
commutation. As the armature rotates, the brush short-circuits the coil A and there are two
parallel paths for the current into the brush. Fig. (1.51) (ii) shows the instant when the brush is
one-fourth on segment 2 and three-fourth on segment 1.

The equivalent electric circuit is shown in Fig. (1.51) (iii) where R1 and R2 represent the brush
contact resistances on segments 1 and 2. A resistor is not shown for coil A since it is assumed
that the coil resistance is negligible as compared to the brush contact resistance. The values of
current in the parallel paths of the equivalent circuit are determined by the respective resistances
of the paths. For the condition shown in Fig. (1.51) (ii), resistor R2 has three times the resistance
of resistor R1.
Therefore, the current distribution in the paths will be as shown. Note that current in coil
A is reduced from 20 A to 10 A due to division of current in (he inverse ratio of contact
resistances. If the Cu brush is used (which has low contact resistance), R1 R2 and the current in
coil A would not have reduced to 10A.

Fig. (1.51)
 Fig. (1.52)

As the carbon brush passes over the commutator, the contact area with segment 2 increases and
that with segment 1 decreases i.e., R2 decreases and R1 increases. Therefore, more and more
current passes to the brush through segment 2. This is illustrated in Figs. (1.52) (i) and (1.52) (ii),
When the break between the brush and the segment 1 finally occurs [See Fig. 1.52 (iii)], the
current in the coil is reversed and commutation is achieved.

It may be noted that the main cause of sparking during commutation is the production of
reactance voltage and carbon brushes cannot prevent it. Nevertheless, the carbon brushes do help
in improving commutation. The other minor advantages of carbon brushes are:
(i) The carbon lubricates and polishes the commutator.
(ii) If sparking occurs, it damages the commutator less than with copper brushes and the
damage to the brush itself is of little importance.
In this resistance commutation carbon brushes are used for small d.c machines. And
electrographite brushes wre used more frequently in all d.c machines. And copper brushes are
used in low voltage (upto 30V) heavy current d.c machines. In this all three brushes are self
lubricating.
1.43 E.M.F. Commutation

In this method, an arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance voltage by producing a

reversing voltage in the coil undergoing commutation. The reversing voltage acts in opposition
to the reactance voltage and neutralizes it to some extent. If the reversing voltage is equal to the
reactance voltage, the effect of the latter is completely wiped out and we get sparkless
commutation. The reversing voltage may be produced in the following two ways:
 (i) By brush shifting
(ii) By using interpoles or compoles

(i) By brush shifting

In this method, the brushes are given sufficient forward lead (for a generator) to bring the short-
circuited coil (i.e., coil undergoing commutation) under the influence of the next pole of opposite
polarity. Since the short-circuited coil is now in the reversing field, the reversing voltage
produced cancels the reactance voltage. This method suffers from the following drawbacks:
(i) The reactance voltage depends upon armature current. Therefore, the brush shift
will depend on the magnitude of armature current which keeps on changing. This
necessitates frequent shifting of brushes.
(ii) The greater the armature current, the greater must be the forward lead for a
generator. This increases the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction and further
weakens the main field.
(ii) By using interpoles or compotes
The best method of neutralizing reactance voltage is by, using interpoles or compoles.

1.44 Interpoles or Compoles

The best way to produce reversing voltage to neutralize the reactance voltage is by using
interpoles or compoles. These are small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced mid-way between the
main poles (See Fig. 1.53). They are wound with comparatively few turns and connected in
series with the armature so that they carry armature current. Their polarity is the same as the next
main pole ahead in the direction of rotation for a generator (See Fig. 1.53). Connections for a d.c.
generator with interpoles is shown in Fig. (1.54).
Fig. (1.53) Fig. (1.54)
(i) Functions of Interpoles
The machines fitted with interpoles have their brushes set on geometrical neutral axis (no lead).
The interpoles perform the following two functions:
(i) As their polarity is the same as the main pole ahead (for a generator), they induce
an e.m.f. in the coil (undergoing commutation) which opposes reactance voltage.
This leads to sparkless commutation. The e.m.f. induced by compoles is known as
commutating or reversing e.m.f. Since the interpoles carry the armature current and
the reactance voltage is also proportional to armature current, the neutralization of
reactance voltage is automatic.
(ii) The m.m.f. of the compoles neutralizes the cross-magnetizing effect of armature
reaction in small region in the space between the main poles. It is because the two
m.m.f.s oppose each other in this region.
Fig. (1.55) shows the circuit diagram of a shunt generator with commutating winding and
compensating winding. Both these windings are connected in series with the armature and so
they carry the armature current. However, the functions they perform must be understood clearly.
The main function of commutating winding is to produce reversing (or commutating) e.m.f. in
order to cancel the reactance voltage.

