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he effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made from petroleum, thus the production of plastics creates further emissions.
However, due to the lightness and durability of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic may reduce energy consumption. For example, packaging
beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52% in transportation energy. [2]

Production of plastics
Production of plastics from crude oil requires 7.9 to 13.7 kWh/lb (taking into account the average efficiency of US utility stations of 35%). Producing
silicon and semiconductors for modern electronic equipment is even more energy consuming: 29.2 to 29.8 kWh/lb for silicon, and about 381 kWh/lb for
semiconductors.[104] This is much higher than the energy needed to produce many other materials. For example, to produce iron (from iron ore) requires
2.5-3.2 kWh/lb of energy; glass (from sand, etc.) 2.3–4.4 kWh/lb; steel (from iron) 2.5–6.4 kWh/lb; and paper (from timber) 3.2–6.4 kWh/lb. [105]

Incineration of plastics
Controlled high-temperature incineration, above 850°C for two seconds,[citation needed] performed with selective additional heating, breaks down toxic dioxins
and furans from burning plastic, and is widely used in municipal solid waste incineration. Municipal solid waste incinerators also normally include flue
gas treatments to reduce pollutants further. This is needed because uncontrolled incineration of plastic produces polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, a
carcinogen (cancer causing chemical). The problem occurs because the heat content of the waste stream varies. [106] Open-air burning of plastic occurs
at lower temperatures, and normally releases such toxic fumes.

Pyrolytic disposal
Plastics can be pyrolyzed into hydrocarbon fuels, since plastics include hydrogen and carbon. One kilogram of waste plastic produces roughly a liter of
hydrocarbon.[107]

History
See also: Timeline of plastic development

The development of plastics has evolved from the use of naturally plastic materials (e.g., gums and shellac) to the use of the chemical modification of
those materials (e.g., natural rubber, cellulose, collagen, and milk proteins), and finally to completely synthetic plastics (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, and PVC).
Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, which are organic polymers. In around 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used
natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines.[2] Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages. Materials that mimicked the
properties of horns were developed by treating milk proteins with lye. In the nineteenth century, as chemistry developed during the Industrial
Revolution, many materials were reported. The development of plastics accelerated with Charles Goodyear's 1839 discovery of vulcanization to harden
natural rubber.

Plaque commemorating Parkes at the Birmingham Science Museum

Parkesine, invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855 and patented the following year, [108] is considered the first man-made plastic. It was manufactured
from cellulose (the major component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid as a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose
nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be molded when heated. [109] By
incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made to resemble ivory. Parkesine was unveiled at the 1862 International Exhibition in London and
garnered for Parkes the bronze medal.[110]

In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered the means to insolubilize casein (milk proteins) by immersion in formaldehyde, producing material
marketed as galalith.[111] In 1897, mass-printing press owner Wilhelm Krische of Hanover, Germany, was commissioned to develop an alternative to
blackboards.[111] The resultant horn-like plastic made from casein was developed in cooperation with the Austrian chemist (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler
(1846–1940). Although unsuitable for the intended purpose, other uses would be discovered. [111]

The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland,[3] who coined the term plastics.[4] Many chemists
have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger, who has been called "the father of polymer
chemistry," and Herman Mark, known as "the father of polymer physics."[5]
 After World War I, improvements in chemistry led to an explosion of new forms of plastics, with mass production beginning in the 1940s and 1950s.
[46]
 Among the earliest examples in the wave of new polymers were polystyrene (first produced by BASF in the 1930s)[2] and polyvinyl chloride (first
created in 1872 but commercially produced in the late 1920s). [2] In 1923, Durite Plastics, Inc., was the first manufacturer of phenol-furfural resins. [112] In
1933, polyethylene was discovered by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) researchers Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett. [2]

The discovery of polyethylene terephthalate is credited to employees of the Calico Printers' Association in the UK in 1941; it was licensed to DuPont for
the US and ICI otherwise, and as one of the few plastics appropriate as a replacement for glass in many circumstances, resulting in widespread use for
bottles in Europe.[2] In 1954 polypropylene was discovered by Giulio Natta and began to be manufactured in 1957.[2] Also in 1954 expanded polystyrene
(used for building insulation, packaging, and cups) was invented by Dow Chemical.[2]

