Heliyon 6 (2020) e04672

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Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Research article

Investigating cognitive holding power and equity in the flipped classroom

Mahmoud Mohamed Hussien Ahmed a, Bipin Indurkhya b, *
a
Educational Technology Department, Faculty of Specific Education, South Valley University, Egypt
b
Cognitive Science Department, Institute of Philosophy, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In recent years, the flipped classroom has been proposed as an alternative paradigm of teaching, and has been
Education demonstrated to improve the students' knowledge and skills, engagement, and self-efficacy. At the same time, as
Flipped classroom cognitive holding power the number of students seeking higher education is growing and the needs of these students are rapidly evolving,
E-Learning
it has become necessary to improve their cognitive holding power and enhance equity among them. The goal of
Enhancing equity
Flipped classroom
this study is to investigate the impact of the flipped classroom on improving the students' cognitive holding power
Learning communities in higher education and enhancing equity.
Teaching and learning strategies For this study, the flipped classroom was implemented for teaching undergraduate university students' course
“An Introduction to Instructional Technology”. In the class, whiteboard and Smartboard were used to discuss and
clarify ambiguous ideas related to the topic and to present the model answers for the tasks. Outside the class,
video files and Google applications (Word, PPT, Drive) were used for delivering learning materials. WhatsApp was
used for communication and Google form was used for designing learning activities and assessment. The results of
the study indicate: (1) to some extent flipped classroom can be a solution for improving students' cognitive
holding power, especially in performing learning tasks and following teacher' instructions. (2) Equity among the
students can be enhanced in the flipped classroom. These findings have implications for using the flipped
classroom in managing the diversity of university students through enhancing equity among them and improving
their abilities.

1. Introduction class students have much knowledge and many learning resources that
allow them to learn regardless of their character traits or learning styles
The flipped classroom is a pedagogical approach where learning ac- (Rahimi et al., 2015). Moreover, the flipped classroom can support stu-
tivities are rearranged to be effective in providing the educators more dents to be responsible for their learning, and participate in designing
face-to-face interactions with students and enlarge the flexibility of their learning environment in a way that makes all the students feel that
learning schedule to improve the learning outcomes. The student- they have equal learning opportunities. Many prior studies refer to the
centered learning strategy is a cornerstone of designing an effective positive effect of using the flipped classroom for improving learning at
flipped classroom (Kim et al., 2014). Emerging technologies in the flip- the university level (Baepler et al., 2014; Kong, 2014). In this regard, two
ped classroom make teaching and learning more effective, thereby useful concepts are Cognitive Holding Power (CHP) and Equity. CHP rep-
improving students' learning achievement and satisfaction (Missildine resents following teacher instructions, planning the learning, executing
et al., 2013; O'Flaherty and Phillips, 2015). This increase in learning the plans, and monitoring the performance. Equity represents the stu-
achievements can be a result of following the teacher instruction or of dents' perception of equal learning opportunities. As far as we are aware,
executing the learning plan. The flipped classroom can also improve the there are no existing studies on the impact of flipped classroom on
students' self-efficacy and strategies for planning their study schedule. improving CHP or enhancing Equity among university students.
Students with a high level of self-regulated skills, including setting goals, The concept of CHP refers to the extent to which the environment
planning, monitoring performance and self-evaluation, can achieve a forces students into utilizing different categories of cognitive procedures
better performance in the flipped classroom (Lai and Hwang, 2016). in handling the tasks in which they engage (Stevenson and Evans, 1994).
At the same time, the flipped classroom can be an effective approach CHP consist of (1) first-order cognitive holding power (FOCHP), which en-
for solving the problem of individual differences among students. Out-of- compasses some procedures mainly used to achieve specific goals, such

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bipin.indurkhya@uj.edu.pl (B. Indurkhya).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04672
Received 4 May 2020; Received in revised form 29 July 2020; Accepted 5 August 2020
2405-8440/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M.M.H. Ahmed, B. Indurkhya Heliyon 6 (2020) e04672