Fig. (1.55)
In addition to this, the m.m.f. of the commutating winding neutralizes the cross-
magnetizing ampere-turns in the space between the main poles. The compensating winding
neutralizes the cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction under the pole faces.
 Unit-III
Starting, Speed control and Testing of DC Machines

3.1 Speed control of shunt motor

We know that the speed of shunt motor is given by: V-Irn=kφ where, Va is the voltage
applied across the armature and φ is the flux per pole and is proportional to the field current If.
As explained earlier, armature current Ia is decided by the mechanical load present on the shaft.
Therefore, by varying Va and If we can vary n. For fixed supply voltage and the motor connected
as shunt we can vary Va by controlling an external resistance connected in series with the
armature. If of course can be varied by controlling external field resistance Rf connected with the
field circuit. Thus for .shunt motor we have essentially two methods for controlling speed,
namely by:
1. varying armature resistance.
2. varying field resistance
i) Speed control by varying armature resistance
The inherent armature resistance ra being small, speed n versus armature current Ia
characteristic will be a straight line with a small negative slope as shown in figure1. In the
discussion to follow we shall not disturb the field current from its rated value. For shunt motor
voltage applied to the field and armature circuit are same and equal to the supply voltage V.
However, as the motor is loaded, Iara drop increases making speed a little less than the no load
speed n0. For a well designed shunt motor this drop in speed is small and about 3 to 5% with
respect to no load speed. This drop in speed from no load to full load condition expressed as a
percentage of no load speed is called the inherent speed regulation of the motor.

Fig.3.1: N v/s Ia Characteristics

Fig 3.2 N v/s Te Characteristics

The slope of the n vs Ia or n vs Te characteristic can be modified by deliberately

connecting external resistance rext in the armature circuit. One can get a family of speed vs.
armature curves as shown in figures 3.1 and 3.2 for various values of rext. From these
characteristic it can be explained how speed control is achieved. Let us assume that the load
torque TL is constant and field current is also kept constant. Therefore, since steady state
operation demands Te = TL, Te = akIφ too will remain constant; which means Ia will not change.
Suppose rext = 0, then at rated load torque, operating point will be at C and motor speed will be
n. If additional resistance rext1 is introduced in the armature circuit, new steady state operating
speed will be n1 corresponding to the operating point D. In this way one can get a speed of n2
corresponding to the operating point E, when rext2 is introduced in the armature circuit.
This same load torque is supplied at various speed. Variation of the speed is smooth and
speed will decrease smoothly if rext is increased. Obviously, this method is suitable for
controlling speed below the base speed and for supplying constant rated load torque which
ensures rated armature current always. Although, this method provides smooth wide range speed
control (from base speed down to zero speed), has a serious draw back since energy loss takes
place in the external resistance rext reducing the efficiency of the motor.

ii)Speed control by varying field current

In this method field circuit resistance is varied to control the speed of a d.c shunt motor. Let us
rewrite .the basic equation to understand the method.

If we vary If, flux φ will change, hence speed will vary. To change If an external resistance is
connected in series with the field windings. The field coil produces rated flux when no external
resistance is connected and rated voltage is applied across field coil. It should be understood that
we can only decrease flux from its rated value by adding external resistance. Thus the speed of
the motor will rise as we decrease the field current and speed control above the base speed will
be achieved. Speed versus armature current characteristic is shown in figure 3.3 for two flux
values φ and 1φ. Since 1<φφ, the no load speed 'on for flux value 1φ is more than the no load
speed no corresponding to φ. However, this method will not be suitable for constant load torque.
To make this point clear, let us assume that the load torque is constant at rated value. So from the
initial steady condition, we have 1=L ratedea ratedT=TkIφ. If load torque remains constant and
flux is reduced to 1φ, new armature current in the steady state is obtained from 11aL ratekI=T φ.
Therefore new armature current is

But the fraction,1 1>φ; hence new armature current will be greater than the rated armature
current and the motor will be overloaded. This method therefore, will be suitable for a load
whose torque demand decreases with the rise in speed keeping the output power constant as
shown in figure 3.3 Obviously this method is based on flux weakening of the main field.
Therefore at higher speed main flux may become so weakened, that armature reaction effect will
be more pronounced causing problem in commutation.
 Fig. 3.3 :N v/s Ia Characteristics

Fig.3. 4 : Constant Torque and Power Operation

iii) Speed control by armature voltage variation:

