CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

Significance of cell reproduction

 All cells are formed by division of pre-existing cells

 Each new individual begins its life as a new single cell commonly the fertilized
egg or zygote
 A large number of cells are being torn or killed every moment in the body of a
multicellular organism through skin peelings, lining of digestive tract, old red
blood corpuscles, e.g. 25 million/sec in an adult human body. They are being
continuously replaced through formation of new cells.
 An injury is healed through formation of new cells by healthy cells around the
area of injury.
 It is mode of multiplication in unicellular organisms. In multicellular
organisms, cell reproduction is required to form propagules and gametes.
 The mechanism of cell reproduction or cell division is fundamentally similar in
all the organisms showing kinship and unity of life

Factor controlling cell reproduction

 A number of factors are known to induce cell division. The important ones are
as follows:
- Minimum growth: A newly formed cell does not divide immediately. Some
amount of minimum growth in cell and its component is required before a
cell attains the ability to undergo division.
- Surface –Volume ratio : Increase in cell size results in decrease of surface-
volume ratio. This disturbs efficiency of surface exchange required for
maintaining optimum metabolism. As it reaches a critical stage the cell
undergoes division.
- Nucleocytoplasmic or kernplasma ratio: Cell functions are controlled by
nucleus. The size of nucleus does not change while that of cytoplasm
increases during cell growth. As nucleocytoplasmic artio decreases, the cell
is stimulated to divide
- Mitogens: they are substances or factors which bring about cell division.
Cytokinin is a plant hormone which functions as mitogen. There are several
mitogenic substances known in human beings. E.g. EGF ( Epidermal growth
Factor), PDGF ( platelet derived growth factor) and lymphokines.
- There are some agents which inhibit cell division. They are called mitotic
poisons. Example, azides, cyanides, chalones, colchicines. Colchicines is
obtained from atucrocus (Colchicum autumnale) . It arrests cell division at
metaphase due to non-formation of spindle.
CELL CYCLE

 Cell cycle ( Howard and Pelc, 1953) is genetically controlled series of changes
that occur in a newly formed cell by which it supplicates ins contents, 1
undergoes, growth and division to form two daughter . it consists of two
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION www.spiroacademy.com
states or periods, a long nondividing growth I-phase and a short dividing M-
phase. Both have substages. I-phase represents interphase.
 The regular sequence of G1, S, G2 ( interphase) and M phase ( mitotic phase) is
called the cell cycle.
 Interphase is called ‘resting stage”, but it is in fact a period of great activity.
Three important process, which are preparatory to cell division, take place
during interphase. Thus it is also known as preparatory phase. These
processes are
- Replication of DNA along with the synthesis of nuclear proteins such as the
histones
- In animal cells, duplication of centriole takes place by the outgrowth of
daughter centrioles from the parent centrioles, which are at right angle to
each other.
- Synthesis of embryo rich compounds, which provide energy for mitosis,
and synthesis of proteins at the end of interphase
 Interphase ( L.inter-in between, Gk-phase-stage) is intermitotic stage of cell
division in which a series of changes occur in newly formed cell and nucleus
undergoes certain changes to be fit for division. Non dividing state of mature
cell or nucleus is called interphase. It is also called energy phase.
Interphase of dividing cell has been classified into three subphases - G1-
Phase, S-phase and G2-phase

G1-phase

 G1 phase is also known as first growth phase or post mitotic gap phase. It is
the longest phase of cell division. In this phase different types of RNA (mRNA,
tRNA, rRNA) and proteins are synthesized.
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 All cell organelles ( ER, mitochondria, Golgi complex, ribosomes, plasmid in
plant cell) multiply. The duration of G1 Phase varies from cell to cell. It is
shorter in frequently dividing cells. G1 phase cell has three options. A)
Continuous cycle and enter S phase b) Stops cell cycle and enter quiescent
phase or g0 phase c) Stops cell cycle and undergoes cell differentiation
 The deciding factor for above option are availability of mitogen and energy
rich compounds. This point is called check point . Once the check point of G1 –
phase is crossed, cell reaches a state called ante phase where by it will divide
even under unfavorable condition. Cell cycle will go on further division till
completion
S-phase