as following and relying on teacher's instructions, executing the learning education is supported by the flexible learning theory, which recom-
plan, passively accepting the results, confirming the results from the mends that the students should be provided with choices about when,
teacher, asking for help from the teacher; and (2) second-order cognitive where, and how they learn (Ryan and Tilbury, 2013).
holding power (SOCHP), which refers to the settings that pose unfamiliar Prior studies have shown the following impact of the flipped class-
goals for students, encourage them to establish an association between room on the First-Order Cognitive Holding Power (FOCHP):
the given problem and previously existing knowledge, apply various
strategies to solve the problem, monitor the effectiveness of the applied
Following instructions – Compared to traditional classroom, students
strategies, and check results (Xin and Zhang, 2009). It has been argued who learn through the flipped classroom follow the teacher's in-
that improving CHP leads to developing thinking skills (Stevenson, structions better (Liu et al., 2019).
1998). However, further studies are needed to investigate whether the
Learning via demonstration: The flipped classroom has been shown to
flipped classroom can improve CHP. improve the surgical skills, both for novice and experienced students,
Another major parameter in assessing the efficacy of educational by following the instructions delivered by the teacher on videos (Liu
technologies is that of equity, which is defined as providing students an et al., 2019).
equal treatment, equal educational opportunity, and educational ade-
Reliance on the teacher – Compared to a traditional classroom, the
quacy to evaluate their progress in the learning environments toward students apply the learning roles better in the flipped classroom (Liu
achieving their instructional goals (Fiske and Ladd, 2004, 145). Equity et al., 2019).
also refers to students' access to the instructional resources and learning
Executing plans – In the flipped classroom, the teacher does not
processes that affect educational outcomes. It is concerned with fairness, convey the knowledge and skills with the same learning resources
and a just treatment of students from different academic capabilities during a fixed time period to all the students without considering
(Willms et al., 2012). Enhancing equity should start from designing a their individual differences. Moreover, flipped classroom can enhance
learning environment that offers various learning opportunities, manages both FOCHP that focuses on providing passive learning, which may
the choices in the learning environment, provides attractive alternatives, occur before the class while studying the learning material, and
prevents student dropouts, and limits postponement of academic selec- SOCHP that focuses of providing an interactive learning, which
tion. Enhancing equity also requires improving the academic practices in happens while applying the learnt knowledge (Van Alten et al., 2019).
the learning environment: for example, providing systematic help,
Asking help as a skill of self-regulated learning–Van Alten et al (2019)
responding to minorities within education, and strengthening the links found that, compared with traditional learning, the flipped classroom
between university and home. Finally, for enhancing equity in the is more effective in improving self-regulated learning among
learning environment, there is a need to provide learning activities that students.
reflect the students' needs and are appropriate for them.
There are positive correlations between equity and political interests, As for the impact of the flipped classroom on the Second-Order
a healthy lifestyle, participating in democratic initiatives and students' Cognitive Holding Power (SOCHP), previous research has shown the
interpersonal trust. In the long run, developing equity is economically following results:
efficient because it decreases crime and other illegal activities in our
societies (Schleicher, 2014, 19–25). Leaning methods and ways of
Tackling problems - Improves the students' problem-solving abilities
delivering knowledge and skills is one of the most important factors that (Evseeva and Solozhenko, 2015; Soliman, 2016).
influence achieving equity in learning systems, and it seems that the
Trying out ideas - Increases the students' knowledge, skills, positive
quality of teaching and the nature of the interactions in the educational attitude, attendance in the class sessions, and provides a better
systems are the key issues for improving the quality of educational ses- participation in the course activities, because the teacher in the flip-
sion (Hattie, 2009, 91). With the increasing number of higher education ped classroom helps the students to increase their learning progress
student enrolments, which in 2016 reached to more than one million (Bishop and Verleger, 2013; Martinelli et al., 2018; Kim et al., 2019).
students in 33 countries worldwide (Calderon, 2018, 18), rapidly
Interpreting new situation - The flipped classroom facilitates inter-
changing needs of the students to keep pace with the technological ad- pretation of new learning situations while studying foreign languages
vances, and spiraling cost of education, it is more crucial than ever to and Macroeconomics (Hung, 2015; Murillo-Zamorano et al., 2019).
achieve equity. However, there are only a few experimental studies that
Learning plans - Self-directed learning approach of the flipped class-
discuss equity in educational technology, and there is little consensus on room provides the students more time and opportunities to master
how to enhancing equity in the flipped classroom context. learning and improves their practical planning skills (Riddle et al.,
2019; Xu et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2020).
2. Research background
Relating learned content with the existence knowledge - The flipped
classroom helps the students deepen their own understanding of what
2.1. Flipped classroom for supporting CHP and equity they learn and supports constructive learning, which helps to connect
newly learned knowledge with their previous experience (Van Alten
Flipped classroom, also known as inverted classroom, is a blended et al., 2019).
learning approach, which is being adapted in many higher educational
Generating new ideas - The flipped classroom enhances the students'
systems in recent years (O'Flaherty and Phillips, 2015). In a flipped learning experience, higher-order thinking skills, creativity, self-
classroom, the order of traditional teaching and learning processes is efficacy and learning outcomes (Awidi and Paynter, 2019; Barbour
swapped. The students start with studying the learning resources outside and Schuessler, 2019; Jovanovic et al., 2019; Supiandi et al., 2019).
the classroom: these resources can be available on many different digital
Problem solving and monitoring - Improves the students' practical
learning platforms such as websites, YouTube channels, and presentation skills which include communication skills, which can support moni-
or pdf files. Next, the students conduct learning activities by interacting toring the current level of learning, and inter-professional and inter-
with other students and teachers using the learning resources inside a disciplinary teamwork, which can support learners to improve their
classroom (Mohamed and Lamia, 2018). Consequently, the teachers in a learning (Riddle et al., 2019)
classroom are required to make a shift from teacher-centered learning to
Students propositional knowledge for interpretation of problems -
student-centered learning. In a flipped classroom, the teacher's role is to Flipped classroom can be used for improving practical communica-
encourage students to practice active learning, to guide students to think tion skills, the ability of analyze learning problems, and the ability to
positively and to facilitate students reaching their learning objectives think for solving problems (Xu et al., 2019)
(Hwang et al., 2015). Learning through the flipped classroom in higher