In this method of speed control, armature is supplied from a separate variable d.c voltage source,
while the field is separately excited with fixed rated voltage as shown in figure 3.5. Here the
armature resistance and field current are not varied. Since the no load speed 0=aVknφ, the speed
versus Ia characteristic will shift parallely as shown in figure for different values of Va.
As flux remains constant, this method is suitable for constant torque loads. In a way armature
voltage control method is similar to that of armature resistance control method except that the
former one is much superior as no extra power loss takes place in the armature circuit. Armature
voltage control method is adopted for controlling speed from base speed down to very small
speed as one should not apply across the armature a voltage which is higher than the
ratedVoltage.
(a)Ward Leonard method: combination of Va and If control:
In this scheme, both field and armature control are integrated Arrangement for field control is
rather simple. One has to simply connect an appropriate rheostat in the field circuit for this
purpose. However, in the pre power electronic era, obtaining a variable d.c supply was not easy
and a separately excited d.c generator was used to supply the motor armature. Obviously to run
this generator, a prime mover is required. A 3-phase induction motor is used as the prime mover
which is supplied from a 3-phase supply. By controlling the field current of the generator, the
generated emf, hence Va can be varied. The potential divider connection uses two rheostats in
parallel to facilitate reversal of generator field current.
First the induction motor is started with generator field current zero (by adjusting the jockey
positions of the rheostats). Field supply of the motor is switched on with motor field rheostat set
to zero. The applied voltage to the motor Va, can now be gradually increased to the rated value
by slowly increasing the generator field current. In this scheme, no starter is required for the d.c
motor as the applied voltage to the armature is gradually increased. To control the speed of the
d.c motor below base speed by armature voltage, excitation of the d.c generator is varied, while
to control the speed above base speed field current of the d.c motor is varied maintaining
constant Va. Reversal of direction of rotation of the motor can be obtained by adjusting jockeys
of the generator field rheostats. Although, wide range smooth speed control is achieved, the cost
involved is rather high as we require one additional d.c generator and a 3-phase induction motor
of simialr rating as that of the d.c motor whose speed is intended to be controlled.
In present day, variable d.c supply can easily be obtained from a.c supply by using controlled
rectifiers thus avoiding the use of additional induction motor and generator set to implement
Ward leonard method.

Fig 3.5: Scheme for Ward Leonard Method of Speed control

Some of the features of the Ward Leonard system are given below:
1. Absence of external resistance improves efficiency at all speeds and also when the generator
emf becomes less than the back emf of the motor, the electrical power flows back from motor to
generator, is converted to mechanical form and is returned to the mains via the driving AC
motor.
2. Motor starts up smoothly therefore No starting device is required.
3. Speed reversal is smoothly carried out.
4. Fine speed control from zero to rated value in both the direct
This method of speed control is used in
a. High speed elevators
 b. Colliery winders
Advantages
1. Absence of external resistance improves efficiency at all speeds
2. Motor starts up smoothly. No starting device is required
3. Speed reversal is smoothly carried out.

1.2 DC SERIES MOTOR:

Although a far greater percentage of electric motors in service are ac motors, the dc motor is of
considerable industrial importance. The principal advantage of a dc motor is that its speed can be
changed over a wide range by a variety of simple methods. Such a fine speed control is generally
not possible with ac motors. In fact, fine speed control is one of the reasons for the
strong competitive position of dc motors in the modem industrial applications.

The speed control of d.c. seriesmotors can be obtained by two methods (i) flux control method
(ii) armature-resistance control method. Armature-resistance control method method is mostly
used.
I. Flux control method:

In this method, the flux produced by the series motor is varied. The variation of flux can be
achieved in the following ways:

1. DIVERTER FIELD CONTROL:

In this method, a variable resistance (called field diverter) is connected in parallel with series
field winding. A part of the line current passes through this diverter and thus weakens the field.
Since N ∝ 1/ϕ , speed also varies with field flux. The lowest speed obtained by this method is the
normal speed of motor when the current through diverter is zero, ie, diverter open circuited.

Fig.3.6 (a) Diverted field control

 2. Armature diverter :
In order to obtain speeds below the normal speed, a variable resistance (called armature
diverter) is connected in parallel with the armature. The diverter reduces the armature
current. As a result flux get increased. So the speed decreases since N ∝ 1/ϕ.

Fig 3.6(b) Armature diverter

3. Tapped field control :
In this method, the flux is reduced (and hence speed is increased) by decreasing the
number of turns of the series field winding. The switch S can short circuit any part of the
field winding, thus decreasing the flux and raising the speed. With full turns of the field
winding, the motor runs at normal speed and as the field turns are cut out; speeds higher
than normal speed are achieved

Fig 3.6 (c) Tapped field control

II. Armature-resistance Control:

In this method, a variable resistance is directly connected in series with the supply. This reduces
the voltage available across the armature and hence the speed falls.
 Fig.3.7 Armature-resistance Control

By changing the value of variable resistance, any speed below the normal speed can be obtained.
This is the most common method employed to control the speed of d.c. series motors.

III. Series-Parallel Speed control of DC Series Motor

Fig.3. 8 Series-Parallel Speed control of DC Series Motor

To control the DC series motor this is another way called series parallel technique. This is the
method normally used in traction by connecting two or more than that of the series motor are
couple mechanically at the same load.
Whenever the series motors are connected in sequence (series) like shown in the figure, each and
every armature of the motor receive the one-half of the rated voltage. Thus the speed will be less.
If the series motors are connected in parallel, each and every armature of the motor receives the
full normal voltage and hence the speed is also high. Thus we can achieve the two speeds (low or
high) by connecting the motor either in series or parallel. Note for the same load on the pair of
motors, the speed of the system would run nearly 4 times once motors are in parallel as while
they are in series.