 S-phase is known as synthetic phase. In this stage replication of DNA takes

place by the synthesis of histones. As a result each chromosome under goes
replication producing two chromatids. Each chromosome carries a duplicate
set of genes. A haploid cell (n) becomes diploid (2n) and a diploid cell (2n),
thus becomes tetraploid (4n) at the end of S-phase. Repairing of damaged
DNA also takes place.
G2-phase

 G2 is also called second growth phase or pre-mitotic gap phase. In this phase
synthesis of DNA stops and synthesis of RNAs and proteins continues. All cell
organelles multiply and spindle formation takes place. It lasts for 2-5 hours in
most cells. Some proteins formed in this phase cause condensation of
chromosomes to initiate mitosis
G0-phase

 The phase in which cells fail to divide further ( do not undergo S-phase after
G1-phase) and undergo differentiation is known as G0 phase or quiescent
stage. It occurs due to non-availability of mitogen and energy rich compounds.
The cells remain metabolically active, grow in size and differentiate for
particular function after attaining a particular shape.
 However some cells remain in undifferentiated state as reserve cells. They
may proceed with cell division when required e.g. fibroblasts; it helps in
healing of wounds and grow and divide again.
M-phase

 The process of cell division is found to be essentially the same in all living
organism and the events are chiefly centered in the nucleus. Three type of cell
divisions have been distinguished:
- Amitosis or direct cell division
- Mitosis or indirect cell division

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- Meiosis or reduction division
 Mitosis and meiosis are the two major types of cell division. The basic stage in
both the types of divisions are almost identical.
 Amitosis is a direct division characterized by the splitting of nucleus followed
by that of cytoplasm.
 Mitosis is a somatic cell division which takes place in vegetative cells. It
maintains the chromosome number.
 Meiosis is a reduction division, occurring in the reproductive cells. The
chromosome number are reduced to half.

AMITOSIS

 Amitosis ( greek, a-without, mitos – thread, osis-state). It is a method of direct

cell division in which the nucleus constricts into two daughter without
showing differentiation of chromosomes and development of spindle. Nuclear
division is followed by cytokinesis ( division of cytoplasm)
 Amitosis was first described by Robert Remak (1855 ) in red blood corpuscles
of chick embryo. The term was coined by Flemming ( 1882 )
Occurrence

 It occurs through cleavage or constriction example cartilage cell degenerate

cells meganucleus of Paramecium, cells of foetal membranes of vertebrates
 Moneran cell division is sometimes included under amitosis due to absence of
spindle.
 Drawbacks
As Amitosis does not distribute chromatin equitably, it results in structural
and functional abnormalities in the cell.
MITOSIS

 Mitosis is a type of cell division in which chromosomes of parent cells are

duplicated ( by replication of DNA) and equally distributed ( quantitatively and
qualitatively) into two daughter nuclei. Term mitosis is derived from Greek
word “Mitos” means thread or fibril
 Mitosis was first observed by Strassburger in plant cells (1870) and Boveri and
Flemming in animal cell ( 1879 ). The term was coined by Flemming in 1882. It
is also known as equational division due to equal distribution of chromosomes
in daughter nuclei. It is often known as somatic cell division due to occurrence
in somatic cells. It is about 1-5% of the total duration of cell cycle. On the basis
of different types of cells and the species, mitosis takes 30 minutes to 3 hours
for completion.
 In plants all meristematic regions are the sites of mitosis e.g. root ape, shoot
apex, intercalary meristem, lateral meristem, leave, flowers, fruits, embryo,
seeds etc.

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 In animals embryo, skin, bone marrow etc are the sites of mitosis
 Mitosis is completed in two steps karyokinesis and cytokinesis.
Karyokinesis

 Mitosis starts with the nuclear division of parent cell known as karyokinesis (
Gk, karyon -nucleus, kinesis – movement) . The four phases of karyokinesis
are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
Prophase
Prophase ( Gk Pro-first, phase –stage ) is often divided into three substages – early
prophase, mid prophase and late prophase. It is the first stage of mitosis proper. It is
the longest phase of Karyokinesis
Early prophase

 In this sub-stage nucleus and cell become spheroid and nucleus appears as
boll of wool. Chromatin fibre condense to form elongated chromosome and
this increases viscosity and refractivity of cytoplasm
 In animal cells duplicated centrioles. ( S phase of interphase) start to move
towards opposite poles of the cell. Each centriole radiates out fine
microtubular fibrils called astral rays. In animal cells and cells of lower plants,
fibrils appears like spokes of a wheel around each centriole to form an aster.