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Assessing progress toward goals - Improving nursing skills in China Zhang (2018) proposes that using a flipped classroom for achieving
and support communication among leaners and teachers because collaborative learning requires ensuring that the students in each group
flipped classroom can improve the spirit of cooperation and should be balanced across gender, intellectual abilities, learning capa-
communication abilities to express their needs to the teacher and bilities, and social skills. Moreover, the differences between different
other students (Riddle et al., 2019). groups should be small. There is also a need to achieve positive inter-
dependence among members: each member should understand his/her
With respect to Equity, previous research has found the following responsibilities. A flipped classroom should support face-to-face inter-
support: action among the students and the instructor, and enrich the students'
social skills. Finally, a flipped classroom should support group evaluation

Design of the flipped classroom provides attractive alternatives - The that facilitates sharing of experiences among the students.
classroom activities become interesting and engaging when the stu- Munir et al. (2018) propose that learning in a flipped classroom starts
dents have enough knowledge and experience about them (Goh and from the outside of educational institutes. The students start learning
Ong, 2019). alone by watching a short video and reading the syllabus of the course,

Academic practices in the flipped classroom provide systematic help - and then each student prepares himself/herself to participate in the class
Akçayır and Akçayır (2018) show that the flipped classroom in an activities. The next step is inside a classroom, where each student co-
educational system has many advantages, such as improving the operates with other students in the class to learn to apply the key con-
students' application skills, developing their ICT skills, providing cepts and discuss the learning content. The final step is again outside the
peer-based learning, enhancing learning in large groups, investing classroom, and involves thinking critically, replying to the classmates'
learning time for practice, and decreasing the cost of learning. inquiries and the teacher' questions, and, at the end, reviewing the

Resourcing in the flipped classroom sets concrete targets for more learning experience.
equity - However, it has been found that the flipped classroom does Based on these prior models of the flipped classroom, the learning
not improve the students' satisfaction (Van Alten et al., 2019). process in the current study is indicated in Figure 1, where the students'
learning starts outside the classroom. The students study the assigned
All these benefits mentioned above are considered as components of content for the next class (learning session) by reading some documents
CHP. But to date, there is no proper empirical study to demonstrate that or watching some videos. After this, the students have an opportunity to
using a flipped classroom can improve CHP for university students. discuss with other classmates any ideas or concepts that they could not
Using a flipped classroom in higher education assists teachers to meet understand on a shared network like WhatsApp and can upload what
different needs of students and to help in providing different choices to they understood about the syllabus on a shared media (like the Google
those students on practicing learning activities. A flipped classroom Drive). This stage outside the classroom focuses on transferring the
provides students with immediate, regular and formative feedback knowledge and skills to the student. In the next stage inside the class-
(Altemueller and Lindquist, 2017). Moreover, flipped classroom can room, the students do the compulsory tasks/problems provided by the
combine multiple modes of learning and provide active learning in and teacher at the end of the syllabus. The teacher gives adequate time for
out of the classroom, which happens while taking notes and discussing finishing these tasks/problems, and, at the end of the classroom session,
them with the teacher or classmates (Van Alten et al., 2019). All these provides model answers for them. In the final stage, the students submit
studies suggest that using a flipped classroom may be an effective method the final version of the compulsory tasks/problems via email or by
for achieving equity between students. However, this issues also needs to uploading them on the Google Drive. At the end, the teacher sends
be explored empirically. feedback to all the students through email or WhatsApp.