3.3 Starting of DC Motor:

The starting of DC motor is somewhat different from the starting of all other types
ofelectrical motors. This difference is credited to the fact that a dc motorunlike other types of
motor has a very high starting current that has the potential of damaging the internal circuit of
the armature winding of dc motor if not restricted to some limited value. This limitation to the
starting currentof dc motor is brought about by means of the starter. Thus the distinguishing fact
about the starting methods of dc motor is that it is facilitated by means of a starter. Or rather a
device containing a variableresistance connected in series to the armature winding so as to limit
the starting current of dc motor to a desired optimum value taking into consideration the safety
aspect of the motor.

why the DC motor has such high starting current ?

𝑉 = Eb + Ia R a
Where V is the supply voltage, Ia is the armature current, Ra is the armature resistance. And the
back emf is given by Eb. Now the back emf, in case of a dc motor, is very similar to the
generated emf of a dc generator as it‟s produced by the rotational motion of the current carrying
armature conductor in presence of the field. This back emf of dc motor is given by
∅ZNP
Eb =
60A
and has a major role to play in case of the starting of dc motor. From this equation we can see
that Eb is directly proportional to the speed N of the motor. Now since at starting N = 0, E b is
also zero, and under this circumstance the voltageequation is modified to
𝑉 = 0 + Ia R a
 V
There fore Ia = R
a

For all practical practices to obtain optimum operation of the motor the armature resistance is
kept very small usually of the order of 0.5 Ω and the bare minimum supply voltage being 220
volts. Even under these circumstance the starting current, Ia is as high as 220/0.5 amp = 440 amp.
Such high starting current of dc motor creates two major problems.
1) Firstly, current of the order of 400 A has the potential of damaging the internal circuit of the
armature winding of dc motor at the very onset.
2) Secondly, since thetorque equation of dc motor is given by

V
There fore Ia = R
a

Very high electromagnetic starting torque of DC motor is produced by virtue of the high starting
current, which has the potential of producing huge centrifugal force capable of flying off the
rotor winding from the slots.

3.4 Starting Methods of DC Motor:

As a direct consequence of the two above mentioned facts i.e. high starting current and
high starting torque of DC motor, the entire motoring system can undergo total disarray and lead
towards into an engineering massacre and non-functionality. To prevent such an incidence from
occurring several starting methods of dc motor has been adopted. The main principal of this
being the addition of external electrical resistance Rext to the armature winding, so as to
increase the effective resistance to Ra + Rext, thus limiting the armature current to the rated
value. The new value of starting armature current is desirably low and is given by.

V
There fore Ia = R
a +R ext

Now as the motor continues to run and gather speed, the back emf successively develops and
increases, countering the supply voltage, resulting in the decrease of the net working voltage.
Thus now,
V−E b
There fore Ia =
R a +R ext

At this moment to maintain the armature current to its rated value, Rext is progressively
decreased unless it‟s made zero, when the back emf produced is at its maximum. This regulation
of the external electrical resistance in case of the starting of dc motor is facilitated by means of
the starter.
Starters can be of several types and requires a great deal of explanation and some
intricate level understanding. But on a brief over-view the main types of starters used in the
industry today can be illustrated as:-
1) 3 point starter.
2) 4 point starter.
Used for the starting of shunt wound DC motor and compound wound DC motor.

3.5 STARTERS FOR DC MOTORS

(i) Three Point Starter:

It consists of resistances arranged in steps,R1 to R5 connected in series with the armature

of the shunt motor. Field winding is connected across the supply through a protective
devicecalled „NO – Volt Coil‟. Another protection given to the motor in this starter is „over load
release coil‟. The arrangement is shown in Figure3.9
 Figure 3.9 Three Point Starter

To start the motor the starter handle is moved from OFF position to run position
gradually against the tension of a hinged spring. An iron piece is attached to the starter handle
which is kept hold by the No-volt coil at Run position. The function of No volt coil is to get
deenergised and release the handle when there is failure or disconnection or a break in the field
circuit so that on restoration of supply, armature of the motor will not be connected across the
lines without starter resistance. If the motor is over loaded beyond a certain predetermined value,
then the electromagnet of overload release will exert a force enough to attract the lever which
short circuits the electromagnet of No volt coil. Short circuiting of No volt coil results in
deenergisation of it and hence the starter handle will be released and return to its off position due
to the tension of the spring. In this type of starter, the shunt field current has to flow back
through the starter resistance thus decreasing the shunt field current. This can be avoided by
placing a brass arc on which the handle moves as shown in Figure 3.10.
 Figure 3.10

Construction of 3 Point Starter

Construction wise a starter is a variable resistance, integrated into number of sections as

shown in the figure beside. The contact points of these sections are called studs and are shown
separately as OFF, 1, 2,3,4,5, RUN. Other than that there are 3 main points, referred to as
1. 'L' Line terminal. (Connected to positive of supply.)
2. 'A' Armature terminal. (Connected to the armature winding.)
3. 'F' Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding.)
And from there it gets the name 3 point starter.
Now studying the construction of 3 point starter in further details reveals that, the point
'L' is connected to an electromagnet called overload release (OLR) as shown in the figure. The
other end of 'OLR' is connected to the lower end of conducting lever of starter handle where a
spring is also attached with it and the starter handle contains also a soft iron piece housed on it.
This handle is free to move to the other side RUN against the force of the spring. This spring
brings back the handle to its original OFF position under the influence of its own force. Another
parallel path is derived from the stud '1', given to the another electromagnet called No Volt Coil
(NVC) which is further connected to terminal 'F'. The starting resistance at starting is entirely in
series with the armature. The OLR and NVC acts as the two protecting devices of the starter.