Mid prophase

 In mid prophase chromosomes shift towards the periphery and leave a clear
central area. It becomes shorter and thicker. Each chromosome consists of
two longitudinal threads called chromatids. Both chromatids are attached to
each other by centromere and are known as sister chromatids
Late prophase

 In this substage spindle fibres start appearing around the nucleus. The size of
chromosomes is much reduced as compared to early prophase . Spindle poles
are formed without asters in plant cells and with asters in animal cells.

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 Nucleolus and other cell organelles ( like mitochondria, Golgi complex, ER,
vacuoles etc) disappear. The presence of the spindle is essential for mitosis. If
cells are treated with colchicines, which inhibits spindle formation, anaphasic
movement of the two groups of chromosomes to the poles does not take
place.

Prometaphase

 Prometaphase ( Gk Pro- before, meta-second, phase – stage) is intermediate

stage of prophase and metaphase and hence acts as connecting link between
them. Nuclear membrane completely degenerate in this stage. So mixing of
cytoplasm with nucleoplasm occurs. It is known as extranuclear mitosis or
eumitosis.
 In many protozoan, fungi and some animal cells, nuclear membrane does not
degenerate throughout cell division known as intranuclear or premitosis.
 A spindle fibres consists of 4-20 microtubules formed of protein tubulin.
Spindle fibre converge at two end or pole. It has the maximum diameter in the
middle known as equator.


Metaphase

 In metaphase ( Gk meta-after or second phase – stage) discontinuous fibres

radiate out from two poles and get connected to the disc shaped structure at
the surface of the cenromere called kinetochores. A kinetochore is complex
protein structure that is analogus to ring for the microtubule hook; it is the
point where microtubules attach themselves to the chromosome.
Chromosomes or kinetochore fibres contract and bring chromosome over
equator this phenomenon is called congression.

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 Smaller chromosomes directed towards the centre while larger ones are
peripheral in position on equator. The centromeres of all the chromosomes lie
on the equator forming an apparent plate called metaphasic or equatorial
plate while arms are directed towards the poles
 The kinetochores have two functions. The main function apparently is that
they serve for the attachment of microtubules of the chromosomal spindle
fibres. They might also be involved in the formation of the chromosomal
spindle fibres during prometaphase and metaphase by serving as centres for
polymerization of the protein of microtubules.
 Metaphase is the best phase to count total number of chromosomes in any
species and details study of morphology of chromosomes. Idiogram
(arrangement of chromosomes in a series of decreasing length) can be drawn
in this stage.

Anaphase

 In anaphase ( Gk ana – up, phase – stage) chromosomes are arranged on the

equatorial plate for a short period. The centromeres of chromosomes starts to
divide into two, forming daughter chromosomes with centromere in each.
Daughter chromosomes are repulsive so, migrate towards opposite poles.
Spindle fibres attached to the centromeres shorten and pull the chromosomes
to the poles. The velocity of anaphasic movement does not depend on the size
of the chromosomes. In anaphasic movement of chromosomes, the
centromeres lead the path while the limbs trails behind. So anaphasic
chromes, the centromeres lead the path while the limbs trail behind. So
anaphasic chromosomes appear as V-, L-, J- and I- shaped
Type of chromosome Shape Centromere position
Metacentric V Median
Submetacentric L Subnedian
Acrocentric J Sub-terminal
Telocentric I Terminal

 At the end of anaphase two groups of chromosomes are formed, one at each
pole. The number and types of chromosomes at each pole is the same as in
the parent nucleus.

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Telophase

 During telophase ( Gk. Telos-end, phase –stage) of mitosis viscosity of

cytoplasm decrease. A new nuclear membrane is formed ( either from older
nuclear envelop or ER) around each set of chromosomes. Chromosomes
overlap one another forming chromatin. The nuclear organizer region of
satellite chromosomes produce nucleolus for each daughter nucleus.
Nucleoplasm surrounds in the area of chromatin. The gel state of spindle is
converted into sol state and disappears.
 In this way two daughter nuclei are formed at the poles of spindle. Hence this
phase is just reverse of prophase. Golgi complex and endoplasmic reticulum
are reformed. Cytokinesis starts either by cleavage or constriction.

Cytokinesis

 Mitosis ends with division of cytoplasm known as cytokinesis. It is derived

from greek word “cytos” means hollow or cell, “kinesis: means movement. It
starts towards the middle of anaphase and is completed with the telophase. It

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is different in animal and plants. If nuclear divison takes place without
cytoplasmic division, a syncytium is formed.
CELL CYCLE
Animal cytokinesis AND CELL DIVISION www.spiroacademy.c
 The spindle gets charged into dense fibrous and vesicular structure on equator
called mid body. In the middle region of cell, microfilaments starts to collected
which induces the cell membrane to invigilate. The furrow forms and deepens
centripetally and finally cleaves the parent cell into two daughter cells. This
method of cytokinesis is known as cleavage method. All cell organelles (
mitochondria, Golgi complex, lysosomes., ER, ribosomes etc) are also
distributed between two daugheter cells.
Plant cytokinesis

 It differs from animal cytokinesis due to presence of rigid cell wall. In lower
plants cytokinesis occurs by cleavages method ( like animal cell) and in higher
plants it takes place by cell plate method.
 In this method small vesicles of Golgi complex are collected at the equator.
Here spindle persists for some time called phragmoplast. All vesicles fuse to
form two sheets whih enclose a matrix or film. This film becomes solidified to
form cell plate or middle lamella. It grows centrifugally and finally
phragmoplast disappear. Cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin are deposited
on either side of cells plate. It forms primary wall.
Difference between animal and plant cytokinesis
Animal cytokinesis Plant cytokinesis
It occurs by cleavage Commonly by cell plate formation
Spindle starts disapperaring Spindle persists till half cytokinesis
A mid body is formed at the middle of Mid body is not found
the cell

Significance of mitosis

 Growth and development - A single cell zygote grows into full blown baby ( 6
×1022 cells) by repeated mitosis. Plants are able to grow throughout their life
due to mitotioc division in their apical and lateral meristems. Increases in
tissue mass, results from increase in cell number called hyperplasmic. Hnece,
mitosis is essential for growth and development of a multicellular organism.
 Maintenance of cell size: An overgrown somatic cell is induced to divide so
that mitosis helps in maintaining a proper surface volume ratio. It has also a
high nucleocytoplasmic ratio which is brought back to efficient level through
divisions. These ratios are important for proper functioning of cell
 Genetic stability – All the daughter cells of a multicellular organism have the
same number and type of chromosome as parent cells due to equitable

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distribution of all the chromosomes. This helps in proper co-ordination among
daughter cells.
 Healing and regeneration – For healing of wounds new cells are produced by
mitosis. Some organisms are able to regenerate missing part of body or also
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
whole organism though mitosis
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 Reparing – the mechanism for replacing old or worn out cells is called
repairing. In human body roughly 5 ×109 cells are lost from skin surface, lining
of alimentary canal, blood cell etc. these are replaced by new cells formed
through mitosis.
 Evidence of basic relationship – The mechanism of mitosis are similar in the
majority of organism, showing basic similarity and relationship among them
MEIOSIS

 Meiosis is a process of reductional division in which the number of

chromosomes per cell is cut in half. In animals, meiosis always results in the
formation of gametes, while in other organism it can give rise to spores. The
word “meiosis” comes from greek world meioun, means “to make small”,
since it results in a reduction of the chromosome number.
 The term meiosis was coined by Farmer and Moore (in 1905). The division was
first studied by Van Benedin (1887), Strassburger (1888), Sutton (1900) and
Winiwater (1900). Meiosis I &II were differentiated by Gregoire. In 1911 the
American geneticist Thomas Hunt morgan ( 1866 – 1945) observed cross-over
in Drosophila melanogaster meiosis and provided the first genetic evidence
that genes are transmitted on chromosomes
 Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction and therefore occurs in all
eukaryotes ( including single –celled organisms) that reproduce sexually.
Meiosis does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which reproduce via asexual
process such as binary fission.
 During meiosis, the genome of diploid germ cell, which is composed of long
segments of DNA packed into chromosomes, undergoes two rounds of
division, resulting in four haploid cells. Each of these cells contain one
complete set of chromosomes, or half of the genetic content of the original
cell. If meiosis produces gametes, these cells must fuse during fertilization to
create a new diploid cell, or zygote before any new growth can occur. Thus
the division mechanism of meiosis is a reciprocal process to the joining of two
genomes that occurs at fertilization. Because the chromosomes of each
parent undergoes enetic recombination during meiosis, each gamete and thus
each zygote, will have a unique genetic blue print encoded in its DNA.
Together meiosis and fertilization constitutes sexually in the eukaryotes, and
generate genetically distinct individuals in population.
 In lower plants, and in many protists, meiosis results in formation of haploid
cells that can divide vegetatively without undergoing fertilization, referred to
as spores. In these groups, gametes are produced by mitosis

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 Biochemically, meiosis uses some of the same mechanism employed during

mitosis to accomplish the redistribution of chromosomes. There are several
features unique to meiosis, most importantly the pairing and recombination
between homologous chromosomes, which enable then to separate from
each other.
 The cells of a particular species have a constant number of chromosomes. In
sexually reproducing organisms male and female gametes fuse together to
form the zygote. If the gamete has the same number of chromosomes number
remains constant from generation to generation. This is because of meiotic
division which reduces the chromosome number to half, and counteracts the
effect of fertilization. Thus fertilization and meiosis are compensating events.
Types of meiosis

 The cells in which meiosis takes place are called meiocytes. In animals,
meiocytes are of two types, spermatocytes and oocytes. In higher plants,
meiocytes are differentiated into microsporocytes and megasporocytes.
Depending upon the stage when meiosis occurs, the latter is of three types -
gametic, zygotic and sporic meiosis.
Gametic meiosis

 Meiosis is most of the animal take place during the formation of gametes
(gametogenesis). It is termed as genetic meiosis. When two gametes fuse in
fertilization, a diploid zygote is formed. Gametic meiosis results in diplontic
life cycle
Zygotic meiosis

 In some lower plants meiosis takes place in the zygote and the resulting
organism are haploid. It is called zygotic meiosis. Organism having zygotic
meiosis have haplontic life cycle.
Sporic meiosis

 In plants, meiosis generally occurs at the time of sporogenesis ( formation of

spore or microspores and megaspores) It is called sporic meiosis or
intermediate meiosi. Spores produce a new gametophytic phase in the life
cycle. Gametes are formed by gametophytes. Because of the presence of two
distinct multicelluar phase, diploid and haploid, life cycle of plant is
diplohaplontic .
Phases of meiosis

 Because of meiosis is “a one-way” process, it cannot be said to engage in a cell

cycle as mitosis does. However, the preparatory steps that lead up to meiosis
are identical in pattern and name of the interphase of the mitotic cell cycle.

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 Meiosis is a type of cell division that is vital for sexual reproduction. Meiosis
takes place in the reproductive organs. It results in the formation of gametes
with half the normal chromosomes number. Therefore, haploid sperms are
made in the testis and haploid eggs are made in the ovaries. In flowering
plants, haploid gametes are made in the anthers and ovules.
 Meiosis involves
CELLtwo divisions
CYCLE ANDof the
CELLcell. DIVISION
These two division are termed www.spiroaca
meiosis I nad meiosis II. Each one includes prophase, metaphase, anaphase
and telophase.
 Meiosis I consists of separating the pairs of homologous chromosomes, each
made up of two sister chromatids, into two cells. One entire haploid content
of chromosomes is contained in each of the resulting daughter cells; the first
meiotic division therefore reduces the ploidy of the original cell by a factor of
2.
Meiosis I

 In meiosis I, the homologous pairs in a diploid cell separate, producing two

haploid cells, so it is also referred to as a reduction division. Like mitosis, it is
studied under for stages – prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Prophase I

 Prophase I is more complicated and prolonged as compared to the siliar stage

of mitosis. For the sake of convenience, prophase I is divided into five sub-
phases: Leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotenme and diakinesis. Another
sub-phase called preleptoneme is sometimes recognized prior to leptonema.
In this phase chromosomes are not distinguishable because of their thinness
but sex chromosomes (if present) are often seen as heterochromatic (
heteropyknotic) bodies.

