CHAPTER ONE

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Concrete is one of the major construction materials used in construction, in particular, for

commercial structures. It has many advantages including low cost, high availability, low

maintenance, high compressive strength and high durability. However, concrete is a brittle

material with very low tensile strength. Hence, steel, in the form of rebar is typically used to

reinforce concrete. The cost of steel rebar is relatively high, especially in many developing

countries compared to the average income of the citizens. Therefore, minimal reinforcement or

even no steel rebar is used to reinforce concrete homes and other low-rise buildings in

developing countries such as Haiti leading to unsafe structures, especially during earthquakes.

The high cost of rebar as well as the increasing emphasis on sustainable construction materials

has led researchers to investigate alternatives to steel reinforcement. Due to its high tensile

strength and renewable nature, bamboo is a potential sustainable alternative for steel

reinforcement.

1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

In recent years, steel prices have soared. For developing countries, steel is difficult to obtain

because of expensive prices, and for the construction industry, usage of steel is currently limited

heavily. The production of steel has high consumption of fossil fuels, so the steel discharge in the

construction of structures has been presented, showing the possibility of drastic reduction by

research institutes.

Meanwhile, for developing countries, it is important to make the development of buildings

construction; low cost, no requirement of sophisticated technologies and reliable construction

methods.

2
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The main objective of this research is to perform a general study on bamboo reinforced concrete.

The specific objectives are

I. To determine the extent at which bamboo can be used in place of steel in reinforced

concrete members.

II. To determine the tensile strength of bamboo for a given section.

III. To determine the compressive strength of a bamboo reinforced concrete member.

3
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

The study of bamboo reinforced concrete will be significant for the following reasons:

1. It provides solution to high cost of steel bar purchase in that bamboo can locally be gotten

at a cheaper rate

2. It provides an information on the suitability and limitation of Bamboo compared to steel

as regards its structural application

3. Proper study and adoption will go a long way in eradicating the rate of carbon emission

Globally

4
1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY

This study covers the structural application of Bamboo in construction of reinforced concrete, the

purpose of adoption of Bamboo as a replacement of steel bars and proper property test for

confirmatory efficiency of Bamboo in sustenance and withstanding of imposed loads.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.1 BAMBOO

bamboo, (subfamily Bambusoideae), subfamily of tall treelike grasses of the family Poaceae,

comprising more than 115 genera and 1,400 species. Bamboos are distributed in tropical and

subtropical to mild temperate regions, with the heaviest concentration and largest number of

species in East and Southeast Asia and on islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans. A few species

of the genus Arundinaria are native to the southern United States, where they form dense

canebrakes along riverbanks and in marshy areas.

Bamboos are typically fast-growing perennials, with some species growing as much as 30 cm (1

foot) per day. The woody ringed stems, known as culms, are typically hollow between the rings

(nodes) and grow in branching clusters from a thick rhizome (underground stem). Bamboo culms

can attain heights ranging from 10 to 15 cm (about 4 to 6 inches) in the smallest species to more

than 40 meters (about 130 feet) in the largest. While the narrow leaves on young culms usually

arise directly from the stem rings, mature culms often sprout horizontal leaf-bearing branches.

Most bamboos flower produce seeds only after 12–120 years’ growth, and then only once in their

lifetime; reproduction is largely vegetative. Some species spread aggressively and can form a

dense undergrowth that excludes other plants.

2.1.1 USES OF BAMBOO

Bamboos are used for a great variety of purposes, especially in East and Southeast Asia. The

seeds of some species are eaten as grain, and the cooked young shoots of some bamboos are

eaten as vegetables, especially in Chinese cuisines. The raw leaves are a useful fodder for

6
livestock. The pulped fibers of several bamboo species, especially Dendrocalamus strictus and

Bambusa bambos, are used to make fine-quality paper. The jointed stems of bamboo have

perhaps the most numerous uses; the largest stems supply planks for houses and rafts, while both

large and small stems are lashed together to form the scaffoldings used on building-construction

sites. The stems are also split up to make buckets and pipes or are used to make furniture,

flooring, walking sticks, fishing poles, garden stakes, and other utensils. Some species of

bamboo are used as ornamentals in landscape gardens. The fine-grained silica produced in the

joints of bamboo stems has been used as a medicine in the Orient for centuries under the name

tabasheer. East Asian artists, poets, and epicures have ,long celebrated the beauty and utility of

bamboo in paintings and verse.

2.1.2 ENGINEERING APPLICATION OF BAMBOO

Bamboo sustainability as a construction material or building material is paramount since it is a

promising natural composite material. The use of bamboo in the construction industry in recent

times has attracted increasing interest for its promising applications in sustainable construction

works. The assessment of the sustainability of many materials of value such as bamboo is very

critical as it will provide insight into the availability and the continuous use of such material.

After global warming and sustainability issues emerged, bamboo as building or construction

materials is widely discussed and reviewed. Some architects and builders nowadays tend to

choose bamboo for building material or construction material. Good-quality woods for

construction are hardly found nowadays due to deforestation. Wood also takes a long time to

7
regrow and is ready to use as construction materials or building material. Meanwhile, bamboo

can be reaped in a short time, which is between 3-5 years. When planting, bamboo additionally

delivers oxygen into the air, an ability that can't be performed by industrial materials like steel,

plastic, and concrete. Hence, bamboo has been broadly known as sustainable building materials

and is being utilized in architectural and construction works. Every one of them is clarified

below.