2.2. Model for creating a flipped classroom 2.3. Cognitive holding power (CHP)

There are many models for using a flipped classroom in adminis- The term Cognition refers to what goes on in our mind when we
trating learning sessions. Wang (2017) proposed the following model of perform our daily activities, and it includes attention, perception, using
the teacher and the students' activities in a flipped classroom. In the language, thinking, remembering, learning, understanding, and decision
pre-class stage, the teacher prepares micro-content and monitors the making (Preece et al., 2002, 74; Malim, 1994). Fook and Sidhu (2015)
students' pre-study, while the students go to the online Moodle to study noted that “Cognitive challenge is the most critical challenge faced by most of
the content and use the discussion tools on the Moodle to pose questions. the students in higher education”. CHP is defined as the pressure or the
In the class stage, the teacher administers a pre-test to check the students
learning, gives a brief presentation about the content of the class, dis-
cusses with the students their problems in understanding the learning
content, presents new problems related to the topic of the class, interacts
with the students to solve new problems, and conducts a post-test. As for
the students, they engage in the learning activities: before the end of the
class, they are expected to finish all the learning activities, to do a
formative assessment, and to share their work with other students. After
the class, the students are expected to continue their studies in the form
of homework.
Cukurbasi and Kiyici (2018) suggest that a flipped classroom model
should include, (1) daily activities like taking responsibilities and
communicating with the classmates and the instructor to finish these
responsibilities; (2) designing group activities to support many learning
activities and gaining many benefits; (3) emotional features that add
more excitement and motivation, and make learning more interesting;
(4) improving the students' assessment skills so that they can improve
their learning; and (5) achieving educational benefits such as providing
students' more information and opportunities for planning their learning
procedures, managing learning time, and learning by trial and error. Figure 1. The model of learning in a flipped classroom.

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motivation provided by a given situation for the students to engage in Achieving equity is not only required for learning, but it is a moral
cognitive processing (Stevenson and Evans, 1994; Stevenson, 1998). The and ethical responsibility. Equity is associated with improving the stu-
First-Order CHP (FOCHP) refers to motivating the students into following dents' relationship with the university. It promotes both positive aca-
teachers' instructions, relying on the teacher for establishing connections, demic outcomes and reduces involvement in negative behaviors
copying from the teacher, doing as told or shown while passively (Debnam et al., 2014). Enhancing equity in the training programs, which
accepting new information, and conducting learning activities. The focus on improving the practical skills, can foster the improvement of
Second-Order CHP (SOCHP) refers to motivating the students into these skills among the students. Equity is fundamental to the retention of
finding new information, making plans for learning, monitoring their knowledge and the spread of social justice among students in the training
learning activities and solving problems. program, which benefits all the students (Effland and Hays, 2018). In the
CHP can increase a student's efficiency in approaching a learning task, Norwegian context, which adopts the “Education for all” principle, the
and enhance his or her abilities in improving the retention of information educational system works for enhancing equity regardless of the students'
and the performance of learning skills. A significant correlation has been socioeconomic background, and can reduce political problems among the
found between a student's cognitive abilities and her or his academic university students and solve the development problems in teaching and
achievements. Consequently, enhancing students' CHP is crucial in learning (Braathe and Otterstad, 2014). In the U.S., future teachers in the
higher education (Samadi and Davaii, 2012). University students found educational systems are required to be well prepared for investing the
that it is not easy to study the reading material assigned by the teacher. capabilities of the students to flourish country's future (Sleeter, 2008).
They faced various cognitive challenges, lacked time management skills, Therefore, the teachers should be much more aware of what equity is, the
and felt that the teacher did not state her or his expectations and feedback importance of enhancing it, and how it can impact social and educational
on their performance clearly (Fook and Sidhu, 2015). Improving stu- institutions. Equity can be achieved through affording all students access
dents' CHP abilities can be an effective solution for these challenges. to excellent educational resources and teachers who can build academic
Contexts, environments, and teaching procedures all play essential learning inside and outside the classrooms (Sleeter, 2008). In Australia,
roles in improving a university student's learning and his or her CHP. there is a need to study ways of enhancing equity among students (Li
Different learning environments motivate students at different levels to et al., 2017).
