Humidity and Heat in Mines

Humidity and
Heat in Mines
Humidity
oA measure of the amount of

water in the air
oWater is added to the air by

the process of EVAPORATION.
Types of Humidity
1.ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
2. RELATIVE HUMIDITY
3. SPECIFIC HUMIDITY
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY:
Absolute humidity (expressed as grams of water vapor per cubic meter

volume of air) is the mass of water in the air.
oThis is rarely used in mine ventilation analysis.
oVolume of air passing through ventilation system keeps changing

because of variation in temperature and pressure.
oThus, use of absolute humidity is discouraged.

SPECIFIC HUMIDITY:
It is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the moist
air parcel.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY:
It is the amount of water in the air compared to the amount of
water the air could possibly hold. Humidity values are usually
given as Relative Humidity.
Factors that Affect Relative Humidity
Amount of water: If you increase the amount of water in the air (by
adding it due to evaporation), Relative humidity will go up.
Temperature: Since warm air can hold more water than cold air, if you
lower the temperature the Relative Humidity will go up, even if you
don’t add more water.
Psychrometry
It is the science of studying the thermodynamic properties of moist
air and the use of these properties to analyse conditions and
processes involving moist air.
Dry Bulb Temperature (𝑇𝑑𝑏): The dry-bulb temperature (DBT) is the

temperature of air measured by a thermometer freely exposed to the air,
but shielded from radiation and moisture.
Wet Bulb Temperature (𝑤𝑏T): The wet-bulb temperature (WBT) is the
temperature read by a thermometer covered in water-soaked cloth
(wet bulb thermometer) over which air is passed.
At 100% relative humidity, the wet-bulb temperature is equal to the air

temperature (dry-bulb temperature) and it is lower at lower humidity.
By using both wet-bulb temperature and dry-bulb temperature the
relative humidity can be calculated.
𝑃𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 0.5(𝑇𝑑𝑏 − 𝑤𝑏T)
𝑃𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = partial pressure of water vapour.
𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 = saturation water vapour pressure.

Relative Humidity – Measurement
A hygrometer is an instrument used to measure the amount of
humidity and water vapour in the atmosphere, in soil, or in confined
spaces. Relative Humidity can be measured using the following types of
devices.
1.Resistive Hygrometer
2. Capacitive Hygrometer
3. Crystal Hygrometer
4. Thermal
5. Gravimetric
6. Optical
1.Resistive Hygrometer
The resistance-type hygrometer utilizes
the principle that electrical resistance
varies in a material that absorbs moisture.
Special resistive sensors measure the

electrical resistance between the
electrodes. Suitable in mass production
and for use in home appliances. Accurate
is a concern.
Working of Resistive Hygrometer
o The conducting film of the resistive hygrometer is made by the lithium chloride
and the carbon.
o The resistance of the conducting film varies with the change in the value of
humidity present in the surrounding air.
o If the relative humidity is high, the lithium chloride will absorb more moisture and
their resistance decreases.
o The change in the value of resistance is measured by applying the AC to the bridge.
The DC is not used in the bridge as they breakdown the layer of lithium chloride
2.Capacitive Hygrometer
A capacitance-type hygrometer measures
humidity by detecting the change in
capacitance of a thin polymer film. This type
of sensor is sufficiently accurate in most
cases and is used frequently in industry. It is
made by placing the hygroscopic material
between the metal electrodes, quickly
absorbing water and decreasing the
capacitance value.
3.Crystal Hygrometer
In crystal hygrometer, the hygroscopic

crystal or the crystal having the coating of
hygroscopic material is used. When the
crystal absorbs the drops of the water, the
mass of the crystal changes. The change in
mass is proportional to the total water
absorbed by the crystals.
4.Thermal
The change in thermal conductivity of air due to humidity is measured.

These sensors measure absolute humidity rather than relative
humidity.
5.Gravimetric
A Gravimetric hygrometer measures the mass of an air sample

compared to an equal volume of dry air. This is considered the most
accurate primary method to determine the moisture content of the air.
6.Optical
An optical hygrometer measures the absorption of light by water in the

air. A light emitter and a light detector are arranged with a volume of
air between them. The attenuation of the light, as seen by the detector,
indicates the humidity, according to the Beer–Lambert law.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nwZ3I9MwzA
Heat: Introduction
Human beings can work efficiently within a certain range of
temperatures. Temperature is concerned with degree of hotness.
Temperature of a substance or body is liable to change when we have a
source of heat. Heat always flow from high temperature to low
temperature body. This flow can take place in any one of the three
ways of transferring heat- conduction, convection and radiation
Basic Heat Transformation Mechanism
As shown in figure the mechanism of
heat transfer is governed by three basic
principles:
1. Conduction: when heat is transferred

from one body to another while they are
physically connected to each other.
2. Convection: when heat is transferred from one body to another
while they are not physically connected to each other.
3. Radiation: when heat is transferred from one body to another

through a medium where medium itself does not get heated.
Thermal Comfort Zone
The thermal comfort zone is the condition that “80% of sedentary
or slightly active persons find the environment thermally
acceptable.” Three parameters need to be satisfied for a person
to be in the thermal comfort zone, as follows:
(1) sweat rate is within comfort limits;
(2) the body is in heat balance;
(3) mean skin temperature is within comfort limits