3.6 Working of Three Point Starter

Having studied its construction, let us now go into the working of the 3 point starter. To
start with the handle is in the OFF position when the supply to the DC motor is switched on.
Then handle is slowly moved against the spring force to make a contact with stud No. 1. At this
point, field winding of the shunt or the compound motor gets supply through the parallel path
provided to starting resistance, through No Voltage Coil. While entire starting resistance comes
in series with the armature. The high starting armature current thus gets limited as the current
equation at this stage becomes Ia = E/(Ra+Rst). As the handle is moved further, it goes on
making contact with studs 2, 3, 4 etc., thus gradually cutting off the series resistance from the
armature circuit as the motor gathers speed. Finally when the starter handle is in 'RUN' position,
the entire starting resistance is eliminated and the motor runs with normal speed.
This is because back emf is developed consequently with speed to counter the supply
voltage and reduce the armature current. So the external electrical resistance is not required
anymore, and is removed for optimum operation. The handle is moved manually from OFF to
the RUN position with development of speed.
Working of No Voltage Coil of 3 Point Starter

The supply to the field winding is derived through no voltage coil. So when field current
flows, the NVC is magnetized. Now when the handle is in the 'RUN' position, soft iron piece
connected to the handle and gets attracted by the magnetic force produced by NVC, because of
flow of current through it. The NVC is designed in such a way that it holds the handle in 'RUN'
position against the force of the spring as long as supply is given to the motor. Thus NVC holds
the handle in the 'RUN' position and hence also called hold on coil.
Now when there is any kind of supply failure, the current flow through NVC is affected
and it immediately losses its magnetic property and is unable to keep the soft iron piece on the
handle, attracted. At this point under the action of the spring force, the handle comes back to
OFF position, opening the circuit and thus switching off the motor. So due to the combination of
NVC and the spring, the starter handle always comes back to OFF position whenever there is any
supply problems. Thus it also acts as a protective device safeguarding the motor from any kind
of abnormality.
Working of over load coil of 3 Point Starter

If any fault occurs on motor or overload, it will draw extreme current from the source.
This current raise the ampere turns of OLR coil (over load relay) and pull the armature Coil, in
consequence short circuiting the NVR coil (No volt relay coil). The NVR coil gets demagnetized
and handle comes to the rest position under the influence of spring. Therefore the motor
disconnected from the supply automatically.

Drawback of three point starter:

The use of a three point starter presents a problem. The speed of the motor is controlled
by means of the field rheostat. To increase the speed of motor necessitates the setting of the field
rheostat to higher resistance value. The current through the shunt field is reduced, and so is the
current through the coil of the holding electromagnet. The reduced current through the coil
weakens the strength of magnet and makes susceptible to line voltage variations. In the
weakened condition a slight reduction in line voltage would further weaken the holding magnet,
releasing the arm of the starter and thus disconnecting the motor from the line. Unscheduled
stoppages of the motor make the three point starter quite unpopular.

3.7 FOUR POINT STARTER:

The 4 point starter like in the case of a 3 point starter also acts as a protective device that
helps in safeguarding the armature of the shunt or compound excited dc motor against the high
starting current produced in the absence of back emf at starting.
The 4 point starter has a lot of constructional and functional similarity to a three point
starter, but this special device has an additional point and a coil in its construction, which
naturally brings about some difference in its functionality, though the basic operational
characteristic, remains the same.
 Figure 3.11 Four point starter

Figure 3.11 shows a four point starter. One important change is the No Volt Coil has been taken
out of the shunt field and has been connected directly across the line through a Protecting
resistance „R‟. When the arm touches stud one.
The current divides into three paths,
1. Through the starter resistance and the armature,
2. Through shunt field and the field rheostat and
3.Through No-volt Coil and the protecting resistance „R‟. With this arrangement, any change of
current in shunt field circuit does not affect the current passing though the NO-volt coil
because, the two circuits are independent of each other. Thus the starter handle will not be
released to its off position due to changes in the field current which may happen when the
field resistance is varied.
Construction and Operation of Four Point Starter

A 4 point starter as the name suggests has 4 main operational points, namely
1. 'L' Line terminal. (Connected to positive of supply.)
2. 'A' Armature terminal. (Connected to the armature winding.)
3. 'F' Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding.)
Like in the case of the 3 point starter, and in addition to it there is,
4. A 4th point N. (Connected to the No Voltage Coil)
The remarkable difference in case of a 4 point starter is that the No Voltage Coil is connected
independently across the supply through the fourth terminal called 'N' in addition to the 'L', 'F'
and 'A'. As a direct consequence of that, any change in the field supply current does not bring
about any difference in the performance of the NVC. Thus it must be ensured that no voltage coil
always produce a force which is strong enough to hold the handle in its 'RUN' position, against
force of the spring, under all the operational conditions. Such a current is adjusted through No
Voltage Coil with the help of fixed resistance R connected in series with the NVC using fourth
point 'N' as shown in the figure above.