engage in practicing cognitive activities (Xin, 2008). Walmsley (2003) Many factors have been identified that enhance or hinder equity. For
found that interactive educational environment, such as the flipped example, in mathematics, there is a relationship between creativity in
classroom, are effective in increasing a student's use of his or her solving problems and achieving equity. Allowing the students to discover
higher-order thinking processes like CHP. Flipped classroom has various solutions of problems helps them to feel that they have the same op-
features that incorporate the diversity of students' experience, which may portunities for learning in the classroom. But the traditional way of
make this innovative approach suitable for higher education students teaching mathematics does not allow the students to critique, evaluate
(Schwarzenberg et al., 2018). To sum up, we conclude that there is a need and understand each other's ideas for solving the same mathematical
to study how various learning environments enhance a student's CHP. In problem. Therefore, the traditional methods of teaching mathematics do
particular, how the flipped classroom, which is considered an effective not foster equitable interactions among students, which is required to
environment in improving various educational dimensions and provides accomplish equity (Kozlowski and Si, 2019; Luria and Kaufman, 2017).
flexibility in acquiring knowledge and skills, can be an effective learning Castelli et al. (2012) argue that equity should provide all students the
environment to improve a university student's CHP. same opportunity or legally recognized rights; help all students to access
the educational institute; apply educational models and measure to all
2.4. Equity in learning environments students equally; and provide the same opportunities to all students for
accessing the learning resources. A flipped classroom can be a suitable
Equity refers to the attitude of teachers who implement the practice to platform for achieving deeper learning, considering the diversity of the
improve learning, and leads students to be treated as equals. At the same students' learning styles and experiences (Goedhart et al., 2019). This can
time, equity enhances opportunities for the students who are not well- lead to enhancing equity among students (Chiquito et al., 2020). In
served by the system (Cochran-Smith et al., 2016). Equity also in- contrast, one study found that the effectiveness of the flipped classroom
corporates students' access to the educational institute and resources, depends on the students' gender: female students' results were signifi-
availability of adequate learning activities regardless of their knowledge cantly better on Technology of Materials exam than male students. Thus, it
background, and providing similar responsibilities and guaranteeing is not clear whether flipped classroom can enhance equity among higher
equal opportunities for all the students, including disadvantaged students education students or not. To conclude this discussion, we note that
(Castelli et al., 2012). Debnam et al., (2014) note that equity can be nations around the world are paying more attention, effort, and time to
defined as the extent to which there is social justice and fair treatment for prepare teachers to be more effective in handling diversity among stu-
all the students, and this is critical for ensuring their success. Equity does dents and enhancing equity in the educational systems, especially in
not just mean treating the students in the same way, but rather treating higher education. Although, there are many known benefits of enhancing
them all fairly by providing what they need for success. equity among university students, little is known about how equity can
Nowadays, there is a shift in the direction of development for learning be improved in digital learning platforms, especially in the flipped
in higher education. Most developing countries are trying to support their classroom.
educational system by enhancing equity in higher education, for a greater
equity can foster and sustain growth (Peercy and Svenson, 2016). Equity 2.5. Research objectives and questions
in the higher education system is no longer considered a luxury. Each
student should have the same chance of accessing the learning resources, The flipped classroom leads to sharing knowledge, solving problems
asking help and discussing with his or her classmate and the teacher. of the traditional learning environments, providing more interesting
Accordingly, there are many initiatives to enhance equity in preparing learning and providing a flexible schedule (Mohamed and Lamia, 2018).
teachers in the faculties of education (Cochran-Smith et al., 2016). Equity It provides an interactive educational environment, which can be a
should be available in various organizations of higher education, which suitable platform for improving students' higher order thinking and
encompass learning in and out of the classroom, campus life and in motivating them for improving their CHP. In addition, it has the potential
establishing a relationship between students and the society. Further- to enhance equity, because almost all the students in the flipped class-
more, equity has diverse positive effects on improving productivity ex- room can use the same learning resources whenever they access the
pectations and enhancing the experiences and knowledge of university' internet. Also, the flipped classroom can be a good solution for providing
students (Pasque et al., 2012, P. 7). better learning opportunities for an increasing number of higher

