engineers and the filling of basements with the "excrement

from the digestion of our house-life."44 A whole different atti­

tude toward the body of the building is required.
For Kiesler, the healthy body is first and foremost the
sensual body. lndeed,,sensual pleasure is the organizing
principle of his work. At one point, he describes the model
of the Endless House as "rolled up like a sex kitte)l." The
architect's primary role is to satisfy appetites, whether sex­
ual or gast ric : "If art could be accepted like sex and sex like
eating, men an"d women would not feel like perverts, shame­
lessly obscene in the presence of modern art or architec­
ture."45 For Kiesler, the International Style is filled with disor­
ders and repressions. Unblocking architecture in the name
of pleasure does not mean abandoning the medical body.
On the contrary. Kiesler's twisted forms are meant to be
healthier than Le Corbusier's "machine a habiter." Dissi­
dents such as Kiesler expose that modern architecture is an
always failed attempt to repress its own sensuality and like
every person is full of secrets obsessions, and forbidden
.

pleasures hidden behind its attempts to project the image

of a new normality.

NUDITY, FREE LOVE, AND THE HEALTH HOUSE

S ch i ndler and Richard Neutra are well known in the
R. M .
history of modern architecture for their respective health "

houses" for Doctor Phillip Lovell in California: Schindler's

Lovell Beach House in Newport Beach (1922-1926) FIG.s4
and Neutra's Lovell House in Los Angeles (1927- 1 929), also
known as the Health House. FIG.s3 Less well known is that the

Health and Architecture: From Vitruvius to Sick Building Syndrome 45

53 Rudolph Schindler bathing at
lllilouette Falls,Yosem1te, 1921
54 R. M. Schindler.Beach House for
Dr. Phillip Lovell, Newport Beach.
1925-1926
ss Paulme Sch1ooler eoo Leah Lovell,
"school '" the garden.· ca. 1925
56 Adolf Koch's soc1alist body culture
school, Lake Motzen. near Berlin,
ca. 1930

46
Health and Architecture: From Vitruvius to Sick Building Syndrome 47
 58
NODE UVIN.� 6

impu lse behind both houses came not so much from straight
modern architecture theories as from theories about sex,
health, psychoanalysis, and n udis m . Foas.sJ, s5 Modern archi­
59
tecture was here inseparable from a new lifestyle which
--·
,

included a vegetarian diet, exercise, su nbathing in the nude,

l�f COMPlfX Of NUDISM sleeping in the open air, and d ressi ng in simple robes made
from natural fi be rs. Many of these ideas came from the late
nineteenth-century Lebensreform movement in Germany,
FIG.56which advocated a back-to-nature lifestyle of fresh air,
gardening health food, alternative medic ine, nudism, sexual
.

liberation, and the avoidance of alc::>hol, tobacco, and vac­

cines. These ideas had arrived i n California, where many
.
proponents of the movement had emigrate d Neutra even
contributed to the magazine Nude Living on the recommen­
dation of his secretary, Audre Hardy, who was featured
n a ked in its pages.4e FIGs.57-ss
Dr. Lovell was a natu ropath and d rugl ess pract it io ne r
who tho ught all diseases have a dieta ry or igi n He never
.

studied medicine, but his theories of diet, exercise, sun the r­

apy, and ope n- air sleeping were very influential i n Southern
California. He wrote a colum n for the Los Angeles Times enti­
57 Image in Nude Living, April 1962 tled "Care of the Body." The pub lish er of the newspaper,
58 Ccver ofNude Living, April 1962 H arry Chandler, was one of his patients. The Love ll Houses
59 Article by Richard Neutra in Nude
Laving Aprol 1962 of Schi n dle r and Neutra were organized around h i s full
60 Richard Neutra, Lovell Health regi me of sun, air, exercise, fasti ng and diet strategies. The
,

House,under construction
81 Back coverof Rachard Nautra,
Health Ho use of Ne utra in particular, became a public
,

Survr.'OI Through Design, 1954,wath c'emonstration of Lovell s theories, with en-suite sleeping
'

the Health House underconstructoon

superimposed on an image of the porches outside every room, "nude su nbath i ng opportuni­
nervOJS system of the body t es" th rou gho ut the house, and "hydrotherapy equi pment"

48
 60

and "marathon showers" in the master bathroom, which was

also equipped with a "built-in enema fixture with various
douches and nozzles devices, thermostatically controlled ."47
Lovell opened the house to the public for two weekends,
a nnouncing it' in his Los,Angeles Times column, which includ- ..._�-----""'""--'
ed photographs a description of the house, and a map
,

showing how to get there. Fla.s:�..Arou nd fifteen thousaod peo-

ple showed up, and Neutra himself gave the tours. FIG.s3
Two photographs of the "House of Health" appear in this
column alongside ads for treating "sagging flabby chi ns,"
"pelvic troubles: men and women;' "severe cases of chronic
constipation;' "Prostate troubles;' and "eczema;'48 a testa-
ment to the increasing preoccupation of Americans with the
physical appearance and performance of their bodies.
Lovell saw in modern architecture a model for health,
a mechanism for reconstructing the human: "When we learn
to build our bodies with the same careful precision and the
same scientific accu racy with which the modern builder
constructs his houses" we fi nally will become healthy.49
Neutra, on the other hand , saw architecture as a "branch of
preventive medicine." lnfluenced by Lovell's theories of drug­
less health he was proud of resisting what he called the
,

"drugs of o rnamentation in the design of the house, avoiding

"

the "corpulent excesses of ornament and curvature."50 Neu­

tra had his own theories about the relationship between
health and architecture and wrote extensively about it. In
Survival through Design (1954), fiG.s1 for example, he argues
that the very survival of the human species depends on hav­
ing designers focus on "physiological space." Design, for

Health and Architecture: From Vitruvius to Sick Building Syndrome 49

 62

CAR E O F
Tti
e Homo B�at {or Hco.Jtb By Philip M. Lovell� N. D.
B O DY
Authw of ..met /W'Hcofd." ond "Tb6 HuiJh of �e Cflifl'

HOME TREAT
MENTS
-c
:: ":; .="
:!:�;,, "utt.'
!:
:"" }:�·.
=: •:..r" ·
� 111'Qf41tl llllttt. r..O.o � lll'
P, $. C £ 0 flCE., 0,
na: IIUOIJOIOU• 1'10 411'11.ft01f$ "' II
III
....
N