See also
 Corn construction
 Films
 Light activated resin
 Nurdle
 Molding (process)
o Injection molding
o Rotational molding

 Organic light emitting diode

 Plastic film
 Plastic recycling
 Plastics engineering
 Plastics extrusion
 Plasticulture
 Biodegradable plastic
 Bioplastic
 Organisms breaking down plastic
 Progressive bag alliance
 Roll-to-roll processing
 Self-healing plastic
 Thermal cleaning
 Thermoforming
 Timeline of materials technology

References
1. ^ "Life Cycle of a Plastic Product". Americanchemistry.com. Archived from the original on 2010-03-17. Retrieved 2011-07-01.

Neoprene (also polychloroprene) is a family of synthetic rubbers that are produced by polymerization of chloroprene.[1] Neoprene exhibits good

chemical stability and maintains flexibility over a wide temperature range. Neoprene is sold either as solid rubber or in latex form and is used in a wide
variety of commercial applications,[2] such as laptop sleeves, orthopaedic braces (wrist, knee, etc.), electrical insulation, liquid and sheet-applied
elastomeric membranes or flashings, and automotive fan belts.[3]

Contents

 1Production

 2History

 3Applications
o 3.1General
o 3.2Civil engineering
o 3.3Aquatics
o 3.4Home accessories
 o 3.5Music
o 3.6Hydroponic gardening
o 3.7Face mask
o 3.8Other

 4Precautions

 5See also

 6References

 7External links

Production[edit]
Neoprene is produced by free-radical polymerization of chloroprene. In commercial production, this polymer is prepared by free radical emulsion
polymerization. Polymerization is initiated using potassium persulfate. Bifunctional nucleophiles, metal oxides (e.g. zinc oxide), and thioureas are used
to crosslink individual polymer strands.[4]

Property Value

Appearance

Hardness, Shore A 40–95

Tensile failure stress, ultimate 500–3000 PSI

Elongation after fracture in % ≥ 600% maximum

Solid : 1.23 g/cm3
Density
Foam : 0.1-0.3 g/cm3

Source:[5] [6]

History[edit]
Neoprene was invented by DuPont scientists on April 17, 1930, after Dr Elmer K. Bolton of DuPont attended a lecture by Fr Julius Arthur
Nieuwland, a professor of chemistry at the University of Notre Dame. Nieuwland's research was focused on acetylene chemistry and during the
course of his work he produced divinyl acetylene, a jelly that firms into an elastic compound similar to rubber when passed over sulfur dichloride.
After DuPont purchased the patent rights from the university, Wallace Carothers of DuPont took over commercial development of Nieuwland's
discovery in collaboration with Nieuwland himself and DuPont chemists Arnold Collins, Ira Williams and James Kirby.[7] Collins focused on
monovinyl acetylene and allowed it to react with hydrogen chloride gas, manufacturing chloroprene.[8]

DuPont first marketed the compound in 1931 under the trade name DuPrene, [9] but its commercial possibilities were limited by the original
manufacturing process, which left the product with a foul odor. [10] A new process was developed, which eliminated the odor-causing byproducts
and halved production costs, and the company began selling the material to manufacturers of finished end-products. [10] To prevent shoddy
manufacturers from harming the product's reputation, the trademark DuPrene was restricted to apply only to the material sold by DuPont. [10] Since
the company itself did not manufacture any DuPrene-containing end products, the trademark was dropped in 1937 and replaced with a generic
name, neoprene, in an attempt "to signify that the material is an ingredient, not a finished consumer product". [11] DuPont then worked extensively
to generate demand for its product, implementing a marketing strategy that included publishing its own technical journal, which extensively
publicized neoprene's uses as well as advertising other companies' neoprene-based products. [10] By 1939, sales of neoprene were generating
profits over $300,000 for the company (equivalent to $5,581,579 in 2020). [10]
Applications[edit]
General[edit]

Two styles of well-worn Xtratuf boots made with neoprene

Neoprene resists degradation more than natural or synthetic rubber. This relative inertness makes it well suited for demanding applications such
as gaskets, hoses, and corrosion-resistant coatings.[1] It can be used as a base for adhesives, noise isolation in power transformer installations,
and as padding in external metal cases to protect the contents while allowing a snug fit. It resists burning better than
exclusively hydrocarbon based rubbers,[12] resulting in its appearance in weather stripping for fire doors and in combat related attire such as
gloves and face masks. Because of its tolerance of extreme conditions, neoprene is used to line landfills. Neoprene's burn point is around 260 °C
(500 °F).[13]

In its native state, neoprene is a very pliable rubber-like material with insulating properties similar to rubber or other solid plastics.

Neoprene foam is used in many applications and is produced in either closed-cell or open-cell form. The closed-cell form is waterproof, less
compressible and more expensive. The open-cell form can be breathable. It is manufactured by foaming the rubber with nitrogen gas, where the
tiny enclosed and separated gas bubbles can also serve as insulation. Nitrogen gas is most commonly used for the foaming of Neoprene foam
due to its inertness, flame resistance, and large range of processing temperatures. [14]

Civil engineering[edit]
Neoprene is used as a component of elastomeric bridge bearings, to support heavy loads while permitting small horizontal movements. [15]

Aquatics[edit]
Neoprene is a popular material in making protective clothing for aquatic activities. Foamed neoprene is commonly used to make fly
fishing waders and wetsuits, as it provides excellent insulation against cold. The foam is quite buoyant, and divers compensate for this by
wearing weights. Thick wet suits made at the extreme end of their cold water protection are usually made of 7 mm thick neoprene.[citation needed] Since
foam neoprene contains gas pockets, the material compresses under water pressure, getting thinner at greater depths; a 7 mm neoprene wet
suit offers much less exposure protection under 100 feet of water than at the surface. A recent advance in neoprene for wet suits is the "super-
flex" variety, which uses spandex in the knit liner fabric for greater flexibility and stretch. [16][17]

Neoprene waders are usually about 5 mm thick, and in the medium price range as compared with cheaper materials such as nylon and more
expensive waterproof fabrics made with breathable membranes. Competitive swimming wetsuits are made of the most expanded foam; they
have to be very flexible to allow the swimmer unrestricted movement. The downside is that they are quite fragile. [18]

Home accessories[edit]
Recently, neoprene has become a favorite material for lifestyle and other home accessories including laptop sleeves, tablet holders, remote
controls, mouse pads, and cycling chamois. In this market, it sometimes competes with LRPu (low-resilience polyurethane), which is a sturdier
(more impact-resistant) but less-used material.

Music[edit]
The Rhodes piano used hammer tips made of neoprene in its electric pianos, after changing from felt hammers around 1970. [19]

Neoprene is also used for speaker cones and drum practice pads. [20]

Hydroponic gardening[edit]
Hydroponic and aerated gardening systems make use of small neoprene inserts to hold plants in place while propagating cuttings or using net
cups. Inserts are relatively small, ranging in size from 1.5 to 5 inches (4 to 13 cm). Neoprene is a good choice for supporting plants because of
its flexibility and softness, allowing plants to be held securely in place without the chance of causing damage to the stem. Neoprene root covers
also help block out light from entering the rooting chamber of hydroponic systems, allowing for better root growth and helping to deter the growth
of algae.[citation needed]

Face mask[edit]
During the COVID-19 global pandemic, Neoprene was identified by some health experts as an effective material to use for home made face
masks.[21] Some commercial face mask manufacturers that use Neoprene have claimed 99.9% filtration for particles as small as 0.1 microns.
[22]
 The size of Coronavirus is identified to be on average 0.125 microns. [23]

Other[edit]
Neoprene is used for Halloween masks and masks used for face protection, for insulating CPU sockets when extreme overclocking at subzero
temperatures, to make waterproof automotive seat covers, in liquid and sheet-applied elastomeric roof membranes or flashings, and in a
neoprene-spandex mixture for manufacture of wheelchair positioning harnesses.

In tabletop wargames, neoprene mats printed with grassy, sandy, icy, or other natural features have become popular gaming surfaces. They are
durable, firm and stable, and attractive in appearance, and also favoured for their ability to roll up in storage but lie flat when unrolled.

Because of its chemical resistance and overall durability, neoprene is sometimes used in the manufacture of dishwashing gloves, especially as
an alternative to latex.

In fashion, neoprene has been used by designers s