Apart from this above mentioned fact, the 4 point and 3 point starters are similar in all other
ways like possessing is a variable resistance, integrated into number of sections as shown in the
figure above. The contact points of these sections are called studs and are shown separately as
OFF, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, RUN, over which the handle is free to be manoeuvred manually to regulate the
starting current with gathering speed.

Now to understand its way of operating let‟s have a closer look at the diagram given above.
Considering that supply is given and the handle is taken stud No.1, then the circuit is complete
and line current that starts flowing through the starter. In this situation we can see that the current
will be divided into 3 parts, flowing through 3 different points.
i) 1 part flows through the starting resistance (R1+ R2+ R3…..) and then to the armature.
ii) A 2nd part flowing through the field winding F.
iii) And a 3rd part flowing through the no voltage coil in series with the protective resistance R.

So the point to be noted here is that with this particular arrangement any change in the
shunt field circuit does not bring about any change in the no voltage coil as the two circuits are
independent of each other. This essentially means that the electromagnet pull subjected upon the
soft iron bar of the handle by the no voltage coil at all points of time should be high enough to
keep the handle at its RUN position, or rather prevent the spring force from restoring the handle
at its original OFF position, irrespective of how the field rheostat is adjusted.

This marks the operational difference between a 4 point starter and a 3 point starter. As
otherwise both are almost similar and are used for limiting the starting current to a shunt wound
DC motor or compound wound DC motor, and thus act as a protective device.
4.1 Losses and efficiency:
Motors convert electrical power (input power) into mechanical power (output power) while
generators convert mechanical power (input power) into electrical power (output power). Whole
of the input power cannot be converted into the output power in a practical machine due to
various losses that take place within the machine. Efficiency η being the ratio of outputpower to
input power is always less than 1 (or 100 %). Designer of course will try to make η as large as
possible. Order of efficiency of rotating d.c machine is about 80 % to 85 %. It is therefore
important to identify the losses which make efficiency poor.

(i) Major losses

Take the case of a loaded d.c motor. There will be copper losses in armature and field circuit.
The armature copper loss is variable and depends upon degree of loading of the machine. For a
shunt machine, the field copper loss will be constant if field resistance is not varied. Recall that
rotor body is made of iron with slots in which armature conductors are placed. Therefore when
armature rotates in presence of field produced by stator field coil, eddy current and hysteresis
losses are bound to occur on the rotor body made of iron. The sum of eddy current and hysteresis
losses is called the core loss or iron loss. To reduce core loss, circular varnished and slotted
laminations or stamping are used to fabricate the armature. The value of the core loss will
depend on the strength of the field and the armature speed. Apart from these there will be power
loss due to friction occurring at the bearing & shaft and air friction (windage loss) due to rotation
of the armature. To summarise following major losses occur in a d.c machine.
Field copper loss: It is power loss in the field circuit
1. During the course of loading if field circuit resistance is not varied, field copper loss remains
constant.
2. Armature copper loss: It is power loss in the armature circuit since the value of armature
current is decided by the load, armature copper loss becomes a function of time.
3. Core loss: It is the sum of eddy current and hysteresis loss and occurs mainly in the rotor iron
parts of armature. With constant field current and if speed does not vary much with loading, core
loss may be assumed to be constant.
4. Mechanical loss: It is the sum of bearing friction loss and the windage loss (friction loss due to
armature rotation in air). For practically constant speed operation, this loss too, may be assumed
to be constant.

Apart from the major losses as enumerated above there may be a small amount loss called stray
loss occur in a machine. Stray losses are difficult to account. Power flow diagram of a d.c motor
is shown in figure 4.1. A portion of the input power is consumed by the field circuit as field
copper loss. The remaining power is the power which goes to the armature; a portion of which is
lost as core loss in the armature core and armature copper loss. Remaining power is the
grossMechanical power developed of which a portion will be lost as friction and remaining
power will be the net mechanical power developed. Obviously efficiency of the motor will be
given by:

Fig 4.1 Power Flow Diagram of a DC motor

Similar power flow diagram of a d.c generator can be drawn to show various losses and input,
output power
 Fig 4.2 Power Flow Diagram of a DC Generator

4.2 Calculation of efficiency

Let field currents of the machines be are so adjusted that the second machine is acting as
generator with armature current Iag and the first machine is acting as motor with armature
current Iam. Also let us assume the current drawn from the supply be 𝐼1 . Total power drawn from
supply is V𝐼1 . which goes to supply all the losses (namely Cu losses in armature & field and
rotational losses) of both the machines,

Now

Since speed of both the machines are same, it is reasonable to assume the rotational losses of
both the machines are equal; which is strictly not correct as the field current of the generator will
be a bit more than the field current of the motor, Thus,
Once Prot is estimated for each machine we can proceed to calculate the efficiency of the
machines as follows