50
63

Neutra, operates at the intersection of biology and psychol­

ogy as a therapeutic defense against the "disastrous effects"
of all the accumulated conditions of modern life.
Neutra thought his build ings could improve not just
the health, out also tt)e sex lives of their i nh abitants. The
desire for self-improvement in every aspect of one's life res­
onated with Californians whG..had become increasin_gly con­
.
cerned with. their bodies' appearance and performance.51
Exercise, bodybuilding, dieting, therapy, surgery, and cosmet­
ics became a major part of a continuous self-construction.
Already by midcentu ry, the preoccupation had extended to
mental health. As tu berculosis became controlled w ith anti­
biotics. particularly streptomycin (the first antibiotic cure
for tuberculosis, discovered in 1943), Neutra switched his
idea of the architect as a doctor to the idea of the architect
as a kind of psychoanalyst. The function of the house was
to provide not just physical health, but also psychological
well-being. Many clients of Neutra talked to him about their
"nervous" problems, their marital problems, their fertility
problems. In fact, his theory of architecture was ultimately
a theory about the nerves, the intersection of body and brain.
A symptomatic figure was Wilhelm Reich, a protege of
Freud who deviated from his theories, was expelled from
psychoanalytic circles, and settled in America in 1939. He
was the inventor of the "orgone energy accumulator," popu­
larized as an "orgasm machine" in films such as Woody
Allen's Sleeper (1973) and Roger Vadim's Barbarella (1968). 62 Phili p M. Lovell,·care of the Body.·
Los Angeles Times, December 15, 1929
Several clients of Neutra were followers of Reich, especially 63Richard Neutra pointing to the Lovell
Josephine and Robert Chuey, who commissioned a house by House, Los Angeles, 192 7-1929

Health and Architecture: From Vitruvius to Sick Building Syndrome 51

 him that became a salon for orgone users and early experi­
ments with LSD.52 FIG.64
Reich thought the libido is affected by physical space
and-unlike Freud, who saw sexual dysfunction as a symp­
tom of neurosis-Reich thought it is the cause of the neu­
rosis and sought to alleviate it with "orgone," a previously
unaccounted-for form of energy His "orgone energy accu­
mulator" FIG.ss was a primitive box the size of a telephone
booth, composed of up to twenty layers of organic and non­
organic materials, that was su pposed to accumulate the
energy and transmit it to the body inside it. Reich wrote
about the need for regular, daily sessions in the machine and
claimed it could cure anything from headaches to chronic
fatigue, arthritis, heart disease, cancer, brain tumors, and
impotence. The orgone accumulator became best known as
a machine to increase sexual performance, o r what Reich
called "orgastic potency," a complete release of energy that
could be measured as an electrical discharge. Several cli­
ents of Neutra had accumulators in their houses. More
important, Neutra thought of the house itself as a kind
of orgone accumulator, a machine not just for health, but
also for desire-or rather, desire as health.

64 Richard Neutra, Chuey House,

SHOCK ABSORBER
Los Angeles, 1956 The bond between design, medicine. war, and psychology
65 Wilhelm Reich, Orgone Energy
Accumulator
keeps running through architectural discourse into the sec­
66 Charles and Ray Eames, wartime ond half of the century. Charles and Ray Eames's famous
splint made of molded plywood, 1943
67 Charles and Ray Eames, mass
designs of the 1940s and 1950s, for example, are usu ally
production of plywood leg splints, 1943 understood as reacting against the cold materials and

52
austere forms of 1920s and 1930s furniture design, which
looked like doctor's equipment, and as expressing a new
concern for the body, for natural materials, and for organic
forms. But there is nothing "natural" about them. In fact,
the Eameses' plywood, furniture and toys are the result of
med ical and military research.
During World War II, ChaRes and Ray Eames hadJormed
a company with John Entenza to mass-produce plywood war
produGts with military funding. I n 1941 and 1942, they devel­
oped a molded plywood splint for the US Navy to replace a
metal leg splint that did not sufficiently secure the leg and
even led to gangrene and death. By the war's end, more than
one hundred and fifty thousand Eames splints had been
shipped to the navy. FIGs.ss,s7 The splint performed very well in
the field and was praised for its lifesaving features. In addi­
tion, the company designed and developed a plywood body
litter and an arm splint, molded plywood aircraft parts, and
more. By 1945, the Eameses were producing molded plywood
chairs with the technology they had developed for the mili­
tary. A photograph of the plywood lounge chair of 1946 shows
Charles Eames reclining on it, the position of his leg sticking
straight out indicating that he had not forgotten where the
idea came from. In addition, the Eameses produced molded
plywood children's furniture, molded plywood animals, light­
weight plywood cabinets, and even plywood Christmas deco­
rations made out of leftover splints. Military and medical
equipment had become the basis of domestic equipment.
For the Eameses, as for Le Corbusier, the designer is
a su rgeon. I n the course of an interview, Charles Eames said:

Health and Architecture: From Vitruviusto Sick Bui lding Syndrome 53

 "The preoccupation with self-expression is no more appro­
priate to the world of art than it is to the world of surgery.
That does not mean I would reduce self-expression to zero; I
am sure that really great surgeons operate on the edge of
intuition. But the rigorous constraints in su rgery-those are
important in any art."53 Yet the Eameses' orthopedic body is
not Le Corbusier's tuberculoid body o r Kiesler's emaciated
body. At any one time there was more than one such theory
at the intersection of medicine and architecture. Architec­
tural discourse is shaped by a continuous debate and ten­
sion between alternative medical scenarios.
After World War I I , Charles and Ray Eames defined
the house itself as a "shock absorber." "The house must
make no insistent demands for itself, but rather aid as
a background for life in work . . . [and] acts as re-orientor
and 'shock absorber."'S• But what is this shock? The shock
in the postwar years was the shock of nuclear annihilation.
FIGs. 6s,se Domestic life could no longer be taken for granted.

It became an art form carefully constructed and marketed

by a whole new industry: a form of art therapy for a trau ma­
tized nation, a reassuring image of the "good life" to be
bought like any other product. The interior becomes a show­
room full of objects. FIG.1o Shock is presumably absorbed
through the consumption of design. "Good design" offers
a good life;' a galaxy of happy, self-contained objects for
"

people who do not feel safely contained and cannot be sure

of life itself.
The Eameses perfected the "keep smiling" strategy
that Benjamin had observed after World War I . Perhaps no

54
other designers can be seen smiling so often and so polem­
ically. FIG.71 While the ever-scowling Adolf Loos had insisted
in "Ornament and Crime" that the craftsman is "so healthy
he cannot invent ornament," the ever- beaming Eameses.
the poster cl'iildren of good design encouraged the postwar
. ,

consumer to keep clinging to smoot h design as if to a psy­

chological life raft. The real fu.nction of good design re.rn ai ned
anesthetic, a symptom of a trauma that cannot be expressed,
a smooth line of defense.
If architectural discourse has from its beginning asso­
ciated building and body, the body that it describes is the
medical body, reco nstructed by each new theory of health.
Throughout the twentieth century, designers positioned
architecture against medical and psychological trauma.
Each new instrument of medical diagnosis implied new
positions for design and new systems of architectural repre­
sentation The occupant is a patient with modernity itself
. ,

being both a disease and a possible cure.

