Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter contains reviewed related literature and studies both

foreign and local which are relevant to the present study.

Related Literature

The cost of poultry production keeps on rising due to the high cost of

feedstuffs, and this observable fact has led researchers to direct increased

attention to non-conventional feeds (Adejuyitan, 2011). Although most of

these non-conventional feedstuffs are good sources of protein and

carbohydrate, their use by poultry is limited by the high fiber content and

in some cases, the presence of toxic or anti-nutritional factors (Kwadwo et

al., 2014). According to Adejuyitan (2011), the search for lesser known and

underutilized crops, many of which are potentially valuable as human and

animal foods has been intensified to maintain a balance between

population growth and agricultural productivity.

One of such plant is Tigernut (Cyperus esculentus), a non-

conventional and under-utilized tuber belonging to the family Cyperacae

(Agbabiaka et al. 2012) which produces rhizomes from the base and tubers

that are somewhat spherical (Adejuyitan, 2011).

 From the Encyclopedia of Life (2017), the cultivated variety of

tigernut has several common names including chufa, yellow nutsedge, nut

grass, tiger nut sedge, rush nut or earth almond. It is considered one of the

10 most common or troublesome weeds in Corn (Zea mays), Cotton

(Gossypium hirsutum), Grain Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), Peanut (Arachis

hypogea), Soybeans (Glycine max) and turfgass in the Southern States.

Although tigernut is largely unexploited, cheap and eaten without

much knowledge of its benefits, there is an urgent need for awareness

campaigns on its health and nutritional benefits. Recently, many authors

have reported the nutritional value of tigernut which lead to steadily

increasing utilization of it. Table 1 presents the proximate and mineral

compositions of tigernut (Cyperus esculentus) which was reported by

Oladele and Aina, (2007).

Table 1. Proximate and Mineral Compositions of Tigernut

CONSTITUENTS AMOUNT (%)
Moisture 3.50
Crude Protein 7.15
Lipid 32.13
Crude Fibre 6.26
Carbohydrates 46.99
Ash 3.97
ENERGY (KJ) 1343
MINERAL ELEMENT (mg/100g)
Calcium 155
Sodium 245
Potassium 216
Magnesium 51.2
Manganese 33.2
Phosphorus 121
Iron 0.65
Zinc 0.01
Copper 0.02
 However, table 2 present the amino acid profile of tigernut (Cyperus

esculentus) as reported by Shaker et al. (2009).

Table 2. Amino Acid Profile of Tigernut

AMINO ACID mg/16g N

Histidine 4.43±1.10
Isoleucine 4.84±0.90
Leucine 8.03±0.83
Lysine 6.50±0.67
Methionine 11.83±2.50
Phenylalanine 4.27±1.00
Threonine 3.59±0.50
Valine 5.93±0.81
Serine 4.96±0.91
Tyrosine 3.31±0.49
Alanine 9.24±1.90
Arginine 5.79±1.23
Aspartic acid 14.79±3.00
Cysteine 0.69±0.15
Glutamic acid 12.14±2.38
Glycine 6.35±0.80
Proline 4.00± 1.00

C. esculentus had been reported to be a “health food”, since its

consumption can help prevent heart disease and thrombosis and is said to

activate blood circulation (Nikoley, 2014). Literature values revealed that it

is also responsible for preventing and treating urinary tract and bacterial

infection and assist in reducing the risk of colon cancer when eaten

(Adejuyitan et al., 2009).

As food, tigernut can be eaten as snack which can be prepared by

soaking in water for few minutes. It can also eaten roasted, dried, baked

and can be made into a refreshing beverage called “Horchata De chufas or

tigernut milk” (Cantalejo, 1997). The tigernut milk was classified as

medicinal drink due to its been highly and diuretic, rich in mineral,
predominantly phosphorus and potassium and also vitamin C and E

(Abaejoh et al., 2006) which is a very nutritive and energetic drink, both for

young and old tremendously high in starch, glucose and proteins

(Adejuyitan, 2011).

It also finds uses as a flavoring agent for ice cream and biscuits

(Cantalejo, 1997) as well as in making oil, soap, starch and flour. Tigernut

has a unique sweet that is found to be ideal for use in the baking industry.

It can be used to make delicious cakes and biscuits and also as component

of fruit flavors (Gambo and Da’u, 2014).

Tigernut has been reported to be eaten raw, fermented and processed

as beverages (Agbabiaka et al., 2012) as well as to be in use in medicine

and cosmetic industry (Defelice, 2002) as an animal feed and eaten raw as

a side dish (Omode et al., 1995).

There is also a global search for alternative sources of fuel which

could be cheaper, safer and more importantly, environmentally friendly in

comparison with widely used burning fuels. Since the tubers of C.

esculentus contain 20-36% oil, it has been suggested as potential oil crop

for the production of biodiesel (Zhang et al., 2012).

In spite of the numerous health benefits of tigernut, its potentials

and prospects as energy and protein source for poultry and livestock

production has not been delve into extensively (Onunkwo and Ugwuene,

2015). Nowadays tigernut is widely used for animal (feed) and human

consumption (Zapata et al., 2012) because it’s tubers are edible, with a
slightly sweet, nutty flavor, compared to the more bitter-tasting tuber of the

related Cyperus rotundus (purple nutsedge). They are quite hard and are

generally soaked in water before they can be eaten, thus making them

much softer and giving them a better texture (Encyclopedia of Life, 2017).

Moreover, it is suggested that products from tigernut should be

encouraged so as to solve the problem of protein-calorie malnutrition so

that high price of imported milk and milk products seem to have made

consumers more ready to accepts milk produced from plant sources

(Adejuyitan, 2011).

Additionally, based from Encyclopedia of Life (2017), tigernut is

grown around the world as effective hog pasture, livestock feed, and a food

source for Wild Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo), waterfowl, weeder geese and

especially in poultry.

Related Studies

A fifty six (56) day repeated feeding trial conducted by Kwadwo et al.

(2014) to study the growth performance, carcass and haematological

characteristics of broiler chickens fed alkaline-treated tiger nut (Cyperus

esculentus) residue meal. Using 240 unsexed day-old broiler chicks were

allotted to four dietary treatments containing 0%, 10%, 20% alkaline-

treated tiger nut residue meal (ATTNRM) and a 10% raw tiger nut residue

meal (RTNRM) respectively, in a completely randomized design with three

replications of 20 birds in each treatment. Feed and water were supplied ad

libitum. The haematological and biochemical values obtained in this study

were within the normal range of birds, and an indicative of nutritional

adequacy of dietary protein. The result of the study indicates that in diets

formulated to be similar with respect to their content to nutrients, the

addition of 10% ATTNRM enhances the performance of broiler chickens.

Onunkwo and Ugwuene (2015) studied the growth performance of

broiler chicken fed varying levels of tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus)

seedmeal. Four different diets were formulated such that tiger nut replaced

maize at 0% (T1), 25% (T2), 50% (T3), 75% (T4), and 100% (T5) respectively in

a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). The control diet (T 1) contained no

tiger nut. One hundred and fifty day-old broiler chicks procured from the

University farm was used for the experiment to determine the effect of the

test diets on dietary proximate compositions, feed intake, weight gain, and

body weight changes, feed conversion ratio, carcass cut parts and organ

proportions in a 49-day trial. The broiler chicks were arranged into 5

dietary treatments, each containing 3 replicates with 30 birds per dietary

treatment and 10 birds per replicate. Result indicated that the

experimental diets showed no statistical difference in final weight (FW),

average body weight (ABW), daily weight gain (DWG), daily feed intake

(DFI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) and percent mortality. The study has

demonstrated that tiger nut seed meal possess good feeding potential as

energy source in the diet of broiler birds for optimum growth and economic

viability when included not beyond 75% dietary levels.

 Onunkwo and Ugwuene (2015) also conducted on experiment to test

the effect of feeding different levels of tigernut (Cyperus esculentus) seed

meal on growth of local cockerels. Five different diets were formulated in a

49 days experimental trial such that tiger nut replaced maize at 0% (T 1),

25% (T2), 50% (T3), 75% (T4), and 100% (T5) respectively in a completely

randomized design. The control diet (T1) contained no tiger nut. One

hundred and fifty (150) four weeks old cockerels procured from Joachan

farm were used for the experiment to determine the effect of the test diets

on dietary proximate compositions, feed intake, weight gain, body weight

changes, feed conversion ratio. The cockerels were arranged into five

dietary treatment and ten birds per replicate. Therefore, inclusion of tiger

nut at any levels lower than 50% will favour optimum growth performance

of the cockerel birds.

Agbabiaka et al. (2013) investigated the effect of feeding different

levels of tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus L) meal on growth of broiler chicks.

Tigernut tubers were sundried for 5 days and milled to produce tigernut

meal. This was used to replace maize at dietary levels of 0%, 25%, 50%,

75% and 100% represented by T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 respectively in five

isonitrogenous diets containing 22% crude protein, the diet containing no

tigernut meal was used as control (T1). Three hundred day-old (Anak strain)

chicks were randomly assigned to the five dietary treatments in a

completely randomized design to determine the effect of the test ingredient

on feed intake, body weight changes and feed conversion ratio. The findings
from this experiment suggested that tigernut meal can replace maize up to

75% dietary levels in diets of broiler starter chicks without compromising

growth.

Another study conducted by Agbabiaka et al. (2012) is to evaluate the

performance, carcass and organ weights characteristic of broiler finisher

fed varying levels of tigernut (Cyperus esculentus L) meal as dietary

supplement. Tigernut meal was sundried for 5 days, milled and mixed with

other feed stuffs in five isonitrogenous dietary treatments to replace maize

at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% coded as T 1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 respectively.

The control diet contained no tigernut meal. Two hundred and twenty-five,

4-week old broiler finishers were assigned at 45 birds per treatment in a

completely randomized design to the five diets. Data collected showed

significant differences between birds fed control diets and those fed tigernut

based diets beyond 50% dietary inclusion in body weight changes, feed

intake and feed conversion ratio. The experiment revealed that tigernut

meal cannot replace maize beyond 50% dietary level for optimal

performance in broiler finisher production.

This study is about the utilization of tigernut (Cyperus esculentus L)

meal in diets for cockerel starters conducted by Bamgbose and Eruvbetine

(2003) as a replacement for maize within 70 days at 0%, 33.33%, 66.67%

and 100% different levels. A total of 120 days-old chicks were randomly

allotted to four experimental diets such that each dietary treatment has

three replicates of ten birds. Inclusion of TGN at 33.33% in cockerel diets

supported better carcass yield in terms of high plucked, eviscerated,

drumstick, thigh, neck, wing, heads, shanks, livers, hearts and lung

weights without significant differences in values obtained. However, there

were significant difference in back, breast, abdominal fat, gizzard, spleen,

kidney and intestinal weights and lengths. The optimum replacement of

maize with TGN was 33.33% as this gave no significant reduction in

carcass yield of the birds but a significant reduction in the cost of feed

consumed. Inclusion of TNG in the diets resulted in feed cost savings of

4.88%, 8.17% and 8.90% respectively.

Oladele et al. (2010) evaluated the effects of tiger nut (Cyperus

esculentus) meal as a replacement for maize meal on the growth and

performance of Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) fingerlings in aquaria tanks

system. Clarias gariepinus fingerlings were fed five isonitrogenous diets

(40% crude protein) with varying levels of tigernut inclusion. The diets were

A (0% control), B (25%), C (50%), D (75%), and E (100%). The fish were fed

to satiation at 5% body weight twice per day for 8 weeks (56 days) and the

fish growth parameters measured. One hundred percent inclusion level of

tigernut meal gave the highest mean weight gain (MWG), mean final weight,

specific growth rate (SGR), a total fish production (TFP) of 9.20g, 22.13g,

0.90% /day and 2.11 kg/m3 respectively and the best feed conversion ratio

(FCR) OF 4.12. There was a significant difference in the mean weight gain

and feed conversion ratio of the fish between diets. The study demonstrated
that tigernut is a suitable replacement for yellow maize in the diets for C.

gariepinus.

Agbabiaka et al. (2012) conducted another study about tigernut

(Cyperus esculentus) meal to evaluate its potential as substitute for maize

in diets of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus Burchell) juveniles. Five

isonitrogeneous diets were formulated such that tigernut replaced maize at

0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% respectively in a completely randomized

design. The control diet contained no tigernut. The experiment was

conducted in hapa nets suspended in an outdoor concrete pond at the rate

of ten fish per hapa in a triplicate, making a total of fifteen experimental

units and fed at 5% biomass daily. Result of the growth rate while the least

was obtained from diet containing 100% tigernut. The study revealed that

tigernut cannot totally replace maize in diets of Clarias gariepinus but may

be used at dietary level not beyond 50% for catfish production.

A 60 day feeding trial involving forty-five, 6 weeks old weaner grass

cutters of mixed sex with on initial weight of 745-750g conducted by Alagbe

(2017) to examine the effect of feeding varying levels of tiger nut seed meal

on the performance, haematological parameters, some biochemical

parameters and enzymes assay of weaner grass cutter. The grass cutters

were divided into five (5) treatment groups of nine (9) grass cutters per

group in a completely randomized design experiment. The five treatments

groups had diets containing tiger nut seed meal at 0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and

40% dietary inclusions levels. The performance criteria were initial live
weight, final live weight, total feed intake and mortality while the blood

profile includes the hematological and serum biochemical analysis. All the

hematological parameters evaluated: Pack cell volume (PCU), Haemoglobin

(Hb), Mean carpuscular volume (MCV), white blood cell (RBC), Mean

carpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC), Mean carpuscular

haemoglobin (MCH) were not observed for albumin, globulin and total

protein. Serum glutamic oxaloacetate transaminase (SGOT) and serum

glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) were significantly affected as the

level of tiger nut meal increased in the diets to 40% has no deterious effect

on the performance and health status of grass cutters.

Bamishaiye et al. (2010) assessed the biological value of tiger nut

(Cyperus esculentus L) tuber oil meal-based diets in rats. The growth

performance and its absorption in some selected organs (hearts, kidney,

brain and liver) of rats were investigated. Twenty five weaning albino rats

(Rattus novegicus) with an average weight of 24.0g were maintained on diets

composed of Cyperus esculentus tuber oil meal (Tg meal) and soybean oil

based meal (control) for six weeks. The weights of the rats were monitored

on weekly basis, at the same period of the day and before being served the

(weighing) day’s feed. The organs and carcasses of the rats were weighed

after they were sacrificed and disemboweled, and the chemical

compositions of the carcasses were also determined. Result indicated that it

can be deduced that the oil of Cyperus esculentus tuber oil meal could

competitively compare with that of soybean oil by increasing the growth

rate of rats in reducing accumulation of lipids in vital organs that can

cause inflammation or constriction of the cell.

Bamishaiye et al. (2010) investigated the histological changes and

serum lipid profile of selected rat tissues fed Cyperus esculentus (tiger nut)

tuber oil meal-based diet. The effects of Cyperus esculentus oil on

lipoprotein composition, cholesterol and triglyceride levels and their

histological changes in the brain, liver, kidney and heart of rats were

determined. Twenty, 3 weeks old albino rats (Rattus norvegicus) with an

initial average weight of 5.29g were grouped into two groups of ten (10)

animals each. The first group was fed with soybean oil-based (control) diet;

the second on C. esculentus tuber oil meal-based diets for six (6) weeks.

However, there was a significant decrease in the total cholesterol of serum

of rats fed with tiger nut tuber oil-based meal. It was concluded that

feeding Cyperus esculentus tuber oil meal to rats might be safe on the lipid

profile of rats.

Synthesized of the State of Related Literature and Studies

The above related literature and studies frequently showed the

numerous health benefits coming from tigernut as it is prepared for animal

and human consumption. Literature also revealed the usefulness of

tigernut which is widely used nowadays for many purposes. Consequently,

many attempts have been made to investigate the response of poultry and
non-poultry animals using Cyperus esculentus as cheap and readily

available feedstuff with less competition to humans.

One of this is the study of Alagbe (2017) on the performance and blood

profile of weaner grass cutters to examine the effect of feeding varying levels

of tigernut seed meal. Otherwise, many studies were used broiler

chicks/chicken as an experimental unit to investigate the replacement

value of tigernut as substitute for maize. These are the studies of

Agbabiaka et al. (2013) and Onunkwo and Ugwuene (2015) with similar

findings, whereas, another study conducted by Agbabiaka et al. (2012) on

performance, carcass and organ weights characteristics of broiler finisher

fed varying levels of tigernut meal has different result from the two studies.

However, Kwadwo et al. (2014) also used broiler chicken to determine the

growth performance, carcass and haematological characteristics but fed

alkaline-treated tigernut residue meal. Further studies about utilization of

tigernut on growth performance of cockerel were also conducted by

Bamgbose et al. (2003) and Onunkwo and Ugwuene (2015) but differ in

feeding graded levels of tigernut and in findings. Moreover, the studies on

catfish fingerlings as fed with tigernut meal as a replacement for maize

meal were conducted by Agbabiaka et al. (2012), Lukman et al. (2012) and

Oladele et al. (2010) but only the study of Agbabiaka et al. (2012) has

different result. During the year 2010, there are three (3) studies conducted

by Bamishaiye et al. in which tigernut tuber oil-meal were usually fed in

albino rats with different parameters to be determined. Such as the

haematological parameters in first study, the second one assessed the

growth performance and its absorption in some selected organs, and the

last study conducted is to determine the histological changes and serum

lipid profile of selected experimental animal which is the albino rats.

Conclusively, the three conducted studies of Bamishaiye et al. on the year

2010 have successful similar findings.

From the recent studies, the present study was also conducted to use

tigernut (Cyperus esculentus) leaf meal as feed supplement in the diets of

96 day-old Hubbard broiler chicks which involved in 42 days feeding trial

using a completely randomized design to evaluate the effects on growth

performance such as weekly weight gain and total weight gain.

Nonetheless, the researchers carry out trial by merely using a minimum

amount of tigernut leaf meal such as 0℅, 5℅, 10℅, and 15℅ represented by

T1, T2, T3 and T4 which are different from the treatments applied from all

previous studies.

Conceptual Framework

This study is a repetition of other research in which the Cyperus

esculentus leaf meal were used as feed supplement in the diet of a broiler

chicken. The figure 1 shows the independent variables which are the

different feeding graded levels of Cyperus esculentus leaf meal with an

interrelation to the dependent variables or the parameters to be gathered

such as weekly weight gain, total weight gain as well as the return on

investment (ROI).

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Cyperus esculentus

leaf meal Parameters

Treatments:
A. Weekly Weight Gain
T1 – 0% (CONTROL)
B. Total Weight Gain
T2 – 5% (CEL)
C. Return On Investment
T3 – 10% (CEL)

T4 – 15% (CEL)

Figure 1.

Conceptual Paradigm