Leptotene

 Leptotene also known as leptonema is a first stage of prophase I during which

individual chromosomes begin to condense into long strands within the
nucleus which are loosly interwoven. However the two sister chromatids are
still so tightly bound that they are indistinguishable from one another.
 Leptotene chromosomes may be irregularly arranged or may be polarized
towards the centrioles forming a ‘bouquet’. Electron microscope studies have
shown that bouquet formation results when a group of chromosomes is
attached close together on the nuclear membrane . In plant cells the
chromosomes may sometimes form a tangle of threads, called the synizetic
knot, on one side of nucleus.
 There are two sets of chromosomes in a diploid cell undergoing meiosis, one
set contributed by the male parent and other by the female parent. These are

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always two similar chromosomes, having the same size, form and structure.
They are called homologous chromosomes. One of them is paternal
chromosome and the other maternal chromosome.

Zygotene

 During zygotene or zygonema the chromosomes become shorter anad thicker.

The homologous chromosomes come to lie side by side in pairs . ( G. zygon =
yolk; tene = thread). This pairing of homologus chromosomes is known as
synapsis or syndesis. A pair of homologous chromosomes lying together is
called a bivalent. The chromatids are still not visible. A fibrillar, somewhat
ladder-like , organelle, called synaptonemal complex, develops between the
synapsed homologous chromosomes. It is thought to stabilize the paired
condition of chromosomes till crossing over is completed.
 Pairing of two homologous chromosomes begins when their corresponding
ends come together on the nuclear matrix. Pairing may occur in one of the
following three ways-
(i) Proterminal pairing : It starts at the ends and proceeds towards the
middle
(ii) Procentric pairing: it begins at the centromeres and progresses towards
the ends.
(iii) Random ( intermediate) pairing: It commences at many point towards
the ends.
 The synaptonemal complex is attached at both ends through its lateral
element to the inner surface of the nuclear membrane. The central elements
is not attached directly . Also arising from the lateral elemnent is another
series of smaller loops. These loops fuse in the middle line to make up the
central element.

Pachytene

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 Zygotene is followed by pachytene or pachynema. It is said to begin when
synapsis is completed. It lasts from the completion of the synaptonemal
complexes to the stage where their breakdown begins
 The synapsed chromosomes continue to become short and thick ( G. pachus =
thick, tene = thread). The chromatids of each synapsed chromosome slightly
separate and become visible. The two visible chromatids of a chromosome are
referred to as a dyad. A group of four homologous chromatids (two dyads) is
called sister chromatids and those of two homologous chromosomes
(bivalent) are termed non-sister chromatids.
 Crossing over ( recombination) occurs during pachytene. Recombination
involves mutual exchange of the corresponding segments of non-sister
chromatids of homologous chromosomes. It takes place by breakage and
reunion of chromatid segments. Breakage, called nicking, is assisted by an
enzyme endonuclease and reunion, termed annealing, is aided by an enzyme
ligase.
 It has been found that crossing over is a common event. Normally, each tetrad
undergoes at least one recombination.

Diplotene

 During diplotene or diplonema the synaptic forces keeping the homologous

chromosomes together come to an end. The homologous chromosomes start
separating ( G. diplos = double; tene = thread). This is called disjunction. It
makes chromatids more distinct and the tetrads very clear. Separation of
homologous chromosomes does not take place at the points called chiasmata
(singular, chiasma). The chiasmata make the sites where crossing over
occurred during pachytene ( Gr . chiasma = crosspiece). They help in holding
homologous chromosomes together.
 The number and position of chiasmata varies with the length of the
chromosomes and with the species. Chiasmata are found in the meiosis of
almost all eukaryotic organism. However, achiasmatic meiosis ( meiosis
without chiasma) has been reported in some organisms, e.g. males of higher
dipteral ( includeing Drosophila), Panorpa ( scorpion fly), many mantids and
roaches, some grasshoppers and scorpions. A chiasma formed at the ends of
chromosomes is called termical chiasma. Chiasmata formed along the lengths
of chromosomes are called interstitial chiasmata.

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 During diplotene the chiasmata begins to be displaced along the length of the
chromosome. The terminal chiasma slips off the ends of the chromosomes,
and its position is taken up by an interstitial chiasma, which is now called the
terminal chiasma. This process is called terminalization. As diplotene
progresses the number of interstitial chiasmata becomes lesser in number.
The terminalization may be due to electrostatic force or despiralization of
chromosomes.
 When terminalization is completed the homologous remain in contact
through the terminal chiasma. The degree of terminalization is expressed by
the terminalization coefficient (T).
 The synaptonemal complexes mostly disappear during diplotene. In certain
regions short segments may persist. The most common regions where the
complexes persists are, near the ends of the bivalents where the lateral
elements are attached to the nuclear membrane, and at the sites of chiasmata
formation. With the disappearance of the synaptonemal complexes the axial
filaments become unpaired.
 In diplotene, the chromosomes may unfold to nearly normal form and start
transcription of mRNA and rRNA to build up food reverves in the cytoplasm.
This process is most profound in the primary ooctytes of amphibians, reptiles
and brids. In some species, the chromosomes enlarge greatly, assuming
lampbrush form.

Diakinesis

 Diakinesis is not sharply differentiated from diplotene. The chromosomes

become more conctracted. The bivalents are more evenly distributed in the

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nucleus and migrate towards the periphery. RNA synthesis stops. Nucleolus
degenerates. A spindle begins to develop, with or without centrioles.
Prometaphase I

 The nuclear membrane disappears in prometaphase I and the chromosomes

reach their maximum contraction. Spindle formation begins
Metaphase I

 The chromosomes now become arranged on a equator of the cell, The spindle
is formed. Spindle fibres becomes attached to the centromeres of the two
homologous chromosomes. The two centromeres of each bivalent lie on
opposite side of the equatorial plate.
 The attachment of tetrads to the spindle fibres in metaphase I is different
from that of mitotic metaphase chromosomes. Each homologous
chromosome has two kinetochore, one for each of its two chromatids. Both
the kinetochores of a homologous chromosome connect to the same spindle
pole. The two kinetochores of its homologous join the opposite spindle pole.
In metaphase I of meiosis there are bivalents, each bivalent consisting of two
centromeres.
Anaphase I

 During anaphase I, from each tetrad two chromatids of a chromosome move

as a unit ( dyad) to one pole of a spindle, and the remaining two chromatids of
its homologue migrate to the opposite pole.
 Thus, the homologous chromosomes of each pair, rather than the chromatids
of a chromosome, are separated. As a result, half of the chromosomes, which
appear in early prophase, go to each pole. It is here in the anaphase I that the
real reduction in the poles is still double and consists of two chromatids. This
is in contrast to the single-stranded chromosomes of mitotic anaphase
 The paternal and maternal chromosomes of each homologous pair segregate
during anaphase I independently of the other chromosomes. Anaphase I is
cytological event that corresponds to Mendel’s law of independent
assortment. Although the paternal and maternal chromosomes of a
homologous pair have the genes for the same traits, either chromosome of a
pair may carry different alleles of same genes. Therefore, independent
assortment of homologous chromosomes in anaphase I introduces genetic
variability.
Telophase I

 During telophase I the chromosomes at each pole of the spindle uncoil and
elongate, but remain straight and often do not assume interphase form. The

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satellite chromosome develop forms around the chromosomes and nucleoli.

The spindle and the astral rays gradually disappear.
 The cytoplasm divides at its middle by cleavage ( constriction) in an animal cell
and by cell plate formation in plant cell. This produces two daughter cell, each
has received only one chromosome from each homologous pair. Thus it has
half the number of chromosomes, but double the amount of nuclear DNA as
each chromosome is still double.
 The daughter cells formed by meiosis I are called secondary spermatocytes or
secondary oocytes in male and female animals.
 Cell enter a period of rest as interkinesis or interphase II. No DNA replication
occurs during this stage. Protein and RNA synthesis may occur. It is important
for bringing true haploidy.

Meiosis II

 The second meiotic division is essentially similar to mitosis. In this division, the
two chromatids of each chromosome separate from each other and go to
separate daughter cells. With the result, the number of chromosomes remains
the same as produced by meiosis I, Meiosis II is, therefore, known as
homotypic division. If however, differs from mitosis in that DNA does not
duplicate, while centromere do so. It has 4 phases – Prophase II, metaphase II,
anaphase II, and telophase II.

Prophase II

 Prophase II takes an inversely proportional time compared to telophase I. In

this process we see the disappearance of nucleoli and the nuclear envelop
again as well as the shortening and thickening of chromatids. Centrioles move
to the polar region and are arranged by spindle fibres.
Metaphase II

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 In metaphase II the chromosomes become oriented on the equatorial plate
and have the relationship to the spindle as in mitosis.

Anaphase II

 Anaphase II, where the centromeres are cleaved, allows the kinetochores to
pull the sister chromatids apart. The sister chromatids by convention are now
called sister chromosomes, and they are pulled towards opposite poles

Telophase II

 In telophase II the group of chromosomes at each pole of the spindle gets

enclosed by a nuclear envelope. Nucleoli are laid sown, Astral rays and
spindles are lost

Cytokinesis

 Cytoplasm divides at its middle by furrowing in an animal cell and by cell plate
formation in a plant cell. This produces two daughter cells. The latter have half
the number of chromosomes and half the amount of nuclear DNA. These cells
are mature gametes in animals and spores in plants.
 Cytokinesis may occur after each nuclear division. In such cases, it is said to be
of successive type. First the diploid parent cell divides by heterotypic division
into two haploid cells, which then produce four haploid cells by homotypic
division. The four daughter cells may form a linear or isobilateral tetrad. Often
cytokinesis is delayed until both the nuclear divisions are completed, so that
four cells are simultaneously formed, each with a haploid nucleus. The
cytoplasmic division in such cases is said to be of simultaneous type
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Significance of meiosis

 Formation of gametes – Meiosis forms gametes that are essential for sexual
reproduction .
 Genetic information – It switches on the genetic information for the
development of gametes or gametophytes and switches off the sporophytic
information
 Meiosis facilitates stable sexual reproduction – Without the halving of ploidy,
or chromosome count, fertilization would result in zygotes that have twice the
number of chromosomes than the zygotes from the previous generation.
Successive generations would have an exponential increase in chromosome
count, resulting in an unwildy genome that would cripple the reproductive
fitness of the species. Most importantly, however, meiosis produces genetic
variety in gametes that propagates to offspring. Recombination and
independent assortment allows for a greater diversity of genotype in the
population. As a system of creating diversity, meiosis allows a species to
maintain stability under environment changes.
 Crossing over- It introduces new combination of traits or variations.
 Mutations – Chromosomal and genomatic nutations can take place by
irregularities of meiotic divisions. Some of these mutations are useful to the
organism and are perpetuated by natural selection.
 Evidence of basic relationship of organisms – Details of meiosis are essentially
similar in the majority of organisms showing their basic similarity and
relationship.

ABNORMAL CELL GROWTH

 Cell division is a gene controlled process. The telomere of chromosomes

contains repetitive sequence of six nucleotide. These regions code for an
enzyme telomerase which control cell division. As cells go on dividing with
each division the number of nucleotide decreases and ultimately cells stop
dividing.
 Uncontrolled cell division may lead to the formation of undifferentiated
aggregate of cells termed tumor or neoplasm.
 Uncontrolled cell division leads to hyperplasis, hypertrophy, metaplasis,
neoplasia, and He La cell.
 The increased production and growth of normal cells in a tissue or organ is
termed hyperplasia. It is an accelerated rate of cell division resulting from an
increased level of cell metabolism. This generally results in an enlargement of
tissue mass and organ size. It occurs only in tissues capable of mitosis such as
the epithelium of skin, intestine and glands. Some cells do not divide and thus
can not undergo hyperplasia, for example nerve and muscle cells.
 An increase in the size of a tissue or organ brought about by the enlargement
of its cells is termed hypertrophy. When cells hypertrophy, components of the

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cell increase in number with increased functional capacity to meeting
increased cells needs. Hypertrophy generally occurs in situations where the
organ or tissue can not adapt to an increased demand by formation of more
cells. This is commonly seen in cardiac and skeletal muscles cells, which do not
divide to form more cells.
 The process of conservation of normal tissue cells into an abnormal form in
response to stress or injury or infection is termed metaplasia. It is a cellular
replacement process.
 The new and abnormal development of cells that may be benign or malignant
is termed neoplasia. There are two types of neoplasm – benign and malignant
- Benign growth : the benign growth is restricted to a particular site of the
body and the cells never spread out to different parts of the body e.g.
simple tumor
- Malignant growth : in malignant growth after the cells are being formed at
a particular site, the cells move out different parts of the body and initiate
similar type of growth. The stage of malignant growth in which the cells
spread out through the body fluid to different parts of the body is termed
metastasis. Malignant growth is also termed cancerous growth.
 He La cells (an aneuploid epithelial cells) are cell line culture of first human
cancerous cells donated by Henrietta Lacks from their uterine carcinoma cells
since 1952. These cells are maintained for use in studying cellular processes.

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