(i) Efficiency of the motor

As pointed out earlier, for efficiency calculation of motor, first calculate the input power and
then subtract the losses to get the output mechanical power as shown below,

(ii) Efficiency of the generator

For generator start with output power of the generator and then add the losses to get the input
mechanical power and hence efficiency as shown below,

(iii) Condition for maximum efficiency

We have seen that in a transformer, maximum efficiency occurs when copper loss = core loss,
where, copper loss is the variable loss and is a function of loading while the core loss is
practically constant independent of degree of loading. This condition can be stated in a different
way: maximum efficiency occurs when the variable loss is equal to the constant loss of the
transformer.
Here we shall see that similar condition also exists for obtaining maximum efficiency in a d.c
shunt machine as well.
Maximum efficiency for motor mode

Fig: Machine operates as Motor Fig: Machine operates as generator

This is because the order of field current may be 3 to 5% of the rated current. Except for very
lightly loaded motor, this assumption is reasonably fair. Therefore replacing Ia by If in the above
expression for efficiency mη, we get

Thus, we get a simplified expression for motor efficiency mη in terms of the variable current
(which depends on degree of loading) IL, current drawn from the supply. So to find out the
condition for maximum efficiency, we have to differentiate mη with respect to IL and set it to
zero as shown below
4.3 Testing of DC machines

Testing of DC machines can be broadly classified as

i) Direct method of Testing
ii) Indirect method of testing

(I) DIRECT METHOD OF TESTING:

In this method, the DC machine is loaded directly by means of a brake applied to a water cooled
pulley coupled to the shaft of the machine. The input and output are measured and efficiency is
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
determined by 𝜂= . It is not practically possible to arrange loads for machines of large
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

capacity.

(II) INDIRECT METHOD OF TESTING:

In this method, the losses are determined without actual loading the machine. If the losses are
known, then efficiency can be determined. Swinburne‟s test and Hopkinson‟s test are commonly
used on shunt motors. But, as series motor cannot be started on No-load,these tests cannot be
conducted on DC series motor.

4.4 BRAKE TEST:

is a direct method of testing. In this method of testing motor shaft is coupled to a
Water cooled pulley which is loaded by means of weight as shown in figure4.3.
Figure 4.3
This method of testing can be used for small motors only because for a large motor it is difficult
to arrange for dissipation of heat generated at the brake.

4.5 Swinburne’s Test:

For a d.c shunt motor change of speed from no load to full load is quite small. Therefore,
mechanical loss can be assumed to remain same from no load to full load. Also if field current is
held constant during loading, the core loss too can be assumed to remain same. In this test, the
motor is run at rated speed under no load condition at rated voltage. The current drawn from the
supply I0 and the field current I sh are recorded.
This test is a no load test and hence cannot be performed on series motor. The circuit connection
is shown in Figure 4.4. The machine is run on no load at rated speed which is adjusted by the
shunt field resistance.

Figure 4.4

𝐼0 = No load current;
Ish = shunt field current
Iao = No load armature current = (Io - Ish)
V= Supply Voltage
No load input =VIo watts.
No load power input supplies
(i) Iron losses in the core
(ii) Friction and windings loss and
(iii) Armature copper loss.
Let I = load current at which efficiency is required
Ia = I – Ish if machine is motoring;
I + Ish if machine is generating

(a) Efficiency as a motor:

(b) Efficiency of a generator:

Output = VI

The biggest advantage of Swinburne's test is that the shunt machine is to be run as motor under
no load condition requiring little power to be drawn from the supply; based on the no load
reading, efficiency can be predicted for any load current. However, this test is not sufficient if we
want to know more about its performance (effect of armature reaction, temperature rise,
commutation etc.) when it is actually loaded. Obviously the solution is to load the machine by
connecting mechanical load directly on the shaft for motor or by connecting loading rheostat
across the terminals for generator operation. This although sounds simple but difficult to
implement in the laboratory for high rating machines (say above 20 kW), Thus the laboratory
must have proper supply to deliver such a large power corresponding to the rating of the
machine. Secondly, one should have loads to absorb this power.

ADVANTAGES
1. Economical, because no load input power is sufficient to perform the test
2. Efficiency can be pre-determined
3. As it is a no load test, it cannot be done on a dc series motor
DISADVANTAGES
1. Change in iron loss from no load to full load is not taken into account. (Because of armature
reaction, flux is distorted which increases iron losses).
2. Stray load loss cannot be determined by this test and hence efficiency is over estimated.
3. Temperature rise of the machine cannot be determined.
4. The test does not indicate whether commutation would be satisfactory when the machine is
loaded.