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education students, catering for their learning needs, in spite of a 3.3. Participants
shortage of learning resources and well-qualified teachers. Consequently,
it is important to explore additional advantages of using the flipped The study for CHP involved one group of 33 undergraduate students
classroom in an educational system; these advantages can lead to sup- of the educational technology department (25 males, 8 females, average
porting students-centered learning and improving the quality of higher age ¼ 20.9, SD ¼ 1.03). The students were in their first year of study at
education learning environment. Therefore, the aim of the current study the faculty of Education at South Valley University (Egypt) in the year
was to study how the flipped classroom impacts CHP and equity among 2018/2019, and had not participated in an online course before. All the
university students. This is stated in the following two research students were familiar with using e-learning tools, Google applications
questions: such as Google Drive Gmail, Google Forms, and WhatsApp, within their
mobile or personal computer though they chose different preferences for
- RQ1. How does the use of flipped classroom improve university stu- receiving the learning tasks. The students were all living in the university
dents' CHP? housing city, with equal access to internet access points or/and Wi-Fi
- RQ2. How does the use of flipped classrooms enhance the equity network. If some students did not have their own computer, they had
between university students? access to shared computers. All the learning material was equally
accessible to all the students outside the classroom. For the classroom
3. Methodology teaching part, all the students attended the same class and were asked to
organize themselves into groups subject to a few constraints: the group
3.1. Study site size should be between three and five, a team should not have all
members of the same gender, or from the same secondary school, or be of
To study the impact of the flipped classroom on CHP and on equity, the same age. All the students in this study participated voluntarily.
we focused on an undergraduate course “An Introduction to Instruc- For the study on equity, the group of participants described above
tional Technology” that was taught at the Faculty of Specific Education served as the experimental group, and we involved another group as the
at the South Valley University in Egypt. This course covers the basics control group of 33 undergraduate students of the educational technol-
of instructional technology and includes the following topics: (1) The ogy department (18 males, 15 females, average age ¼ 20.7, SD ¼ 1.67).
terminology of instructional technology and the main goals of studying The students were in the same level of study, at the same university, and
it. (2) The components of instructional technology and the relation in the same year (2018/2019) as the experimental group. Participants for
between it and other education majors. (3) Importance of instructional the control group were chosen based on their acceptance of answering all
technology in the educational systems and the main roles of a the questions in the questionnaire, and the following requirements: they
specialist in it. (4) E-learning. (5) Virtual Learning Environments should be familiar with using e-learning tools and should have 24-hour
(Virtual Lab – Virtual Class). (6) Google Applications in education access to the internet, which is usually the case with all the university
(search engine – Gmail – Google Drive – Google Documents). (7) students. Thirty-one students were living in the university housing city;
Google Application in education (Google Hangout - Google Form – two students were living outside the university housing but they had
Google Sheet). (8) Electronic Test (How can you design an electronic their own PC and 24-hour internet connectivity.
test and how can you choose a suitable platform or application for
designing the test?). (9) Achievable improvements by applying 3.4. Experimental design
instructional technology tools in the classroom. (10) Case studies of
applying instructional technology in different educational systems. The A quasi-experimental design was used to measure the improvement in
experiment was run during the second semester of 2018/2019 and ran both the CHP and the equity between undergraduate students using the
over 10 weeks. The lectures took place every Monday in the new flipped classroom. For the CHP study, only the experimental group was
building of the Faculty of Specific Education, on the 3rd floor, Class (1) used. A pre-test was administered to the students, after which the stu-
of the Educational Technology Department. Data about the students' dents started their compulsory study for the course “An Introduction to
performance on evaluation and learning activities was collected. Instructional Technology”. Studying this course required using a blended
The experimental protocol was approved by the South Valley Uni- learning approach. Students had to attend one lecture per week. Before
versity Ethical Approval Committee. the lecture, the students were asked to study the topic of this lecture. In
the classroom, the students answered quizzes and practiced learning
activities similar to the conventional homework tasks. Here, they could
3.2. Learning and communication tools discuss their answers with their classmates and the professor. If they
could not finish all the tasks in classroom, they were asked to complete
For this study, it was necessary to use various sources of learning the activities within three days of finishing the learning session. The
materials such as word files, PPT and video files. Students interacted with professor sent feedback to each student within 24 h after receiving the
the syllabus and shared these materials on Google Drive. Each topic activities and the homework answers. Two days before the next session,
included two or three compulsory tasks. All tasks had to be announced on the professor sent the model answers to all the students. Outside the
the WhatsApp group or at the end of the word or PPT files. The students classroom, the students were free to learn individually or in groups (of
could use WhatsApp to exchange their ideas and experiences, and also three to five students) before and/or after the learning session. But in the
could discuss with the professor. After the students were finished with classroom, the discussion was in groups of three to five students. Also, the
the tasks, they were asked to send them by email or upload them on the students used WhatsApp, which helped them to get more information,
Google Drive. The professor sent feedback to the students within 24 h via and to send inquiry about the topic or the activities they had to do. In
WhatsApp or email. The WhatsApp group could also be used for moti- addition, the professor messaged the students regularly to motivate them
vating students by announcing the names of the students who send the to continue studying the course through the learning tools. At the end of
right answers. The classroom lecture depended on the WhatsApp dis- the course, the students answered the CHP questionnaires as a post-test.
cussion, and any errors or misconceptions found while checking the re- For measuring the impact of the flipped classroom on CHP, we
sults of the tasks. The teacher focused on using popular applications that applied the pretest - posttest research design over one group of students.
the students could easily access during their learning activity, and that Interactive Google Forms were used to deliver two questionnaires to
could be combined with traditional methods that rely on data show and assess the students' performance. The questionnaire, based on Stevenson
whiteboards to present relevant knowledge, the model answer or in- and Evans (1994) contained 30 items. Thirteen of these 30 items were
structions that lead to the model answer. designed to measure the First-Order CHP: these focused on the students'