Health and Architecture: From Vitruvius to Sick Building Syndrome 55

56
63 Cover ofArts & Architecture, December
1946
ss "Containment at Home:A Cold War
Family Poses in their Fallout Shelter," life
magazine, August 1 , 1961
70 Charles and Ray Eames in the living
room of the Eames House. 1958
11 Charles and Ray Eames at Christmas
1944, with plywood sculpture by Ray

Health and Architecture: From Vitruvius to Sick Building Syndrome 57

 1 Vitruvius Pollio, The Ten Books on 1 1 Le Corbusier, The Radiant City; trans. 21 LeCorbusier. TheDecorotiveArtof
Architecture, trans. Morris Hicky Morgan Pamela Knight, Eleanor Levieux, and Derek Today; trans.James I. Dunnett (Cambridge,
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Coltman (New York: Orion Press, 1967). MA: MIT Press, 1987), p. 96; originally
1914). p. 20. pp. 55-56:originally published in 1933 published in 1 925 as L.:4rt decoratif
2 Vitruvius argued that objects can be as La ville radieuse. d'oujourd'hui. See also Nina Rosenblatt,
a combination of the four elements in 1 2 Ibid.. p. 100. Le Corbusier had already "Empathy andAnaesthesia: On the Ori­
different proportions. rather thanjustof symptomatically ended his book Urban­ gins of a French Machine Aesthetic," Grey
two. as in the original medical theory. isme (1925) with an appendix featuring Room, no. 2 (Winter 2001), pp. 78-97. The
"Commentary: Book 2," in Vitruvius: Ten highly detailed sectional medical images first public demonstration of an operation
Books on Architecture, trans. Ingrid D. of lungs. Le Corbusier, Urbonisme (Paris: under anesthesia (with ether) took place
Rowland, (Cambridge: Cambridge Cres 1925). unpaginated appendix. at Massachusetts General Hospital in
University Press. 1999), p. 178. 13 Ibid., p. 48. 1846.
3 Karen-Ed is Sarzman. The Florentine 1 4 Or. Winter, "Sports." L'Esprit nouveau. 22 LeCorbusier, TheDecorativeArtof
Aca demy and the Early Modern State: no. 16 (May 1922), p. 1952. Today, p. 112.
The Discp i line ofOisegno (Cambridge: 15 Pierre Winter, "La ville moderne,· 23 Walter Benjamin, "Experience and
Cambridge University Press. 2000), Le nouveausiecle, May 16, 1926, quoted Poverty;' trans. Rodney Livingstone,
pp. 163-64.The requirement of attending in Robert Fishman, Urbon Utopias in in Wolter Benjamin:Selected Writings,
the annual dissection was added to the the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Volume 2: 1927-1934, ed. Michael W.
found ing statutes in 1563. Books, 1982), p. 224. Jennings, Howard Eiland,and Gary Smith
4 Martin Bressani,"Prosthetic Fantasies of 1 6 "Le Corbusier ... l'architecte, le peintre, (Cambridge. MA: Belknap Press of
theFirst Machine Age:Viollet-le Ouc'slron le poete se confondent et ne sont pas Harvard University Press, 1999). p. 732.
Architecture."AA Files 68 (2014). pp.43-49. separables des le Corbusier moins connus 24 Susan Buck-Morss. ''Aesthetics and
5 Austin Flint and William H. Welch, The que j'ai Ia particuliere mission devous Anaesthetics: Walter Benjamin's Artwork
Principles and Practice ofMedicine, 5th presenter, -sous les etiquettes trop pom­ Essay Reconsidered," October 62 (Fa ll
ed. (Philadelphia: Henry C. Lea's Son & Co.. peuses pour sa modestie ... Biologiste 1992), pp. 3-42.
1881), p. 206. See also Susan Sontag. (avec un grand B) du Sociologue (avec un 25 Walter Benjamin, Charles Boudeloire,
Illness osMetaphor(New York: Farrar. grandS) etj'ajouterai de !'athlete, qui trans. Harry Zohn (London:Verso. 19B3),
Straus and Giroux, 1977), p. 54. au rait peut-etre pu arriver champion.· p.133.
6 Sontag, Illness as Metaphor, p. 5. Or. Pierre Winter,"Le Corbusier, Biologists, 26 Susan Buck-Morss, ''Aesthetics and
7 Anson Rabinbach, The Humon Motor: Sociologue," in LeCorbusier and Pierre Anaesthetics: Walter Benjamin's Artwork
Energy. Fatigue, and the Origins of Jeanneret. C£uvre complete, 1934-1938, Essay Reconsidered," October 62 (Fa I I
Modernity (New York: Basic Books, 1990). (1936: Zurich: Girsberger, 1964). pp. 13-15. 1992), pp. 3-42.
8 Le Corbusier. Toward an Architecture. 17 Ibid., p. 14. 27 Walter Benjamin, ·on Some Motif s
trans.John Goodman (Los Angeles: Getty 18 Or.Winter,"Lecorpsnouveau." on Baudelaire," trans. Harry Zohn, in lllu·
Research Institute, 2007), pp. 94-95; L'Esprit nouveau, no. 15 (February 1922). minotions, ed. Hannah Arendt (NewYork:
originally published in 1923 as Vers une p.1755. Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968). p. 155.
architecture. 19 Le Corbusier, Urbanisme (Paris: Cres. 28 Adolf Loos. "Architecture." in The
9 Ibid., p. 297. 1925), p. 207. 1n English, Le Corbusier, Architecture of AdolfLaos: An Arts Co uncil
10 LeCorbusier, TheCityofTo-morrow The City of To-morrowand Its Planning, Exhibition, ed. Yehuda Safran and Wilfried
and Its Planning, trans. Frederick Etchells p. 216, translation slightly modified. Wang (London: Arts Council of Great
(New York: Dover Editions, 1987), pp. 20 LeCorbusier. TheCityofTo-morrow Britain, 1985). p. 107.
256-57;originally published in 1925 as ond Its Planning, p. 84; Le Corbusier, 29 Walter Benjamin, "Karl Kraus,· trans.
Urbonisme. The Ra diant City, p. 36. Edrnund Jephcott. in Wolter Benjam in:

58
Selected Writings, Volume 2: 1927-1934, Frank Lloyd Wright, Buckminster Fuller, Psychoanalytic Culture (Cambridge. MA:
p. 438. Benjamin often confuses Loos with and LeCorbusier. MIT Press. 2004). p. 76.
the architecture of glass. Nothing could be 39 Frederick Kiesler, /nside the Endless 53 Charles Eames, interview with Digby
further from Loos. But where he is surgical House: Art, People, andArchitecture­ Diehl,"Charles Eames:Q&A;' LosAngeles
is with the dismantling of the private from AJournol, p. 229. Times WESTMagazine, October 8, 197 2,
within and the resolute defense against 40 Ibid., p. 203. p. 14.reprinted i n Oigby Diehi, Supertolk
the intrusivegaze ofpublicauthO[ity. 41 Ibid., p. 154. (New York: Doubleday, 1974). The original
30 Buckm.inster Fuller, "Universal Condi- 42 Ibid., p. 155. transcript is in the Eames archives,
tions of the Industrially Reproducible 43 Ibid.. p. 338. Library of Congress.
Shelter;· T-Square 2. no. 2 (February 1932)� 44 Ibid., p. 272. 54 "Case Study Houses 8 and 9 by
p. 37. 45 Ibid.. p. 236. Charles Eames and EeroSaarinen.Archi­
31 Frederick Kiesler, Contemporary 46 Richard Neutra, "Some Notes on The tects.·Arts & Architecture (December
ArtApplied to the Store andIts Display Complex of Nudism; Nude Living 1 , no. 6 1945). p. 44.
(New York: Brentano's. 1930). p. 87. (April 1962). pp. 7-10, and "Audre: Able
32 Frederick Kiesler. "Pseudo· Function· and Agile." ibid .. pp. 11-13.1 am grateful
alism in Modern Architecture.· Partisan to Thomas Hines for pointing this out
Re•tiew 16 (July 1949), p. 735. Emphasis to me and lending me his own copy ofthe
in the original. magazine.
33 "A house must be practical.To be 47 Willard Morgan, "Plumbing and Heat-
practical means to serve.To be service- ing for a Modern Health Home;•Domestic
able i n every respect. In any direction. Engineering (AprilS, 1930), p. 52.
If any directions are closed, the house 48 Philip lovell."Care ofthe Body.•
suffers from constipation." Ibid., p. 739. Los Angeles Times Sunday Magazine.
34 Ibid. pp. 733-42. December 15,1929. p. 26.
35 Frederick Kiesler,/nside the Endless 49 Philip Lovell and Leah Lovell. Diet
House: Art, People, and Architecture- for Health by Natural Methods: Together
A Journal (New York: Simon and Schuster, with Health Menus an d Recipes; Com-
1966). p. 566. plete Instruction s for the Cure ofthe Sick
36 "Kiesler: Pursuit of an Idea." interview Without the Use ofDrugs (Los Angeles:
by Thomas H. Creigton, Progressive Times-MirrorPress, 1927). p. 16, quoted
Architecture (July 1961 ). p. 115. in Victoria Jane Solan, "Built for Health"
37 Ibid., p. 106. (PhD diss.. Yale University, 2004), p. 140.
38 lbid., pp. 113-14.Twentyyears tater, 50 Richard Neutra,quoted in"Steel
Johnson supported Kiester's work. Construction with Plaster;'Colifornio
In 1950, he acquired, for the Museum Plasterer, 1929.clipping in Neutra archives.
of Modern Art the model of the Endless UCLA. See Solan, "Built for Health,"
Housethat had beenexhibited in the pp. 145-46.
Kootz Gallery. He also facilitated Kiesler's 51 Sara Schrank, "Naked Houses: The
subsequent exhibitions of the Endless Architecture of Nudism and the Rethink-
House in the Museum of Modern Art: ing of the American Suburb," Journal
Two Houses. New Ways of Building (1952). of Urban History 38, no. 4 (2012), p. 638.
with Buckminster Fuller; and Visionary 52 Sylvia Lavin, Form Follows Libido:
Architecture (1960). with Bruno Taut. Architecture and Richard Neutra in a

Health and Architecture: From Vitruvius to Sick Building Syndrome 59

CHAPTER2

Tu berc u los i s

One could write an entire encyclopedia just about the im­

pact of tu berc u losis on earlytwentietl--century architecture,
beginning with the active collaborations between architects
and doctors in the design of tuberculosis sanatoriums such
as Alvar and'Aino Aal�o·s P.aimio (1929-1933) in Finland,1
FIG., considered by Sigfried Giedion one of "three institutional

buildings inseparably linked,to the rise of contemJ)orary

architecture·:-the other two being the Bauhaus at Dessau
by Walter Gropius (1926) and the unrealized project for the
League of Nations Palace at Geneva by Le Corbusier (1927).
Giedion claimed that in all three proje:)ts, "the various parts
are fully integrated-like the organs of a body." 2 The most

1 Alvar Aalto. Paimio Sanatorium,

site plan

61
Alvar and AinoAalto, PaimioSanatorium.
1929-1933
2 Exterior view with sundeck balconies,
ca.1924
3. 4 Patient room
s AlvarAalto,drawing ofcurved floor
under Nindow, 1929
6 AlvarAalto, drawing of noiseless
sink,1932

62
modern of buildings are themselves healthy bodies, in a n
update of the Vitruvian idea, with the twist that one of the
three buildings is devoted to sick bodies.
5
With its dramatic terraces in the sky, the Paimio Sana- ST !! 6
ANDARON
ARKIT. AL.VA.A'M'l'fO
torium even bears an 1-1ncanny resemblance, in canonical y 19!19

__ . _,_ _ _

photographs, to ribs in an X-ray, FIG.z the primary diagnostic

tool for TB. Its clean-li ned bed{ooms, void of ornamen;, were
designed to minimize surfaces where dust could . accumu­
late. FIGs.3,4 Even the intersection of floor and wall beneath
the window cur\ted to stop dust buildup. FIG.s The rooms were
equipped with furniture and sanitary fittings designed by
the architects, including chairs whose back was angled to
facilitate breathing and expectoration, fiG.1s sinks designed
to reduce splashing, FIG.s and spittoons to minimize sound.
Door handles were carefully designed not to catch the
sleeves of the doctors' white coats. FIG.1z But the building's
main equipment was the top-floor terrace , F1Gs.a,9 seven sto- e

noiseress wash- basin

ries above the forested landscape, where patients were
wheeled out for regular doses of fresh air and sun in the
lounge chairs specially designed by Aino Aalto. fiG.1o Eventu­
ally, the terrace had to be closed off. because the nurses
couldn't keep desperate patients from throwing them­
selves from it every time they turned their backs on them.3
The discovery and success of streptomycin in 1943 revealed
that there was little scientific basis for the air-and-sun
therapy of the sanatorium.4 Sometimes the therapy even
precipitated the end-at Paimio, quite literally.
Tuberculosis helped make modern architecture modern.
It is not that modern architects made modern sanatoriums.

Tu berculosis 63
1 Al•ar Aalto. Kinkomaa tuberculosis
sanatorium project (not realized),
perspective drawing, 1927

Alvar a nd Aino Aalto. Paimio Sanatorium,

1929-1933
a Uppersun terrace with patients taking
the fresh-aircure, 1933
g Upper sun terrace with patients
10 Drawing of chaise longue designed by

Aino O.alto for Paimio Sanatorium, 1932

64
10

Rather, sanatoriums modernized architects. Aalto was a

neoclassical architect before his ."comersion to functional­
ism" in the 1927 competition entry for a tuberculosis sanato­
rium at Kinkomaa, Finland-an u n realized project of hori­
zontal lines arid wide terraces for the cure that anticipates
Paimio.51=1G.?
For Aalto, the sanatorium was not a rchitecture jn the
service of medicine, but integral to medicine as such-an
apparatus devised as a means of treatment:

The main purpose of the building is to function as

a medical instrument. . . . The room design is deter­
mined by the depleted strength of the patient, reclin­
ing in his bed. The colour of the ceiling is chosen for
quietness the light sources are outside of the patient's
,

field of vision, the heating is oriented towards the

patient s feet, and the water runs soundlessly from
'

the taps to make sure that no patient disturbs his

neighbour.s FIG. 11

Aalto himself had been sick at the time of the competition

for the building and claimed that having to lie in bed for an
extended period of time had been crucial to his understand­
ing of the problem. Architecture always had been conceived
for the vertical person, but here was a client permanently in
the horizontal.
The whole design of the room and the building had to
change accordingly. Light fixtures co�;ld not remain in the
ceiling, irritating the eyes of the occupant lying in bed, for

Tuberculosis 65
11 Drawing by AlvarAalto of an ordinary
room for a "vertical person"and a room in
Paimiofor a "hori2ontal person"to illus­
trate his 1940 article lhe Humanizing of
Architecture� November 1940

66
whom the ceiling had all of a sudden acquired maximum
importance-a new kind of facade, one could s ay The view
.

through the window to the forest outside also had to be

calculated from the point of view of the bed. In the terrace,
the low parapet and t)'lin rail above allowed the eye of the
horizontal person to travel far above the forest. Even when in
movement, the patient oftervemained horizontal ir).a sana­
torium. Elevators encased in transparent glass, placed at
the end of the corridor to avoid disturbi ng patients in the
rooms, allowed the traveling patient. in a bed on wheels,
a horizontal cross-section view of the architecture and the
landscape beyond. The unconstrained horizontal view was
itself a medical instrument, calming the eye and brain.
The colors of the room and the building had to be
thought in these terms too-soothing, "quiet, dark hues"
of blue for th e ceiling, the walls i n lighter shades . Bright
canary yellow in the reception booth by the entrance and
in the linoleum of the lobby, staircase, and corridors evoked
"sunny optimism even in cold, cloudy days." FIG.I3Just as heat­
ing by radiant ceiling panels was directed at the patients'
feet, and not their heads, windows were of special construc­
tion so th e cold outside air would enter diagonally through
the window boxes in which the intake openi ngs were "as
far as possible away from the patient:'7 "Mechanical ventila­
tion does not enter the picture because natural ventilation
with fresh, ozone-rich air is of the utmost importance in the
healing process," Aalto wrote.8 Psychological factors were
also to be carefully considered:

Tuberculosis 67
 13

68
 14
Alvar Aalto, PaimioSanatorium,
1 929-1933
12 Patient roomdoorhandle designed not
to catch doctor's lab coat sleeves
13 Main staircase
14 Diagram of the sun rays and heating
rays in a patient's room
15 Diagram showingthe heat environment
in a patient's room

15
An extended period of confinement can be extremely
depressing for a bed-ridden patient. Furthermore,
conventional hospital rooms are never designed for
constant bed-ridden patients. The contrasts in color
and mass betwe.en vertical walls and horizontal ceil­
ings resulting from both natural and artificial light
are not particularly well-suited for patients who are
especially sensitive because of their illness. : . . A tuber­
c:ulosis sanatorium is, to all ntents and purposes,
a hOUSe W ith Open Wi ndOWS.9 FIGS. 14, 1 5

Architecture was not only part of the treatment. it had to

address the patient's way of life. Living in a sanatorium for
long periods makes it home. The hospital had to be thought
as a new kind of house. And in reverse, the generic house
needed to be a sanatorium. Aalto later wrote:

I was able to discover that special physical and psy­

chological reactions by patients provide good poi nters
of ordinary housing. If we proceed from technical func­
tionalism, we shall discoverthata great many things in
our present architecture are unfunctional from the
point of view of psychology, or a combination of psy­
chology and physiology. To examine how human beings
react to forms and constructions, it is useful to use for
experimentation especially sensitive persons, such as
patients i n a sanatorium.10

Tuberculosis 69
 The bodily and psychological sensitivity of the sick person
was used to recalibrate architecture. Even the specialized
furniture became ordinary everyday pieces. If the cantile­
vered birch-wood Paimio ch air, for example, was designed to
open the chest of the patient, allowing him o r her to breathe
easier, soon enough, that chair became everybody's chair.
Likewise with the rest of the furniture specially designed for
Paimio: "The sanatorium n·eeded furniture which should be
light, flexible, easy to clean and so on. After extensive exper­
imentation in wood, the flexible system was discovered ..
to produce furniture which was more suitable for the lo ng
and painful life in a san atorium."11 A workshop was set up
with a local company to carry out the first experiments, and
i n 1935, barely two years after completing Paimio,Alvar and
Aino Aalto founded the Finnish furniture company Artek,
FIG. 11 with "the ambition to support and nourish human

beings· physical and psychological wellbeing." 1 2 lt is not by

chance that the official time line of the company starts with
Paimio S anator ium , since it is there where the first experi­
ments in modern furniture by the Aaltos took place. The
Aalto that became known as one of the so-called masters of
modern architecture did so by engaging with disease. Aalto
designs, after Paimio, had the aura of health,
The reference point was the seriously ill. Aalto claimed
that the architect had to design for the person in the "weak­
est position." The tuberculosis patient becomes the model
for modern architecture. In other words, sickness was no
longer seen as the exception, but as the norm-and varying
degrees of sickness were seen to define the human condi-

70
16 Paimio Sanatorium lounge recreation
room with Paimio chairs. 1933
11 TheArtekstore in Helsinki. 1939
18 Engraving after a drawing by Robert
Koch of fresh bacilli from the lungs of
a tuberculosis patient. as seen under the
microsope
19 Engraving after a drawing by Robert
Koch of tuberculosis bacilli, after two
weeks growth under a culture. as seen
under the microscope

18
tion. The modern subject has multiple ailments, physical
and psychological, and architecture is a protective cocoon
not just against the weather and other outside threats, but
in modernity, more notably against internal threats: psycho-
logical and b'odily ailm�nts..
·

Symptomatically, Aalto compared his experiments in

Paimio and their application to everyday use to the "exagger­
ated" forms of analysis that scientists use "in order to obtain
clear more visible results," such as "stained bacteria" for
m icroscope examination.1 3 H e saw design as a form of med- Pflt;<Jfl l)AQlLLT PROM TR8 LO$GS 01' A. OONStTlfPTtVF.
ical research, with the sanatorium acting as a kind of 19 m'"''·'" "'"' """'" ,..,. mcaosco•·a

research lab for modern architecture-a way of testing

architecture, looking more closely, in a rigorous examina­
tion, and experimenting-looking at what has been hidden,
exposing the invisible forces.

THE INVISIBLE CLIENT

Sigmund Freud, the X-ray, bacteriology, and the germ theory
of disease all emerged in the same short period of time,
and they are all about looking inside, acknowledging the
invisible: the unconscious, the skeleton, the microelement BA.CtLLI .AFHJt 'l'WO Wl!mt$' GROW'f'K, tn:nBR Tllt
l!lOROOCOt>&.
of bacteria and the bacillus of TB. Architecture, likewise,
turns itself inside out: the threat is no longer outside, but
inside, in the "invisi ble."The micro scale of bacteria becomes
the base for furniture, rooms, houses, and cities: the micro
and the macro; the bacterium and the city. Cities were sud­
denly thought to be teeming with unseen occupants that
in a sense became the new clients of modern architecture
and urbanism. Ftas. 18, 19

Tuberculosis 71
 20

72
 23
20 Josef Hoffmann, Purkersdorf
sanatorium. original design, west facade.
1903
21 Otto Pfleghard and Max Haefeli,
with engineer Robert Mai llart, Queen
Alexandra Sanatorium. Oavos, 1907
22 Otto Wagner,project for Palmschoss
hel iotherapy center. Brixen, ltaly, 1914
23 Bernard Bijvoetand Jan Duiker,
Zonnestraal sanatorium, Hilversum,
1927. postcard
24 Richard Docker, Waiblingen sana·
torium,1926-1928

The architect-doctor became a bacteriologist, generating

design princi pies out of the laboratory scrutiny of microbes.
Architecture itself became bacterial. As Le Corbusier put it:

We need a diagnosis-and a line of co �duct. In 1 9 2 2

I tried t o delve into an analysis, I did some laboratory
work. Isolating my micr-obe. I watched it develop. The
biology of my microbe appeared in indisputable clar­
ity. Certitudes acquired; diagnosis. Then, by an effort
of synth esis, I drew up the fundamental principles of
modern city planning.1 4

Microbes were both the literal and metaphorical basis of

a new architecture and urbanism. Modern architecture par­
adoxically had to represent this new invisible order with
bright, transparent images. seen as clean, clear, and healthy
in a kind of visual hygiene. The whiteness of modern archi­
tecture is unambiguously that of the hospital, surfaces that,
as it were, demonstrate their cleanliness.
The history of modern architecture is full of sanatori­
ums: Josef Hoffmann's Purkersdorf outside Vienna (1903)
FtG.2o; Otto Wagner's Steinhof, Vienna (1907) and project

for Palmschoss heliotherapy center in the mountains near

Brixen in Italy (1914) FtG.22; the Queen Alexandra Sanatori­
um in Davos (1 907) FtG.21, by the architects Otto Pfleghard and
Max Haefeli and engineer Robert Maillart; Jan Duiker and
Bernard Bijvoet's Zonnestraal in Hilversum (1925-1928)
FtG.2a; Richard Docker's sanatorium in Waiblingen (1926-
1928) FtG.24; Werner Hebebrand and Willi Kleinertz's Sonnen-

Tuberculosis 73
25 Pablo Zabalo, Sanatorio de Leza.
Alava. 3pain, 1934, postcard
2 6 William Ganster and William Pereira,
Lake CountyTuberculosis Sanatorium,
Waukegan, Illinoi s, 1939
27 Werner Hebebrand and Wilhelm
Kleinertz,Sonnenblick Sanatori um .
Marburg, 1929-1931
28 Co,er ofthe Revista Naciona( de
Arquitectura 126,June 1952. with an
image of Lake CountyTuberculosi s
Sanatorium superimposed on an X-ray
of lungs

bl ick sanatorium in Marburg (1929-1931) Fra.21; Jaromir Krej­

car's Machnac sanatorium in Trencianske Teplice (1929-

1932) FrG.29; Josep Lluis Sert's Dispensario Antituberculoso
ir Barcelona (1934) and - hillside sanatorium project for
Barcelona (1936); Pablo Zabalo's Sanato rio de Leza, Alava
(1934) F1G.2s; William Ganster and William Pereira's Lake
CJuntyTuberculosis Sanatorium in Waukegan, Illinois (1939)
FrGs.2s. 2s; so o n and on. Many modern architects did a sana­

torium at some point. and often it defined them. The sanato­

rium was the testing ground of new materials and tech­
n ques of construction and often involved experimental
collaborations between architects, engineers, and doctors .

The sanatorium buildings were typically disconnected

from cities. floating like ships on mountainsides, in forests.
by lakes, o r at the coast, with their row upon row of sun
terraces treated like little beaches-sometimes linked to
artificial beaches on the inside of the building or to real
beaches on the outside. Fras.3o,31 This sense of floating out­
side its normal urban habitat and angling itself to the sun to
heal fragile bodies challenged the definition of architecture.
It is as if architecture itself took the cure
.

I n fact, the sanatorium modernized architecture. It

is not a traditional building with balconies added to it to
catch the sun, but a set of deep sun terraces understood
as the crucial medical instrument to be propped up and
serviced by a tra nsformed buildi ng. The whole building
ultimately adjusted itself into a solar device, sometimes
stacking itself at a steep angle, as with Marcel Breuer
and Gustav Hassenpflug's 1930 project for a 1 1 00-bed

74
 R E V I S T A N A C I 0 N A L D E A R Q U I T E"C T U'R A
c•'" \ jl o:�� ��'o f �� ,C�·I� H�/c;"��r'o'l,�fitcg� 1 f�8 t,l}� 4;"r\�"" ��'�/,�.0t/.t/'1/ . ,., . �, t; ..
A n o XII Num. 126

Tuberculosis 75
 29

76
29 Jaromir Krejca r, Machnl!c, sanatorium
in TrencianskeTeplice, 1929-1932
30 Artificial beach,Aix-Les-Bains
31 G. Lubarskij, Tuberculosis sanatorium
near Odessa, 1930
32, 34 Jean Saidman, revolving sanatorium ,

Aix-les-Bains, l!'rance, 1930

33 Jean Saidman, Ranjit Institute of
Poly-Radio-Therapy, revolving sanatorium
Jamnagar, India, 1934
35 Inclinedbed for treatment, revolving
sanatorium.Aix-les-Bains

Tuberculosis 77
36 37

sanatorium, FIG.37 or at an even steeper angle with the ele­

vator behind moving up at the same angle, as in Nicola
Visontai's 1934 project for the Italian Alps. FIG.3s This attitude
was taken to its extreme by the collaboration between the
radiologist Jean Said man and the architect Andre Farde to
make a twenty-five-meter-long revolving solarium sixteen
meters above the ground that always faced the sun for
tuberculosis patients at Aix-les-Bains in 1930. FIGS.32,34 It was
the first of three such revolving sanatoriums that they made
(the others were in Jamnagar in India FIG.33 and Vallauris on
the Mediterranean) with sophisticated retractable glass
panels and specialized focusing instruments to increase
the exposure. Even the beds were suspended in metal
frames that enabled them to be rotated up to a steep angle to
be aligned with the instruments. FIG.3s
The sanatorium had from the beginning been a labo­
ratory for incubating new attitudes toward form, spatial
organization, interior design, furniture, fittings, lighting,
plumbing, air, equipment, surfaces, colors, materials, and
construction methods. Take Josef Hoffmann's Purkersdorf,
with its purified white surfaces, radically sharp lines, cubic
furniture, Hennebique construction in reinforced concrete
and iron, and use of glass and electricity, all considered
part of the hygienic program. Even its gridded ferroconcrete
ceiling structure was exposed and painted white.1 s FIG.4s
Not only was electricity considered more hygienic than gas
as a means of illumination, ostentatiously displayed with
visible cables, but it was also used for all kinds of experi­
mental therapies, including electric massage machines,

78
36 Nicola Visontai, project for a sana­

torium in the Italian Alps, 1934

37 Marcel Breuer and Gustav Hassen·
pflug. project for a 11 00-bed sanatorium.
1930
38 Dr. Richard von Krafft-Ebingand his

,;ife. Marie Luise

39 Dr. Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Ober
gesunde und kranke Nerven (On healthy
and sick nerves), 1885,cover

electric baths, and chairs for strengthening the nerves. At

the time that the Pu rkersdorf was built, critic Ludwig Hevesi
described it as "the naked Hoffmann building;' whose walls
were lined with white porcelain tiles- "a white-painted o r
white-tiled 'washable '{l'orl<t."'16 Hevesi was so enthusiastic
as to check himself into the sanatorium to test personally
some of its therapeutic dev�es in the "mechano-t,herapy
room": in "this elegant white hall full of artificial devices,
,

with w.hich I rapidly made closer acquaintance, [including)

the electric mB.ssage machines-everything is electric." 17
FIG. 43 Electricity itself was understood as a med ical i nstru­

ment.
The building, commissioned by the industrialist Viktor
Zuckerkandl, was constructed as an addition to an earlier
sanatorium complex founded by neuropsychiatrist Dr. Rich­
ard von Krafft-Ebing FIG.sa-who died before the Pu rkersdorf
was completed-but it was influenced by his theories.
Krafft-Ebing had argued that the modern metropolis was
damaging the nerves of its inhabitants and that air, light ,

nature, and simplicity were the most effective the rapy. I n

1885, he wrote Ober gesunde und kronke Nerven (On healthy
and sick nerves) FIG.3s and a year later Psychopathia Sexualis.
He coined the term "masochism" (after the author Leopold
von Sacher-Masoch) and popularized the term "sadism."
Here, once again, health was understood in psychosexual
and architectural terms.
The Purkersdorf was frequented by a notable circle of
patients including Gustav Mahler, Arnold Schoenberg Hugo,

von Hofmannsthal, and Koloman Moser, who had designed

Tuberculosis 79
 :he furniture. FIG.42 Even the architect of the building, Josef
-toffmann, checked himself i n now and then. He had suf­
=ered from and was treated for a "1ervous disorder" prior
:o the commission of the'Purkersdorf and was sympathetic
:o Krafft-Ebing's ideas. According to Eduard Sekler, that was
why Hoffmann was inclined to acce�t the commission.18 The
Purkersdorf accepted patients with a wide range of medical
conditions including "ner-vous" d isorders, neurasthenia, eat­
ing disorders, substance abuse, and hysteria. The sanatori­
um had become a new kind of social space for the Viennese
upper classes. Hospitals until the end of the ni neteenth
century were almost without exception for the poor. Mem­
bers of the upper and middle class were treated at home,
and hospitals were seen as abject places for the destitute.19
But starting in the 1880s, the aristocracy and upper classes
began to spend summers in sanator urns and curative spas.
largely to deal with nervous disorders and other illnesses of
modernity. Bertha Zuckerkandl,20 journalist and art critic of
the Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung, characterized the Purkers­
dorf as a "cross between a modern hotel and a modern ther­
apeutic centre."21 And Karl Kraus described it as a "heal­
ing-swindle- institution" (Heilschwinde/onstolt).22 FIGs.4o,41
Critics hailed the building as one of clarity and truth.
The success of the institution owed enormously to the
modernity of the architecture. "Modern" was becoming
a new and sophisticated taste among the bourgeoisie and
the intelligentsia, who were supposed to dine around a sin­
gle white table at the Purkersdorf FIG.u (as a kind of talking
cure), sleep in spartan white rooms, Flo.4e and subject them-

80
40 Karl Kraus. Dte Fockel 1. 1899
41 Karl Kraus. 1908
42 Koloman Moser, 1903

selves to regimes of treatment in wh ite spaces. The associa­

tion of cubic white for ms with mental and physical health
was already strong enough for architecture to act as an
effective placebo.
The idea had mape its way into literature. Thomas
Mann's short novel Tristan, written in 1903, the same year as
the construction of the Purkersdorf, is set in an ima_ginary
sanatoriu m , the Einfried, "a long, white, rectilinear bu ildi n g;•
"warmly recommended for l u ng patients," but also "for
patie nts of all sorts": "suffe re rs of gastric disorders . . . peo­
ple with defe ctive hearts, paralytics, rheu matics , nervous
sufferers of all grumblings." When one of the patients, Herr
Kloterjahn's wife, asks another, "Why are you in Einfried,
really? . . . What cure are you taking, Herr Spinell?" he answers:

Cure? Oh, I'm having myself electrified a bit. Nothi ng

worth mentioning. I will tell you the real reason why
I am here, madame. It is a feeli ng for style. . . .
Obvious ly, people feel one way among fu rn it ure that
is soft and comfortable and voluptuous, and quite
anot her among the straight lines of t hese tables,
chairs, and draperies. This brightness and hardness,
this cold, austere simplicity and reserved strength ,
madame-it has upon me the ultimate effect of an
inward purification and rebirth.23

"Style," is the true cure of whatever ails Herr Spinel l, who

wears a "wh ite jacket" and "white hat" in this all-wh ite
building, in a "spotless white region" all covered in snow, with

Tuberculosis 81
Josef Hoffmann, Purkersdorf
sanatorium, 1904 1905
43 Electromechanotherapy room.
1905-1906
44 O•n•ng room, 1905-1906
45 Main hall, 1905-1906
46 Patient room. 1905

82
Tuberculosts 83
47 Cami llo Sitte, manuscript page of his
1889 book DerStddtebou noch seinen
kiinstlerischen Grundsotzen (City Planning
according to Artistic Principles), 1899

"white-enamelled" armchairs, "white folding doors," "white­

painted gallery," inhabited by the "white, slightly bloated"
faces and "white hands" of the patients with their "white­
veiled desire, by passion -d riven."2• Whiteness is the most
insistent feature of the building, the landscape, and the
patients in the Einfried sanatorium.

SADO-MASOCHISM
Krafft-Ebing's ideas seem also to have inHuenced other
architects and urban planners, such as Camillo Sitte, who
criticized the design of the modern city because in his view,
it was causing agoraphobia and other nervous conditions. In
his 1889 book City Planning according to Artistic Principles,
FIG.47 he advocated intimate urban spaces that, as in a medi­

eval city, protect the inhabitant. Adolf Loos, also a student of

masochism-there are multiple references i n his writin gs­
argues that the "man with modern nerves" can't tolerate
ornament. In 1926, he gave four lectures in German at the
Sorbonne, in Paris. The whole series was entitled Oer Mensch
mit den modemen Nerven (The man with modern nerves)
cHAPTeR ,, FIG.39 and ded icated to how to live one's life appro­
priately: how to walk, how to sit, how to lie down, how to
eat, how to sleep, how to dress. and how to inhabit.25 The
subject of the nerves had preoccupied Loos all his life and
permeated his writings from the turn of the century on.
For Loos, the rejection of ornament is not an aesthetic
theory, but a physiological reaction, as h e put it when dis­
cussing the English military uniform as a model for modern
dress: "The nerves of the modern man rebel against

84
47

,f,-., IZ.
[] "
ft:J�J
-v�, f .R-r�-
.

TuberculOSIS 85
 48 49

Glasarchitektur

Paul Sc:beerbarl

a demand to go back twenty, fifty, or a hundred years."26

.... 4n St..,...,f 8crlia WS He argued that human biology had e·;olved to give modern
1!114
Vc

rran a whole new set of nerves with their own needs27 I n

"Ornament and Education" (1924) he wrote: "Modern Man,
the man endowed with a modern nervo us system, doesn't
need ornament. On the contrary, he loathes it. Every object
that we call modern lacks ornament. Our. dresses, our
rrachines, our furs. and every object of everyday use don't
have-si nee the French Revolution-any ornament."26
But the obsession with nerves wasn't just a Viennese
hang-up. In h i s Glasarchitektur of 1914, Paul Scheerbart
wrote: "Sanatoria also will want glass buildings; the influ­
ence of splendid glass architecture on the nerves is indis­
putable."29 FIGS.4s, 4 9 Scheerbart was obsessed with hygiene
and the removal of dust, pollen, and insects, advocating the
use of the recently invented vacuum cleaner at home and
in the streets. H e even saw building materials i n these terms,
enlisting doctors to fu rther his architectu ral polemic against
brick: "The d iscovery of the brick bacillus" means that "now
the doctor also has a major interest in finally ousting the
cult of brick."30 The polemic against brick was now sup­
ported by medical arguments. In his telegram novella, "The
Oceanic Sanatorium for Hay Fever," he imagines:

48 Pact Scheerbart, Glosorchitektur, Floating islands with breezy, colorful glass pavilions . . .
Berlin.1914,cover
49 Pact Scheerbart, 1897 floating cities with grass tennis courts, sea terraces,
50 Put·licity brochure for the Wald­ and many other things. . . . Everyone in America is
sanatorium, Davos, Switzerland. 1911
51 Schatzalp sanatorium, Davos. plagued by hay fever. . . . So during the flowering season,
ca. 1900. postcard we'll have to live in the middle of the ocean . . . . Our

86
 Oceanic Sanatorium Society fo· Hay Fever has found
just the right thing: floating islands that will always
d rift hundreds of miles away from d ry land and natural
islands. On our islands, dirt will be nonexistent.31

Scheerbart saw modern technologies as both the cause and

the cure of illnesses. He writes of"nente doctors" pre$Cribi n g
the calming-effect of colored light i n sanatoriums, The idea
was to counteract the "nervous effect of very bright light"
that he saw as responsible in part for"the nervous ailments
of our time."32 Already in 1901, he speculated about "air-san­
atoria flying in the sky to deal with the nervous disorders
"

produced by modern traffic.33 But air technology, which is

at the center of all Scheerbart's utopian novels, is both cure
and cause. In a prewar manifesto for pacifism written in
1914, he predicted that air warfare, as the epitome of mod­
ern machinery, would produce "general insanity": ':.Just think­
ing about all these military techniques can have a deleteri­
ous effect on one's nerves." 34 For him, at least, it was
prophetic. He suffered a nervous breakdown over the car­
nage of World War I and starved himself to death in 1915,
seemingly in protest. Since he had net taken part in the war,
it was as if"just thinking" had indeed provoked his death.

THE ARCHITECTURAL CURE

Davos in Switzerland was famously the epicenter of the phe­
nomenon of the modern cure. FlG.so In 1910, there were as
many as twenty-six sanatoriums and forty-six hotels that
catered to "consu mptives."The Schatz alp, F!G.s1 built between

Tuberculosis 87
52 "Liegekur" (lying cure) on the terrace
of the Villa Pravenda, Oavos, ca. 1900
53 Lying cure, Oavos. ca. 1910, postcard
54 Katia Mann with her children (Monica,
Golo, Michael. Klaus. Elizabeth. and
Erika). ca. 1920

Liegekur

ARTIST.A'ftLl!l\ ll. GUGC:t!\:R&Ul k CO,. :tD1T£URS. Z'OlUCl! NO. 4658. D6pOS6.

88
1899 and 1 900 and the only sanatorium identified by name
in Thomas Mann's The Magic Mountain, was a collaboration
between a doctor. Lucius Spengler, and two young architects
from Zurich, Otto Pfleghard and Max Haefeli � with the engi­
neer Robert 'Maillart. yvho was then working for Francois
Hennebique.35 The first building in Switzerland to be con­
structed of concrete and st€el, it became the model for
the modern -sanatori u m. It had steam floor heating and a
flat roof with inside drainage. The most advanced medical
treatment coincided with the most advanced technology
in architecture.
The architecture of the Schatzalp is brutally modern
in its horizontality and abstraction. With its 100-meter-long
facade and endless corridors, the building is like an ocean
liner. All parts are subordinated to terraces intended as
therapeutic spaces, dimensioned for a patient reclining in
a specially designed chaise longue, a cure to be undertaken
from 7:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m., in winter as well as in summer.
A period photograph shows a group of patients lying in
chairs packed closely together on the terrace, covered in
a thick blanket of snow yet seemingly happy. FIG.s3
,

Thomas Mann, always sensitive to architectural d e­

tail, describes the therapeutic chaise longue with care,
evoking a philosophy of life on the edge in the horizontaL
This therapy of the horizontal also was central to the Wald­
sanatorium, also in Davos, where Kat ia Mann, Thomas's
wife, stayed and that ins p ired him to write The Magic
Mountain. Mann's novel evokes the social life in this very
modern building, where everything was wrapped in white,

Tuberculosis 89