2.1.2.1 The Bamboo used in Architecture

In bamboo architecture, bamboo, as the major architectural structure, plays a vital role in the load

holding of buildings. Bamboo has strong adaptability in thickness and strength and can make

different combination adjustments accordingly based on the architectural structure to satisfy

different structural performance requirements. On the other hand, the technical needs of bamboo

buildings are generally low and can easily be integrated into local architectural structures, for

example, the integration of bamboo with soil, concrete, and glue, etc

can help increase the strength of the structure. The stiffness, strength, and stability of nodes are

mainly based on the joint strength between structural components of the building. Therefore, the

expanding improvement of connection structure has brought more contributions to the

diversification of bamboo architecture.

2.1.2.2 Bamboo Usage for Construction of Domestic Housing

There has been a long-standing convention of bamboo development, going back to a huge

number of years. Diverse societies have found in this material a sparing arrangement of building,

offering sound yet light and effectively replaceable types of haven. The strategies, exercises and

8
apparatuses are frequently basic, direct, available even to the youthful and untalented.

Notwithstanding human misuse and horrible treatment, trees keep up its contributively part

towards the residence of humankind. Man has for a considerable length of time delighted in the

advantages of the unconditional present of nature. Lodging is one of the need things and

detecting the present lack of the home units, the present managerial pioneers the world over

discover extreme to hit upon an answer for. Bamboo building development is described by a

basic casing approach like that connected in customary timber outline plan and development.

Bamboo based materials are generally utilized as well. In its characteristic condition as strong

culms, divided culms or as longitudinally split strips, bamboo has been utilized as a part of all

parts of house

development with the exception of the chimney and the stacks.

2.1.2.3 The Bamboo used as Building "Skin"

The outer walls of the building can be called "Skin", which can reflect the culture of the building

or structure. The variety in bamboo utilized and its integration with other materials provides

more opportunities for the diversification of building "skin" and the improvement of architectural

aesthetic. Generally, the use of bamboo as building skins can be divided into 3 types:

I. Single Skin: A "bamboo skin" formed by just a single material through several

combinations, which is a generally low-level utilization of one kind of bamboo material

in building skins. It is of simple production technology with low-cost and good

ventilation and sunlight avoidance. Besides, it is helpful for keeping the architectural

9
 features with local architectures, however, it has shortcomings such as poor lighting

conditions and privacy. Therefore, it is generally used in outer space and the enclosure of

less important space.

II. Multilayer Skin: Juxtaposed and composed by at least two or more materials, which is a

typical design procedure of utilizing complementation of material properties, and can

effectively overcome defects of single bamboo material. The juxtaposition of bamboo

and glass is a typical 1909 combination form. The bamboo can filter outside inference

and glass can block the sound and heat that bamboo cannot filter. The exchange between

indoor and outdoor environments occurs from bamboo curtains open and close, creating

breathable skin.

III. Composite Skin: Created by blending at least two or more materials, which

breakthroughs their inherent properties and makes the third kind of skin. In general, new

skin incorporates the benefits of composite materials, e.g., the composition of bamboo

and rammed earth walls can both effectively reduce the weight of rammed earth walls

and increase the force bearing capacity along the radial direction of bamboo.

2.1.2.4 The Bamboo Used as Building Decoration

Building decoration or ornamentation can be partitioned into the architectural interior and

exterior decoration. Building internal decoration should fully consider the natural characteristics

of bamboo materials. The bamboo material's surface is smooth, lightweight, and flexible, with

natural & gentle color, clear and beautiful texture. Bamboo decoration should make full

10
utilization of the sense of reality, color, surface gloss & texture to reflect the nature of bamboo

materials.

The primary design shades of bamboo materials incorporate bamboo green, tabasheer, and

carbonization. In addition, bamboo can easily be bent, making it ideal for manufacturing all

kinds of beautiful furniture. Besides building skins, the external decoration of the building also

includes virescence surrounding the building.

The greening impact of bamboo on buildings can present in numerous forms, which can be

classified into three primary classifications: clump, row, and tract. Bamboo grove in clump shape

is concise and clear, pure and fresh, which is suitable for ornament and decoration to improve the

taste of a building; bamboo grow in row shape is usually used in boundary space. Other than the

part of the design, it also has the function of blocking and shielding; to foil the environmental

atmosphere, bamboo grove in tracts can generally be found in open territory.

2.1.2.5 The Bamboo Used as Laminated Sheets and Planks

Bamboo can be cut & laminated into sheets & planks. This procedure includes cutting stalks into

thin strips, planning them flat, and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed, and finished.

Since quite a while ago utilized in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling

laminated bamboo flooring in the west during the mid-1990s; products produced using bamboo

laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture, and even decorations, are currently surging in

popularity, transitioning from the storage market to standard suppliers like Home Depot.

2.1.2.6 The Bamboo used in Foundation

supporting posts in case of houses built on raised platforms. The different types of foundations

constructed with bamboo are, bamboo which is in direct contact with the ground surface,

bamboo fixed to rock or performed concrete footings, composite bamboo or concrete columns &

bamboo piles.

2.1.2.7 Bamboo Used for Flooring

Bamboo has been utilized as an option for flooring because of its physical similarities to true

hardwoods. Bamboo floor producers and sellers encourage its durability, strength, its eco-

friendliness & its natural resistance to insects and moisture. The hardness of conventional

bamboo flooring varies from 1180 to around 1380, while newer producers' techniques consisting

of strand woven bamboo flooring vary from 3000 to over 5000 using the Janka hardness test.

The various types used are, small bamboo culms, split bamboo, and flattened bamboo.

2.1.2.8 The Bamboo used for wall construction

The most comprehensive utilization of bamboo in construction is for the walls & partitions. The

major components, the posts & beams, generally constitute part or structural framework. They

are to withstand the self-weight of buildings or structures & loads imposed by the occupants and

the atmosphere. An infill among framing members is necessary to complete the wall.

2.1.2.9 The Bamboo Used for Roofing

The roof provides defense against extremes of weather including rain, sun, and wind, and

provides shelter, clear and usable space beneath the canopy. The structure of bamboo of a roof
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can consist of purlins, rafters & trusses. The different forms include bamboo purlins and beams,

supported on perimeter posts corrugated sheets made out of bamboo, and a layer of bitumen is

sandwiched between two mats of bamboo and plastered bamboo.

2.1.2.10 Bamboo Used for Scaffolding

Bamboo material is environmentally friendly and low-cost. It has been extensively utilized in the

construction of new buildings or structures, renovation, repair works, slope maintenance, and

neon signage works. Most of the construction operations or stages need the utilization of

scaffolding & material is an important factor, which affects the competitiveness as well as its

overall investment. Because of the favorable relationship between load-bearing capacity and

weight, bamboo can be used for the construction of safe scaffoldings even for a very tall

building. Only lashed joints are used. The cane expansion is done by lashing the cane ends

together with different ties. The ties are laid out in such a way that forces acting vertically

downwards wedges the nodes in the lashing.

2.1.2.11 The Bamboo Used in Doors and Windows

Bamboo replaces timber frames properly to work. Mat shutters fixed to bamboo frame bamboo

boards fixed to the frame which wall can be utilized as a door. A small frame to the top of the

wall can serve as windows.

2.1.3 Mechanical Properties of Bamboo

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Bamboo can be utilized as a masonry reinforcement material instead of steel because of its

proven mechanical qualities and good performance.(Semple et al., 2015; Karthik et al., 2017), as

well as the availability (‘World Bamboo and its distribution area’, 2015) which makes it low cost

material. Being a natural material, its characteristic high performance varies from one type to

another; hence whenever one is referring to values of mechanical properties of bamboo, the

name of associated bamboo type is necessary. Also, any design provisions for construction with

bamboo as reinforcement must have adequate safety factors. As a result of these properties, more

than 1billion people in many countries use bamboo as a primary building material (Standard,

2010).

2.1.3.1 Modulus of Elasticity of Bamboo

Modulus of elasticity is one of the mechanical properties of bamboo which has been investigated

in the design of Bamboo Reinforced Concrete elements. In terms of modulus of elasticity and

density, bamboo is a remarkable ‘grass’ which has some structural superiority over other

engineering materials. Modulus of elasticity of bamboo is generally around 2500ksi although

other researchers like Schneider (2014) got 1,145ksi (7894MPa) mean. It is worthy of note that

this general value is still less than those of steel and concrete, and even along the bamboo culm

itself, Modulus of Elasticity of the nodes is generally less than that of the internodes (Tonges,

2005). In fact, Oka et al. (2014) conducted an experiment and got the modulus of elasticity at the

nodes to be about 40% less than the internode.

2.1.3.2 Tensile Strength of Bamboo

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Seasoned bamboo possesses higher tensile strength than ‘green’ bamboo (Wakchaure & Kute,

2012; Moroz et al., 2014). (Ghavami, 2005) tests gave tensile strength value of 54ksi for his

bamboo sample. Sabbir et al., (2012) in another test got 18ksi. However, when discussing tensile

strength, it is more appropriate to differentiate between that of the culm and that of the fibers

based on the one being used in a test (Schneider, 2014). In line with that, Cao and Wu (2005)

tested and found the tensile strength of bamboo fibers to be within the range of 18 to 131ksi (124

to 805MPa). Generally, tensile strength is lower at the nodes (Verma et al., 2012), and (Oka et

al., 2014)’s tests results showed that the tensile strength of the node region was about 30% that

of the internode, as a result of what Amada et al. (1997) described as the fibers’ distribution

being chaotic. On comparing tensile strengths of green and seasoned bamboo, Wahab et al.

(2012) found 13ksi and 14.9ksi respectively. Comparatively speaking, tensile strength of Moso

bamboo is one third of a typical grade 60 steel rebar. As a result of these wide ranges of tensile

strength, it is desirable to ensure that the bamboo reinforcement is having appropriate safety

factors before being used. One of the ways to do this is to treat the bamboo culms by presoaking

or preferably treatment, which will ensure an overall safety factor of between 2 to 2. 5%

(Geymayer & Cox, 1970). In a recent experiment however, (Mark & Russell, 2011) showed that

average global factor of safety for bamboo and a similar material is about 5.0.

2.1.3.3 Flexural Strength of Bamboo

Flexural fortification, otherwise called longitudinal support is necessary to increase the flexural

capacity of a concrete beam. In order to develop adequate flexural capacity of a beam, number of

the bamboo stirrups need to be much (Yamaguchi et al., 2013). Hence they should be spaced

very closely, 6inches according to (Schneider, 2014), because closer stirrups ensure that stresses

15
are transferred to the remaining stirrups even after some of the stirrups have failed. And this

would consequently result in the beam retaining large amount of its capacity. This will also

prevent premature shear failure of the beam.

2.1.3.4 Shear Strength of Bamboo

Extensive flexural cracking could cause premature shear failure in beams (Sherwood, 2008;

Eskenati & Pour, 2016). this underscores the crucial need for stirrups, to provide shear capacity

to concrete members like beams. Shear failure is the diagonal failure experienced in the material

being reinforced, hence the shear reinforcement is introduced to cross the diagonal tension cracks

and keep them from opening. A test conducted by Moroz et al. (2014) on concrete masonry walls

using very flexible Tonkin cane bamboo reinforcement, vertically to resist flexural and sliding

failures, and horizontally to resist inclined shear failure, showed enhanced shear capacity and

ductility, compared to unreinforced walls. Bamboo stirrups increased capacity of an unreinforced

shear beam by between 135 and 259%, while in comparison to steel, BRC shear controlled

beams had capacities of between 33 and 70% of steel type (Schneider, 2014).

2.2 CONCRETE

Concrete is one of the most commonly used building materials. Concrete is a composite material

made from several readily available constituents (aggregates, sand, cement, water). Concrete is a

versatile material that can easily be mixed to meet a variety of special needs and formed to

virtually any shape.

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2.2.1 Components of Concrete

Concrete is made up of two components, aggregates and paste. Aggregates are generally

classified into two groups, fine and coarse, and occupy about 60 to 80 percent of the volume of

concrete. The paste is composed of cement, water, and entrained air and ordinarily constitutes 20

to 40 percent of the total volume. In properly made concrete, the aggregate should consist of

particles having adequate strength and weather resistance and should not contain materials

having injurious effects. A well graded aggregate with low void content is desired for efficient

use of paste. Each aggregate particle is completely coated with paste, and the space between the

aggregate particles is completely filled with paste. The quality of the concrete is greatly

dependent upon the quality of paste, which in turn, is dependent upon the ratio of water to

cement content used, and the extent of curing. The cement and water combine chemically in a

reaction, called hydration, which takes place very rapidly at first and then more and more slowly

for a long period of time in favorable moisture conditions. More water is used in mixing concrete

than is required for complete hydration of the cement. This is required to make the concrete

plastic and more workable; however, as the paste is thinned with water, its quality is lowered, it

has less strength, and it is less resistant to weather. For quality concrete, a proper proportion of

water to cement is essential.

2.2.1.1 Hydraulic Cement/ binder

Portland Cements and Blended Cements are hydraulic, since they set and harden to form a stone-

like mass by reacting with water. The term Hydraulic Cement is all inclusive and is the newer

term to be used for both Portland Cement and Blended Cement. The invention of Portland

Cement is credited to Joseph Aspdin, an English mason, in 1824. He named his product Portland
17
Cement, because it produced a concrete which resembled a natural limestone quarried on the Isle

of Portland.

The raw materials used in the manufacturing of cement consist of combinations of limestone,

marl or oyster shells, shale, clay and iron ore. The raw materials must contain appropriate

proportions of lime, silica, alumina, and iron components. Selected raw materials are pulverized

and proportioned in such a way that the resulting mixture has the desired chemical composition.

This is done in a dry process by grinding and blending dry materials, or in a wet process by

utilizing a wet slurry. In the manufacturing process, analyses of the materials are made

frequently to ensure a uniform high quality Portland Cement.

After blending, the prepared mix is fed into the upper end of a kiln while burning fuel, producing

temperatures of 2600 °F to 3000 °F (1425 °C to 1650 °C), is forced into the lower end of the

kiln. During the process, several reactions occur which result in the formation of Portland

Cement clinker. The clinker is cooled and then pulverized. During this operation gypsum is

added as needed to control the setting time of the cement. The pulverized finished product is

Portland Cement. It is ground so fine that nearly all of it passes a sieve having 40,000 openings

per sq. inch (1.6 openings per mm2)

There are five types of Portland Cement (Types I, II, III, IV, V) and two types of Blended

Cement (Types I-P, I-S). Each type is manufactured to meet certain physical and chemical

requirements for specific purposes.

Type I

is a general-purpose cement. It is suitable for all uses when the special properties of the other

18
types are not required.

Type II

cement is used when sulfate concentrations in ground water are higher than normal. Type II will

usually generate less heat at a slower rate than Type I or Normal cement. Therefore, it may be

used in structures of considerable mass, such as large piers, heavy abutments, and heavy

retaining walls. Its use will minimize temperature rise, which is especially important in warm

weather pours.

Type III

is a high-early-strength cement which will develop higher strength at an earlier age. It is used

when early form removal is desired. Richer mixes (higher cement content) of Types I and II may

be used to gain early strength.

Type IV

cement is used in massive structures, such as dams. This type of cement is used where the heat

generated during hardening is critical.

Type V

cement is used in concrete exposed to severe sulfate action, and is used mainly in the western

section of the United States.

Type I-P

blended cement is a combination of Portland Cement and a pozzolan. A pozzolan, such as " y

ash, by itself has no cementing qualities, but when combined with moisture and calcium

hydroxide (in the Portland Cement) it produces a cementing effect.

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Type I-S blended cement is a combination of Portland Cement and blast-furnace slag. The slag

constitutes between 25 and 65 percent of the weight of the blended cement.

Basically, Hydraulic Cements may be considered as being composed of the

following compounds:

Tricalcium Silicate 3 CaO.S1O2 = C3S

Dicalcium Silicate 2 CaO.S1O2 = C2S

Tricalcium Aluminate 3 CaO.Al2O3 = C3A

Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite 4 CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 = C4AF

Contributions of the chemical contents of cement to Concrete

I. Tricalcium Silicate hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set

and early strength.

II. Dicalcium Silicate hydrates and hardens slowly and contributes to strength increases at

ages beyond one week.

III. Tricalcium Aluminate causes the concrete to liberate heat during the fi rst few days of

hardening and it contributes slightly to early strength. Cement with low percentages of

this compound are especially resistant to sulfates (Types II and Type V).

IV. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite formation reduces the clinkering temperature, thereby

assisting in the manufacture of cement. It hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to

strength.

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2.2.1.1.1 Properties of Hydraulic Cement

Fineness:

Fineness of cement affects heat released and the rate of hydration. Greater cement fineness

increases the rate at which cement hydrates and thus accelerates strength development.

Setting Time:

Initial set of cement paste must not occur too early final set must not occur too late. The setting

times indicate that the paste is or is not undergoing normal hydration reactions. Setting time is

also affected by cement fineness, water-cement ratio, admixtures and Gypsum. Setting times of

concrete do not correlate directly with setting times of pastes because of water loss to air or

substrate and because of temperature differences in the yield as contrasted with the controlled

temperature in the testing lab.

False Set:

False set is evidenced by a significant loss of plasticity without the evolution of much heat

shortly after mixing. Further mixing without the addition of water or mixing for a longer time

than usual can restore plasticity.

Heat of Hydration:

Heat of hydration is the heat generated when cement and water react. The amount of heat

generated is dependent chiefly upon the chemical composition of the cement. The water-cement

21
ratio fineness of the cement, and temperature of curing also are factors.

Specific Gravity:

Specific gravity of Portland cement is generally about 3.15. The specific gravity of a cement is

not an indication of the cements quality; its principal use is in mixture proportioning calculations

2.2.1.2 Mixing Water for Concrete

Almost any natural water that is drinkable is satisfactory as mixing water for making or curing

concrete. However, water suitable for making concrete may not necessarily be fit for drinking.

The acceptance of acidic or alkaline waters is based on the pH scale which ranges from 0 to 14.

The pH of neutral water is 7.0. A pH below 7.0 indicates acidity, and a pH above 7.0 indicates

alkalinity. The pH of mixing water should be between 4.5 and 8.5. Unless approved by tests,

water from the following sources should not be used:

1. Water containing inorganic salts such as manganese, tin, zinc, copper, or lead;

2. Industrial waste waters from tanneries, paint and paper factories, coke plants, chemical and

galvanizing plants, etc.;

3. Waters carrying sanitary sewage or organic silt; and

4. Waters containing small amounts of sugar, oil, or algae.

Wash water can be reused in the concrete mixture provided it is metered and is 25 percent or less

of the total water. A uniform amount of wash water must be used in

consecutive batches, with subsequent admixture rates adjusted accordingly to produce a

workable concrete that conforms to the specifications. The total water must conform to the

acceptance criteria of ASTM C1602, Tables 1 and 2.

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2.2.1.3 Concrete Aggregates

Concrete aggregates, consisting of sand and gravel, represent the grain skeleton of the concrete.

All cavities within this skeleton have to be filled with binder paste as much as possible. Concrete

aggregates sum up to approximately 80% of the concrete weight and 70% of the concrete

volume. Optimum use of the aggregate size and quality improves the concrete quality.

Aggregates can occur naturally (fluvial or glacial), industrially produced like lightweight

aggregates as well as recycled aggregates. For high-quality concrete they are cleaned and graded

in industrial facilities by mechanical processes such as crushing, washing, screening and mixing

together. Concrete aggregates should have a strong bond with the hardened cement paste, should

not interfere with the cement hardening, and should not have negative effect on concrete

durability.

Aggregates must conform to certain requirements and should consist of clean, hard, strong, and

durable particles free of chemicals, coatings of clay, or other fine materials that may affect the

hydration and bond of the cement paste. The characteristics of the aggregates influence the

properties of the concrete. Weak, friable, or laminated aggregate particles are undesirable.

Aggregates containing natural shale or shale like particles, soft and porous particles, and certain

types of chert should be especially avoided since they have poor resistance to weathering.

Characteristics of Aggregates

Resistance to Freeze Thaw:

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(Important in structures subjected to weathering) - The freeze-thaw resistance of an aggregate is

related to its porosity, absorption, and pore structure. Specifications require that resistance to

weathering be demonstrated by the magnesium sulfate test.

Abrasion Resistance:

(Important in pavements, loading plat-forms, floors, etc.) - Abrasion resistance is the ability to

withstand loads without excessive wear or deterioration of the aggregate.

Chemical Stability:

(Important to strength and durability of all types of structures) - Aggregates must not be reactive

with cement alkalis. This reaction may cause abnormal expansion and map-cracking of concrete.

Particle Shape and

Surface Texture:

(Important to the workability of fresh concrete) - Rough textured or at and elongated particles,

due to their high surface area, require more water to produce workable concrete than do rounded

or cubical aggregates.

Grading:

(Important to the workability of fresh concrete) - The grading or particle size distribution of an

aggregate is determined by sieve analysis

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Fig. 1. Cement and water contents in relation to maximum size of aggregates, for air-entrained
and non-air-entrained concrete. Less cement and water are required in mixes having
large, coarse aggregate.

Specific Gravity(Density):

The specific gravity of an aggregate is the ratio of its weight to the weight of an equal volume of

water at a given temperature. Most normal weight aggregates have a specific gravity ranging

from 2.4 to 2.9. It is not a measure of aggregate quality. It is used for certain computations in a

mix design. Absorption and

Surface Moisture:

The moisture conditions of aggregates are shown in Fig. 2. They are designated as:

a. Oven-Dry: fully absorbent

25
 b. Air-Dry: dry at the surface but containing some interior moisture, thus somewhat

absorbent

c. Saturated Surface-Dry: neither absorbing water from, nor contributing water to, the

concrete mix

d. Wet with Free Moisture: containing an excess of moisture on the surface

2.2.1.4 Admixtures for Concrete

Admixtures include all materials other than cement, water and aggregates that are added to

concrete. Admixtures can be broadly classified as follows:

I. Air-entraining admixture

II. Retarding admixtures

III. Water-reducing admixture

IV. Accelerating admixtures (Used only in special circumstances)

V. Pozzolans

VI. Workability agents

VII. Miscellaneous, such as permeability-reducing agents, gas forming agents, and grouting

agents

VIII. Water reducing and retarding admixtures

Concrete should be workable, finishable, strong, durable, watertight, and wear-resistant.

These qualities can often be obtained by proper design of the mix using suitable materials

without resorting to admixtures (except air-entraining admixtures).

There may be instances, however, when special properties such as extended time of set,

acceleration of strength, or a reduction in shrinkage may be desired. These may be

obtained by the use of admixtures. However, no admixture of any type or amount should

be considered as a substitute for good concreting practices. The effectiveness of an

admixture depends upon such factors as the type and amount of cement, water content,

aggregate shape, gradation and proportions, mixing time, slump, and the temperature of

the concrete and air. Trial mixes should be made to observe the compatibility of the

admixture with other admixtures and job materials as well as the properties of the fresh or

hardened concrete.

Air-Entraining Admixtures

An air-entrained concrete contains microscopic air bubbles that are distributed, but not

interconnected, through the cement paste. The air bubbles are small and invisible to the naked

eye. Visible entrapped air voids occur in all concrete and the amount of entrapped air is largely a

function of aggregate characteristics. Variations in air content can be expected with variations in

aggregate proportion and gradation, mixing time, temperature and slump. Adequate control is

required to ensure the proper air content at all times. Since the amount of air-entraining agent
27
per batch is small [3 to 8 oz. (110 to 300 ml) per cubic yard (meter) of concrete], it is important

to disperse the agent in the plastic concrete to insure proper spacing and size of air voids, which

are significant factors contributing to the effectiveness of air-entrainment in concrete.

Effect of Entrained Air on Concrete

Workability:

Air-entrainment improves workability. Sand and water contents are reduced. The plastic mass is

more cohesive and looks and feels fatty or workable. Segregation and bleeding of the mix are

reduced.

Freeze-Thaw

Resistance: Freeze-thaw resistance is improved as the air voids act as reservoirs to relieve the

pressure as water freezes. This prevents damage to the concrete.

Resistance to De-icing: Surface scaling is reduced.

Sulfate Resistance:

Air-entrainment improves sulfate resistance.

Strength:

Reduction in strength is minimized because the improved workability allows a lower water-

cement ratio. Strength depends upon the voids-cement ratio. Voids is defined as the total volume

of water plus air (entrained and entrapped).

Abrasion Resistance:

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 About the same as non-air-entrained concrete of the same

compressive strength.

Water tightness:

Water tightness of air-entrained concrete is superior to that of

non-air-entrained concrete. Low water-cement ratio makes the concrete more impermeable.

Factors Affecting Air Content

Coarse Aggregate Gradation: There is little change in air content when the maximum size of

aggregate is increased above 1½ in. (37.5 mm). For aggregate sizes smaller than 1½ in. (37.5

mm), the air content increases sharply as the size decreases because of the increase in mortar

volume. (See Fig. 3.)

Fine Aggregate Content: An increase in the amount of fine aggregate causes an increase in air

content with a given amount of air-entraining agent. (See Fig. 4.)

Cement Content: As the cement content increases, the air content decreases.

Consistency: The air content increases as the slump increases up to about 7 (175 mm), and

decreases with further increases in slump.

Vibration: Prolonged vibration should be avoided. Regardless of the slump, 15 seconds of

vibration causes a considerable reduction in air content. If vibration is properly applied, little of

the intentionally entrained air is lost. Air lost during handling and vibration consists mostly of

large bubbles (entrapped air) which are usually undesirable from a standpoint of strength and

29
durability.

Temperature: Less air is entrained as the temperature of the concrete increases.

(See Fig. 5)

Mixing Action: The amount of entrained air varies with the type and condition of the mixer, the

amount of concrete being mixed, and the rate of mixing. Fig. 6 shows the effect of mixing speed

and mixing time in a transit mixer. Fig. 7 shows the effect on air content as agitating time is

increase the amount of air specified in air-entrained concrete depends on the type of structure

and the extent of exposure to de-icing chemicals, freeze-thaw cycles, and chemically reactive

soil or water.

Retarding Admixtures

A retarding admixture is a material that is used for the purpose of delaying the setting time of

concrete. Retarders are used in concrete to:

1. Offset the accelerating effect of hot weather on the setting of concrete.

2. Provide time for difficult placing or finishing in such items as bridge decks or large piers.

Most retarders also function as water reducers. They are frequently called water-reducing

retarders. Some retarders also entrain air in concrete. A retarded concrete may lose slump faster

than a non-retarded concrete. Because some retarders react with certain air-entraining agents,

they are introduced into the mixing water separately. Acceptance tests of retarders with cements

for each design mix and cement content are necessary to determine whether the materials are

compatible.

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Water Reducing Admixtures

A water-reducing admixture is a material used for the purpose of reducing the quantity of mixing

water required to produce concrete of a given consistency. These materials increase the slump of

concrete for a given water content. For a given slump, the water reduction possibly amounts to

about 5%. Many water-reducing admixtures may also retard the setting time of concrete. Some

also entrain air in concrete. An increase in strength can generally be obtained with water-

reducing admixtures if the water content is reduced and if the cement content and slump are kept

the same. A rapid loss in slump and a significant increase in drying shrinkage can result from the

use of some of these admixtures. Therefore, trial batch tests should be made with job materials.

Accelerating Admixtures

An accelerating admixture is used to accelerate the setting and the strength development of

concrete. The development of strength of concrete can also be accelerated by:

1. Using Type III Cement (high-early-strength cement);

2. Lowering the water cement ratio, or increasing the cement content; and

3. Curing at higher temperatures.

Most of the commonly used accelerators cause an increase in the drying shrinkage of concrete.

Calcium chloride is the most commonly used accelerating admixture. Calcium chloride and other

materials used as accelerators are not antifreeze agents. When used in normal amounts, they will

not reduce the freezing point of concrete by more than a few degrees.

Calcium chloride should be added in solution form as part of the mixing water in amounts not to

exceed two percent by weight of cement. A greater amount can result in placement problems and

can be detrimental to concrete, since it may cause rapid stiffening, increase drying shrinkage, and
31
corrode reinforcement steel. The addition of no more than two percent of calcium chloride has no

significant corrosive effect on ordinary steel reinforcement provided the concrete is of high

quality.

Most commercial admixtures contain calcium chloride and are not recommended for use in items

such as:

1. Prestressed concrete,

2. Concrete with steel reinforcement, or

3. Concrete subject to alkali-aggregate reaction.

However, there are more and more admixtures available without calcium chloride, which

overcome the concerns with these items. Virginia Specifications do not allow the use of an

accelerator except in special circumstances.

Mineral Admixtures

Fly Ash and Granulated Iron Blast-Furnace Slag are two of the mineral admixtures available for

use in concrete. They may be used to replace a portion of the cement in a concrete mix. This

replacement is usually made for economic reasons, but the quality of the mix can be maintained

if certain precautions are taken. Actually, some properties such as sulfate resistance and cement-

alkali reactions may be improved when mineral admixtures are used.

The fly ash approved for use as an admixture for concrete must meet certain chemical and

physical requirements. The type of fly ash available in this area has pozzolanic properties.

Pozzolans are siliceous materials which themselves possess little or no cementitious value but

will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium

hydroxide to form compounds having cementitious properties. Fly ash is a residue collected from
32
the exhaust gases of a coal burning boiler (usually from an electrical power plant). Coal has in it

certain minerals which cannot be burned, and the very fine ash that goes up the exhaust stack is

termed fly ash.

A portion of the residue is unburnt carbon, which tends to filter out the air entraining agent. This

reduction in air content can be further increased because of the fineness of fly ash when

compared to cement, and it is not uncommon for the air content to be very low if the air

entraining admixture dosage is not increased. The properties listed above and the effect on air

content make it necessary to monitor air contents more frequently.

Granulated iron blast-furnace slag is a glassy, granular material formed when molten blast-

furnace slag is rapidly chilled. The slag is composed of various silicates and oxides similar to

those in Portland cement, and as such it has some cementitious properties of its own. It also has

the finely divided silica, associated with pozzolans, thereby functioning similar to the fly ash. It

is permitted to replace a much higher percentage of cement.

3.1 MATERIALS

1. BAMBOO

2. CEMENT

3. FINE AGGREGATE

4. COARSE AGGREGATE

5. WATER

6. UNIERSAL TESTING MACHINE

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3.2 METHOD

3.2.1 SELECTION OF BAMBOO

Bamboo samples that are equal to or greater than two years old were used for this research.

Since the base and the upper part of the bamboo stem are the hardest and lighter part of the

bamboo fiber respectively, the portion of bamboo fiber used was that within the center part of the

bamboo stem. This is to ensure that the selected portion of bamboo fiber has an average strength

within the length of the bamboo stem.

3.2.2 PREPARATION OF BAMBOO

The bamboo was averagely seasoned before it was used. The idea behind the average seasoning

was to reduce the bamboo’s rate of water absorption in concrete over time. The averagely

seasoned bamboo was split along the line parallel to the bamboo fiber with respect to the

required cross sectional area.

3.2.3 BAMBOO TENSILE STRENGTH TEST

For tensile strength test of bamboo, the selected bamboo was prepared in such a way that the

cross sectional area of bamboo to be considered for tensioning is much smaller than the cross

sectional area with direct contact to the grip of the machine (universal testing machine).

34
If the section in contact with the grip of the machine is not bigger than that in consideration, the

bamboo sample will tend to fail at that point due to the magnitude of the stress acting on that

area.

The prepared bamboo sample was placed in the machine vertically and tensile load was applied
on it. The increasing tensile load was applied continuously until failure of the sample occurred.
Its cross sectional area and failure load was recorded.

3.2.4 BAMBOO COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

For compressive strength test, two samples of bamboo were used. One was the sample with node

at the Centre, the other bamboo sample was without node. The two bamboo samples were

subjected to compressive load successively in the UTM (universal testing machine) and their

failure load and cross sectional areas will be recorded.

3.2.5 ELASTIC PROPERTY TEST OF BAMBOO

Modulus of rupture & modulus of elasticity:

For evaluation of the modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity Static bending test was

performed on bamboo splints using the procedure of the IS: 8242- 1976. Bamboo splint of length
35
200mm, 20mm wide with 10mm wall thickness was placed horizontally on roller supports of

UTM. Load was applied continuously at the Centre of the splint. Deflection of bamboo splint

was measured using a dial gauge. Modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity of bamboo were

determined based on ultimate load and maximum deflection of bamboo splint.

Where, P1 = Failure load in N

P2 = Load at proportional limit in N

l = Span in mm

b = Width of specimen in mm

h = Depth of specimen in mm

3.2.6 TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST OF BAMBOO

REINFORCED CONCRETE

CONCRETE MIX

The ratio of cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate was 1:2:4. It was mixed by hand mixed,

and then poured in the formwork after workability has been satisfied. The fine aggregate was

first spread in a uniform layer on a hard clean and non-porous base; cement is then spread over
36
the fine aggregate and the dry turning over from one end to the other. With the aid of a shovel,

the mixing was continuously until the mix appeared uniformed. Coarse aggregate was added and

the mixing the continuous until a uniform distribution of the coarse aggregate was attained.

Water was added gradually so that neither water nor cement would escape. The mix is then

turned again until it appears uniform in color so as to prevent segregation of the concrete

constituents.

SLUMP TEST

The ease at which concrete flows in the formwork without bleeding or segregation was

determined using Slump test. It was conducted before the fresh concrete was introduced into the

formwork so as to enable the concrete attain its design strength. The method used satisfied the

requirements of British Standard (BS 1881: part 102: 1983).

DIMENSION PROPERTIES OF CONE

i. Diameter at bottom of cone = 200mm + 2mm

ii. Diameter at upper of cone = 100mm =2mm

iii. Height of cone =300mm + 2mm

3.2.7 TENSILE STRENGTH TEST BAMBOO REINFORCED CONCRETE

The selected bamboo sample was split along the line parallel to that of the bamboo fiber. It was

split in such a way that the cross sectional area along the entire length used was approximately

37
uniform. The length of the bamboo to be used will be 500mm less concrete cover. i.e 500mm-

25mm = 475mm.

It was placed horizontally both the bottom and top of the forward before the fresh concrete was

introduced and compacted. Four samples of ordinary concrete beam for the bamboo reinforced

concrete beam were made. The concrete samples were cured for 7, 14, 21 and 28days after which

there will be subjected to a 3-point load in the UTM (Universal Testing Machine) after which it’s

failure load will be reached.

3.2.8 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST OF BAMBOO REINFORCED CONCRETE

Eight cylindrical concrete samples will be made. Four will be made without reinforcement while

the other four will be reinforced with bamboo placed vertically. The will be cured for 7, 14, 21,

and 28 days respectively after which it’s failure load will be recorded.

Flexural strength test: four ordinary concrete beam and four bamboo reinforced beams were

made each with respect to 7, 14, 21, and 28 days respectively. The beam was tested for flexural

strength in the UTM according to IS: 516-1959.

The formula below

Flexural strength = PL/bd2,for a >200mm

Flexural strength = 3Pa/bd2, for 170mm < a < 200mm

Where P =maximum load applied on beam in N

L = effective span of beam in mm

38
b = width of beam in mm

d = Depth of beam in mm

a = Distance of the crack from nearest support

39