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Figure 2. The improvement of cognitive holding power by using flipped classroom.

tendency to do the activities based on the teacher’ instructions. Eighteen coefficient, which came out to be 0.73. We compared the questionnaire
questions were for measuring the Second-Order CHP, and focused on the answers from the experimental group with those of the control group,
students' tendency to learn based on their own responsibility for thinking who studied the same topics using the traditional method. Of the ten
and learning activities. One question (No. 5) was duplicated in both the questions, four were related to the management of the learning envi-
FOCHP and SOCHP. The questionnaire used a 5-point Likert scale, with ronment, three for measuring the students' academic practices, and three
“always ¼ 5” and “never ¼ 1”. for measuring the availability of learning resources. This questionnaire
Studying equity from the perspective of instructional technology is used a 3-point Likert scale with “available ¼ 3” to “not available ¼ 1”.
considered a new topic. Therefore, to judge the improvement of equity This questionnaire was administered post-test to both the experimental
while using the flipped classroom, it is necessary to compare the students' and the control groups, after the course was completed. Each student's
response to the equity questionnaire with a control group that did not use score was automatically computed and submitted at the end of answering
the flipped classroom. We asked the students in the experimental group the Google Form. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was used to identify
to answer equity questionnaire, which consisted of 10 closed questions the impact of using the flipped classroom on improving the students' CHP
focused on measuring three dimensions of equity in the learning envi- and the equity between university students by comparing the pre-test and
ronments: the equity of the design of the learning environment, the eq- the post-test results of the experimental group on the two questionnaires.
uity on practicing the learning activities, and the equity on delivering the
learning resources. To ensure the efficacy of using the questionnaire, two 4. Results
university staff members working in the educational technology
department and one staff member working in the educational psychology 4.1. Improving the CHP
department were asked to review the equity questionnaire.
To measure the reliability of the questionnaire, we asked 99 univer- For measuring the improvement in CHP due to the flipped classroom,
sity students in the first year of study at the same university (these did not we applied the t-test to compare the pre-test and post-test responses of
include the participants in the experimental and the control groups) to fill the 33 students who participated in this study (Figure 2). For the First-
out the questionnaire and calculated its Cronbach's alpha reliability Order CHP, which focuses on procedures such as: performing tasks and

Figure 3. Equity among university students in the experimental and control group.

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M.M.H. Ahmed, B. Indurkhya Heliyon 6 (2020) e04672

following teacher' instructions, pre-test (M ¼ 29.00, SD ¼ 7.68) and post- This inconsistency could be due to the fact that that the students in
test (M ¼ 31.76, SD ¼ 7.27) showed a significant difference (t ¼ 2.27, p < our study were following a compulsory course, which limited their
0.05). For the Second-Order CHP, which focuses on procedures such as: freedom during the study. The students needed to follow the course
making plans, exploring learning situations and problem solving, pre-test schedule and the requirements to pass the final exam, and typically they
(M ¼ 36.36, SD ¼ 10.68) and post-test (M ¼ 38.52, SD ¼ 10.75) did not tend to follow the teachers' instructions to get better marks. In this sit-
show a significant difference (t ¼ 0.96, p ¼ 0.34). Considering all the uation, the students do not need to make any plan for studying or to
CHP questions together, we also did not find a significant difference (t ¼ monitor their achievements because they are continuously receiving
1.58, p ¼ 0.12) between the pre-test (M ¼ 65.36, SD ¼ 16.83) and the feedback from the teacher.
post-test scores (M ¼ 70.27, SD ¼ 15.99).
5.2. Equity in the flipped classroom

4.2. Equity between university students in the flipped classroom The results of our study show that students in a flipped classroom feel
a better equity among themselves compared to students in a traditional
To measure the impact of the flipped classroom on equity, we applied classroom. This could be attributed to the continuous availability of the
the t-test to compare the post-test scores of the equity questionnaire from instructional resources, and the opportunity for all the students to discuss
the experimental and the control groups (Figure 3). First, we checked the with the instructor not only in the class but also through various digital
equality between the variances by applying the Levene's test, which learning platforms. Besides, the periodic assessment of the students'
showed a significant difference between the control and the experimental progress and the feedback sent to them helps to improve their learning
groups (f ¼ 7.46, P < 0.01). The t-test also found a significant difference experience. At the same time, the flipped classroom gives the students
(t ¼ 3.24, p < 0.01) between the equity scores of the control group (M ¼ various chances to discuss with the instructor, which can lead the stu-
14.27, SD ¼ 2.99) and the experimental group (M ¼ 17.45, SD ¼ 4.78). dents to a deep understanding for the main reasons behind receiving
positive or negative feedback.
5. Discussion Enhancing equity is premised upon the means by which teachers
understand the students' features and needs (Lopez and Olan, 2019).
5.1. Flipped classroom and CHP Moreover, enhancing equity requires a suitable context and curriculum,
planning for the learning activities, preparation for the learning infra-
The results of our study indicate that using the flipped classroom structure, suitable policies, and an appropriate learning environment,
significantly improves the First-Order CHP (FOCHP), which focuses on which can be the flipped classroom (Effland et al., 2020). Previous
the students' ability to follow the instructions received while studying the studies suggest a relationship between equity and forms of social in-
course. These results are consistent with the previous research in this teractions that support the freedom in learning and students' capabilities,
direction. For example, Wanner and Palmer (2015) showed that the but current educational systems have found it difficult to build this
flipped classroom provides flexible learning and assessment to help relationship (Unterhalter, 2009). Based on these studies, we can under-
university students become more engaged and enjoy the learning activ- stand why the flipped classroom can lead to improved equity. Also, the
ities. It has also been found that the flipped classroom can improve stu- flipped classroom can improve the students' achievement, increase their
dents' satisfaction (B€ osner et al., 2015) and increase their creativity, learning motivation (Bhagat et al., 2016), improve their skills and
especially with respect to fluency, flexibility, and novelty (Al-Zahrani, knowledge (B€ osner et al., 2015), and support collaborative-learning
2015). Notice that improving FOCHP does not require improving strategies (Van Vliet et al., 2015). In general, collaboration in digital
thinking strategies and students need not try to control the learning learning gives more responsibility for learning to the students, resulting
procedures, make effort to find a new idea, solve a problem, or monitor in better equity between them.
their learning procedures. The students only have to follow their teacher To further understand how the flipped classroom improves equity,
and try to do what the teacher asked them (Xin and Zhang, 2009). Uni- Nguyen et al. (2016) suggest that a flipped classroom adds flexibility and
versity students who use blended learning like the flipped classroom can transparency in learning activities for both the students and the teachers
develop their skills by learning through online materials, and their during the preparation and the interaction. The flipped classroom facil-
learning experience shows a marginal increase when they have previous itates a positive attitude in the students toward learning activities and
experience with digital learning courses. Moreover, students without any self-evaluation (Chao et al., 2015). Moreover, the flipped classroom helps
experience can quickly engage in learning activities similar to the stu- the students to be more committed to sustainable development
dents who have previous experiences with e-courses (Asarta and (Buil-Fabrega et al., 2019), which can be a natural result of repeating the
Schmidt, 2020). use of learning resources in the flipped classroom (Tomas et al., 2019). A
However, with respect to the Second-Order CHP (SOCHP), our study combination of these factors keeps a majority of the students motivated
found no significant improvement in the flipped classroom. The SOCHP and prevents dropouts from the flipped classroom.
goes beyond following the teachers' instructions, and the students are
required to use more complex cognitive skills like making plans, solving 6. Conclusions and future research
problems and monitoring the learning procedures. This result is consis-
tent with (Lai and Hwang, 2016) study, which found that students who In this study, we explored the impact of the flipped classroom on
have higher self-regulation, which require monitoring and managing improving CHP and enhancing equity among university students. As far
their goals, showed better learning achievements compared with stu- as we are aware, this is the first such study. Our results show that the
dents who have lower a self-regulation; and monitoring goals is included flipped classroom improves the FOCHP of the students. These results
in the SOCHP. However, our results contradict some prior studies such as should be interpreted in the context of the prior studies, which showed
Van Vliet et al., (2015), which show that using the flipped classroom that the flipped classroom can improve the students' attendance to the
leads to an improvement in the students' metacognition skills, class sessions, and can avoid their rejections of the learning activities.
self-efficacy and critical thinking, and supports collaborative-learning Although these prior studies suggested that the flipped classroom can
strategies. Another contradicting study is by Foldnes (2016), which increase students' skills of higher-order thinking and their self-efficacy,
showed that using the flipped classroom leads to organizing various we did not find a significant improvement in SOCHP. This could be
collaborating activities, to decreasing anxiety about the complex prac- because of the limited way in which we implemented the flipped class-
tical learning steps, and in general to improved learning efficiency (Teo room for our study. For example, it was a compulsory course with a
et al., 2014). rather rigid curriculum, which did not leave much room for the students

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M.M.H. Ahmed: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed Effland, K.J., Hays, K., Ortiz, F.M., Blanco, B.A., 2020. Incorporating an equity agenda
into health professions education and training to build a more representative
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randomised experiment. Act. Learn. High. Educ. 17 (1), 39–49.
Fook, C.Y., Sidhu, G.K., 2015. Investigating learning challenges faced by students in
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies higher education. Proc. Soc. Behav. Sci. 186, 604–612.
in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Goedhart, N.S., Blignaut-van Westrhenen, N., Moser, C., Zweekhorst, M.B.M., 2019. The
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Competing interest statement Goh, C.F., Ong, E.T., 2019. Flipped classroom as an effective approach in enhancing
student learning of a pharmacy course with a historically low student pass rate. Curr.
Pharm. Teach. Learn. 11 (6), 621–629.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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learning. Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn. 28 (1), 81–96.
Hwang, G.J., Lai, C.L., Wang, S.Y., 2015. Seamless flipped learning: a mobile technology-
No additional information is available for this paper. enhanced flipped classroom with effective learning strategies. J. Comput. Educ. 2 (4),
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Acknowledgements regularity of pre-class activities in a flipped classroom. Comp. Educ. 134, 156–168.
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