Sources of Heat in underground Mines
In underground mines, there are

many sources of heat which
cause rise of temperature of air
during its travel in mine airways.
The condition may worsen if the
temperature of the air increases
beyond a certain limit.
The situation becomes more critical especially when humidity of air
also increases simultaneously. In such situation, air conditioning of
mine air is required. Refrigeration plants, spot coolers, etc. should be
set up to ensure comfort, safety and high working efficiency of workers
in mines. On the other hand, in areas with extreme cold climatic
conditions, heat treatment of the air is carried out at the surface before
sending it to underground mines.
Major Source of heat
• The major sources of heat in underground mines are:
• Strata heat / Geothermal gradient
• Auto-compression
• Machinery and lights
• Underground water
minor sources
• The minor sources of heat in mines include
• Human metabolism
• Oxidation
• Blasting
• Rock movement
• Pipelines
• Energy losses in airflow

Strata heat / Geothermal gradient
• Heat flows out of the core of the earth at almost a constant rate of 0.05
W/m2. As a result, rock strata temperature rises with respect to depth.
The rate of increase of temperature with depth is known as Geothermic
gradient. The Geothermal gradient is mainly dependent on the thermal
conductivity, specific heat and density of the rock strata. The minor
factors, such as, Age of the rock formation and the presence of dykes,
sulphide ore bodies, may also affect the geothermal gradient
Auto compression
• When the surface air is sent down the

workings, either naturally or through
man made ventilation, it will experience
a compression. This means that
although the volume of air while going
down reduces but, the amount of heat
remains the same resulting in hotter air.
Machinery and lights
• Vehicle operating in level airways, rock
breaking, machinery, transformers,
lights, fans are all devices that convert
an input power, via a useful effect, into
heat. Except the compressed motors
and devices such as liquid nitrogen all
other forms of power including
electricity and fuels produce thermal
pollutants that must be removed.
HUMAN BODY AND ENVIRONMENT
• Human body metabolism provides heat and energy for our physiological
functions. When environment and our body has temperature difference
,part of difference become less through convection and radiation from
body to surrounding environment. An active person loses part of his
body heat through sweat evaporation . The body core can dissipate its
heat only through the shell. Blood serves as a vehicle for heat transfer.
Assessing the heat risk
Several factors can influence the heat load on the body. These include:
Air temperature (Wet Bulb and Dry Bulb); radiant heat; humidity; air
movement; the level of physical work; and the amount and type of
clothing being worn.
Heat stress overall affects the worker efficiency and thereby affects
the production.
Effect of heat stress on Human body
• Heat fainting
It may occur as a result of vasolidation,
pooling of blood in dependent extremeties
reduced. Reduced blood volume (from
dehydration ) result in reduced cardiac
output. It is not associated with an elevated
body temperature.
• Heat exhaustion
There is a complex symptoms of fatigue, headache, nausea and
giddiness. Heat exhaustion occurs as a result of either dehydration
and/or electrolyte depletions.
• Heat cramp
If the electrolytic balance of body fluids is sufficiently perturbed
then painful muscular contraction occur in the arms,legs and
abdomen. This may occur by salt deficiency or drinking less amounts
of water following dehydration.
Heat Rash
Heat rash is caused by sweat duct obstruction and results in sweat
retention within the gland. This may result in infection or more
commonly rupture within the skin with an inflammatory response
result. Sunburned skin and occlusive clothing interfering with free
evaporation of sweat increase the risk of this condition.
Improving the environment
The first step must be to reduce the impact of the environment, i.e reducing
effective temperature by engineering controls.
Provision of good quality air
Careful attention should be paid to the position and timing of ventilation

connections, and the minimizing of leakages between intake and return out
bye, to maximize the quantity of air reaching the in bye workings.
Siting of equipment that generates heat
Static equipment that generates heat should be kept sited either in the
return airstream or in cross cuts. Such equipment includes conveyors,
as detailed above, compressors, pumps, and electrical switchgear,
particularly transformers.
Use of equipment
A common source of excess heat is equipment that has been left

running when not required. Equipment should also be selected for the
duty to be performed. The selection of fire resistant hydraulic fluids
can also have an effect on machine running temperature.
Control of water to minimize humidity
• This can be achieved by eliminating standing water and by

minimizing the amount of water that is introduced underground .
Artificial cooling
Air coolers remove heat from the passing air, but then dump that heat
elsewhere. The plant is an additional heat source, but its use must be
considered as part of the control measures. Chilling the water supply
underground is also worth considering.
CONCLUSION
• Heat Stress affects the mental condition of workers , hence affects the
production. The best solution to control heat is to use available
technologies. Better heat conditions in mine reduces mine accidents.

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Humidity and

oA measure of the amount of

oWater is added to the air by

Absolute humidity (expressed as grams of water vapor per cubic meter

oVolume of air passing through ventilation system keeps changing

oThus, use of absolute humidity is discouraged.

Dry Bulb Temperature (𝑇𝑑𝑏): The dry-bulb temperature (DBT) is the

At 100% relative humidity, the wet-bulb temperature is equal to the air

𝑃𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 0.5(𝑇𝑑𝑏 − 𝑤𝑏T)

𝑃𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = partial pressure of water vapour.

𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 = saturation water vapour pressure.

Special resistive sensors measure the

In crystal hygrometer, the hygroscopic

The change in thermal conductivity of air due to humidity is measured.

A Gravimetric hygrometer measures the mass of an air sample

An optical hygrometer measures the absorption of light by water in the

1. Conduction: when heat is transferred

3. Radiation: when heat is transferred from one body to another

(1) sweat rate is within comfort limits;

(2) the body is in heat balance;

(3) mean skin temperature is within comfort limits

In underground mines, there are

• The major sources of heat in underground mines are:

• Strata heat / Geothermal gradient

• Machinery and lights

• Energy losses in airflow

• When the surface air is sent down the

Provision of good quality air

Careful attention should be paid to the position and timing of ventilation

A common source of excess heat is equipment that has been left

• This can be achieved by eliminating standing water and by

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