4.6 Hopkinson’s Or Regenerative Or Back To Back Test:

This is a regenerative test in which two identical DC shunt machines are coupled mechanically
and tested simultaneously. One of the machines is run as a generator while the other as motor
supplied by the generator. The set therefore draws only losses in the machines. The circuit
connection is shown in Figure 4.5. The machine is started as motor and its shunt field resistance
is varied to run the motor at its rated speed. The voltage of the generator is made equal to supply
voltage by varying the shunt field resistance of the generator which is indicated by the zero
reading of the voltmeter connected across the switch. By adjusting the field currents of the
machines, the machines can be made to operate at any desired load within the rated capacity of
the machines
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 Figure 4.5

V= supply voltage
Motor input = V (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )
Generator output = V𝐼1 ----------------- (a)
If we assume both machines have the same efficiency „𝜂‟, then,
Output of motor = 𝜂 x input = 𝜂 x V (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) = input to generator
Output of generator = 𝜂 x input = 𝜂 x 𝜂V (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )) = 𝜂2 V (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) -----(b)
Equating (a) and (b),
ALTERNATIVE CONNECTION:
 Figure 4.6

The Figure 4.6 shows an alternate circuit connection for this test. In this connection the shunt
field windings are directly connected across the lines. Hence the input current is excluding the
field currents. The efficiency is determined as follows:

(a) Motor efficiency:

motor input = armature input + shunt field input

ADVANTAGES:
 i. The two machines are tested under loaded conditions so that stray load losses are
accounted
ii. Power required for the test is small as compared to the full load powers of the two
machines. Therefore economical for long duration tests like “Heat run tests”.
iii. Temperature rise and commutation qualities can be observed.
iv. By merely adjusting the field currents of the two machines the two machines can
beloaded easily and the load test can be conducted over the complete load range in a short
time.
DISADVANTAGES:
i. Availability of two identical machines
ii. Both machines are not loaded equally and this is crucial in smaller machines.
iii. There is no way of separating iron losses of the two machines which are different because of
different excitations.
iv. Since field currents are varied widely to get full load, the set speed will be greater than rated
values.
The efficiency can be determined as follows:

4.7 Field test for series motor:

Figure 4.7
Figure 4.7 shows the circuit for fields test. This test is applicable to two similar series motor. One
of the machine runs as a motor and drives a generator whose output is wasted in a variable load
„R‟. Both machine field coils are in series and both run at same speed so that iron and friction
losses are made equal. Load resistance „R‟ is varied till the motor current reaches its full load
value.
V = Supply voltage
𝐼1 = Motor current
𝑉1 = Generator terminal voltage
𝐼2 = Load current
Input = V𝐼1 and output =𝑉2 𝐼2 .............................. 22
Ra and Rse = hot resistances.

Generator efficiency𝜂 of generator is of little use, because its field winding is separately excited
Generator output = V𝐼2
4.8 Retardation or running down test:

Figure 4.8

Figure 4.9
This method is applicable to shunt motors and generators and is used for finding the stray losses.
If armature and shunt copper losses are known for a given load, efficiency can be calculated. The
circuit is shown in figure 4.8.
Machine is speeded up slightly beyond its rated speed and then supply is cut off from
thearmature while keeping the field excited. Armature will slow down and its kinetic energy
isneeded to meet rotational losses. i.e., friction and windage losses.

Two quantities need to be known

(i) Moment of Inertia „I‟

(ii)

The voltmeter „V‟ in the circuit shown in Figure 4.8 is used as speed indicator by suitably
graduating it because E ∝ 𝑁. when the supply is cut off, the armature speed and hence voltmeter
reading falls. Voltage and time at different intervals are noted and a curve is drawn between the
time and speed as shown in Figure 4.9.In the Figure 4.9 AB - tangent drawn at P
(ii) Finding Moment of Inertial ‘I’: There are two methods of finding the moment of inertia
‘I’
(a) I is calculated:
(i) Slowing down curve with armature alone is calculated.
(ii) A fly wheel is keyed to the shaft and the curve is drawn again

(b) I is eliminated: In this method, time taken to slow down is noted with armature alone and
then a retarding torque is applied electrically i.e., a non inductive resistance is connected to the
armature.
 Problems:

1. The Hopkinson‟s test on two similar shunt machines gave the following Full load data. Line
voltage = 110 V; Line current = 48 A; Motor armature current = 230 A; Field currents are 3
A and 3.5 A; Armature resistance of each machine is 0.035 W; brush drop of 1V/brush;
Calculate the efficiency of each machine.

Figure 4.10
SOLUTION:
Motor: Armature copper loss 1851.5 W
Brush contact loss = 230 X 2 = 460 W
Total armature copper loss = 1851.5 + 460 = 2312 W
Shunt field copper loss = 110 X 3 = 330 W
Total copper loss = 2312 + 330 = 2642 W
2. In a Hopkinson‟s test on a pair of 500 V, 100 kW shunt generator. The following data
was obtained:Auxiliary supply 30 A at 500 V; Generator output current 200 A; Field
current 3.5 A and 1.8 A; ra = 0.075 W for each machine; voltage drop at brushes = 2
V/machine; calculate the efficiency of the machine as a generator.

Figure 4.6
SOLUTION:
 3. In a Hopkinson test on 250 V machine, the line current was 50 A and the motor current is
400 A not including the field currents of 6 and 5 A. the armature resistance of each
machine was 0.015W. Calculate the efficiency of each machine.

Figure 4.7
SOLUTION: