Carbon Steel Handbook

Carbon Steel Handbook
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Carbon Steel
Handbook
1014670
Final Report, March 2007
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iii
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
This report, one in an ongoing series of metallurgical reports, is devoted to

iron-based alloys that contain only residual amounts of elements other
than the primary alloying element, carbon—the definition of carbon steel.
Because of its attractive cost, wide availability, and ease of fabrication and
weldability, carbon steel is one of the most commonly used materials in
the electric power generation industry. Carbon steels in which carbon
represents 0.15–0.35%—those used most often as boiler and piping
materials—are the focus of this Carbon Steel Handbook.
Although carbon steel is available in virtually all product forms, it is the
pressure-containing applications that are of primary interest in this report:
pipes, tubes, plates, castings, forgings, and wrought fittings.
Results and Findings

The report presents technical background information on carbon steels and
the various international standards that apply to them; applicable
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and ASTM
International (ASTM) codes; the metallurgy of carbon steels; the physical,
mechanical, creep, graphitization, fatigue, and grain growth properties of
carbon steels; oxidation resistance; and fabrication and welding issues.
Two appendices—one containing a table of material chemical
compositions and the other containing a table of mechanical properties of
selected carbon steels—are included.
Challenges and Objectives

Maintaining an accurate knowledge of the full range of boiler materials
has become increasingly challenging: even for well-established alloys, the
information base continues to expand, and new alloys with complex
metallurgies are regularly introduced. The intent of this report and the
others in the series is to provide a comprehensive materials reference that
organizes relevant information in a concise manner for each material.
v
Applications, Value, and Use
The report will serve as a reference for utility engineers who must make
decisions about projects that involve carbon steels. An underlying
assumption is that engineers and other plant personnel will benefit from
access to information about relevant codes and standards, the
metallurgical characteristics of carbon steels, and their mechanical
properties. Because carbon is a particularly powerful alloying element in
steel, there are significant differences in the strength, hardness, and
ductility achievable with relatively small variations in the proportion of
carbon.
Although this report concentrates primarily on the pressure-containing
applications of carbon steels, it will also be a useful tool in addressing
structural fabrication issues. To give it the convenient portability of a field
guide, this report has been formatted as a pocket handbook.
EPRI Perspective
This report and the others in the series provide information about the most
common boiler materials. Although each has been produced as a volume
on an individual alloy, a broader perspective of the metallurgical aspects
of boiler steels can be gained through the EPRI report Metallurgical
Guidebook for Fossil Power Plant Boilers (1011912). Readers might also
wish to consult the previous EPRI reports in this series—The Grade 22
Low Alloy Steel Handbook (1011534) and The Grades 11 and 12 Low
Alloy Steel Handbook (1013358).
Approach
This series is being developed for several major component materials used
in fossil power production. In each section of these reports, the project
team has presented information in a succinct manner, with references to
source documents supporting technical information.
Keywords
Carbon steel
Fabrication issues
Metallurgy
Standards and codes
Welding issues
vi
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................... 1-1
2 TECHNICAL BACKGROUND............................................................... 2-1

2.1 Forms Available ......................................................................................... 2-7
2.2 Applications ................................................................................................ 2-8
3 STANDARDS AND CODES.................................................................. 3-1

3.1 Specifications ............................................................................................. 3-1
3.2 ASME Codes.............................................................................................. 3-6
3.2.1 Allowable Stresses .................................................................... 3-7
3.2.2 P Number Identification ............................................................. 3-9
4 METALLURGY ..................................................................................... 4-1

4.1 Chemical Composition ............................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Carbon Equivalence................................................................................... 4-3
4.3 Microstructure and Heat Treatment ........................................................... 4-4
4.3.1 Microstructure ............................................................................ 4-4
4.3.2 Transformation Behavior ........................................................... 4-9
4.3.3 Transformation Diagrams ........................................................ 4-19
4.3.4 Heat Treatment........................................................................ 4-24
5 PROPERTIES ....................................................................................... 5-1

5.1 Physical Properties .................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 Mechanical Properties ............................................................................... 5-6
5.3 Creep Properties ........................................................................................ 5-7
5.4 Graphitization ........................................................................................... 5-11
5.5 Fatigue Properties.................................................................................... 5-14
5.6 Grain Growth Effect on Properties ........................................................... 5-15
6 OXIDATION RESISTANCE................................................................... 6-1

6.1 Scale Formation ......................................................................................... 6-1
6.2 Life Assessment by Oxide Thickness Measurement................................. 6-2
vii
7 FABRICATION ..................................................................................... 7-1
7.1 Machinability .............................................................................................. 7-1
7.2 Forming and Forging.................................................................................. 7-1
7.3 Welding ...................................................................................................... 7-2
7.3.1 Weldability ................................................................................. 7-2
7.3.2 Weld Joint Preparation .............................................................. 7-5
7.3.3 WPSs ....................................................................................... 7-10
7.3.4 Welder and Welding Operator Qualification............................ 7-12
7.3.5 Preheat and PWHT ................................................................. 7-12
7.3.6 Filler Metal Selection ............................................................... 7-17

7.4 Repair....................................................................................................... 7-18
7.5 Welding Dissimilar Steels ........................................................................ 7-19
8 REFERENCES...................................................................................... 8-1
A MATERIAL CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS .......................................... A-1
B MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SELECTED CARBON

STEELS.................................................................................................. B-1
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3-1 Allowable Stress Trend Curves, SA-516 Gr. 65 ......................................... 3-8
Figure 4-1 Carbon Steel Microstructures ..................................................................... 4-6
Figure 4-2 The Growth of Bainite and the Development of Upper and Lower
Bainite Morphologies ........................................................................................ 4-8
Figure 4-3 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram ............................................................. 4-10
Figure 4-4 Schematic Representation of Plain Carbon Steel (0.20%
Carbon) When Heated Rapidly to the Temperature Shown .......................... 4-12
Figure 4-5 Schematic Representation of Transformations of Carbon Steel
with Slow Cooling ........................................................................................... 4-14
Figure 4-6 Microstructure of Upper Bainite as Seen in the Transmission
Electron Microscope ....................................................................................... 4-16
Figure 4-7 Microstructure of Lower Bainite as Seen in the Transmission
Electron Microscope ....................................................................................... 4-17
Figure 4-8 Microstructure of Water-Quenched Low-Alloy Steel Showing
Lath Martensite............................................................................................... 4-18
Figure 4-9 The Relationship Between Carbon Content and Maximum
Obtainable Hardness in Carbon or Alloy Steels ............................................ 4-19
Figure 4-10 The Relationship of CCT and IT Diagrams for Eutectoid Steel .............. 4-20
Figure 4-11 Isothermal Transformation Diagram for SAE 1021 Steel (0.20%
Carbon)........................................................................................................... 4-22
Figure 4-12 Isothermal Transformation Diagram for AISI-SAE 1035 Steel ............... 4-23
Figure 5-1 Carbon Steel (AISI 1025) Specific Heat Versus Temperature ................... 5-5
Figure 5-2 Design Tensile and Yield Strength of Carbon Steels Versus
Temperature ..................................................................................................... 5-6
Figure 5-3 Elevated Temperature Material Properties, Including Creep
Rupture for Medium Carbon Steel ................................................................... 5-8
Figure 5-4 Variation of the LMP with Stress for Rupture of Carbon Steel
Pipe and Tube .................................................................................................. 5-9
Figure 5-5 Variation of LMP with Stress for Rupture of Carbon Steel Plate .............. 5-10
Figure 5-6 The Relationship Between Graphitization, Temperature, and
Time................................................................................................................ 5-12
Figure 5-7 Photomicrograph Illustrating Graphitization (the Black Nodules)
in a Weld Heat-Affected Zone ........................................................................ 5-12
Figure 5-8 Typical S-N Curve for Medium Strength Carbon Steel ............................. 5-14
Figure 5-9 The Effect of Steel Microstructure on the Endurance Ratio ..................... 5-15
ix
Figure 5-10 The Effect of Grain Size on Transition Temperature .............................. 5-16
Figure 5-11 The Relationship Between 105-Hour Creep Rupture Strength
and Ultimate Tensile Strength for Carbon Steel ............................................ 5-17
Figure 7-1 Typical Butt Weld Joint Preparations .......................................................... 7-7
Figure 7-2 A Typical Weld Joint Preparation Trimmed for Misalignment..................... 7-8
Figure 7-3 A Typical Welding End Transition: Maximum Envelope ............................. 7-9
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Comparative International Specifications..................................................... 2-2

Table 3-1 Specific Carbon Steel ASME/ASTM Material Specifications
Covered and Source/Edition Information ......................................................... 3-2
Table 3-2 The Specific Carbon Steel International Material Specifications
Covered ............................................................................................................ 3-5
Table 5-1 Typical Physical Properties of Carbon Steel................................................ 5-2
Table 5-2 The Variation in Selected Physical Properties with Temperature................ 5-3
Table 5-3 Carbon Steel (AISI 1025) Specific Heat (Joules/Kilogram -
°Kelvin) Data Versus Temperature .................................................................. 5-5
Table 6-1 Maximum Metal Temperatures .................................................................... 6-1
Table 7-1 Listed Materials Without Current ASME Section IX P Number
Designations or with Group Number Exceptions ............................................. 7-3
Table A-1 Material Chemical Compositions .................................................................A-2
Table B-1 Mechanical Properties of Selected Carbon Steels ......................................B-2
xi
1
INTRODUCTION
It is important to clarify the meaning of carbon steel in the generic sense

and in the more narrow context used in this report. The term steel is
usually taken to mean an iron-based alloy containing carbon in amounts
less than about 2%. Carbon steels (sometimes also termed plain carbon
steels, ordinary steels, or straight carbon steels) can be defined as steels
that contain only residual amounts of elements other than carbon, except
those (such as silicon and aluminum) added for deoxidation and those
(such as manganese and cerium) added to counteract certain deleterious
effects of residual sulfur. However, silicon and manganese can be added
in amounts greater than those required strictly to meet these criteria so that
arbitrary upper limits for these elements have to be set; usually, 0.60% for
silicon and 1.65% for manganese are accepted as the limits for carbon
steel.
The carbon steels of interest in this report are those with carbon equal to
or less than about 0.35% to facilitate welding. A further distinction can be
made according to carbon content. Low-carbon steels (below 0.15%
carbon) contain too little carbon to benefit from hardening and are
frequently used in the hot-worked or—for maximum ductility—the
annealed condition. Steels of less than 0.25% carbon (often referred to as
mild steel) have somewhat higher strength near the upper carbon level.
Medium-carbon steels (0.25–0.55% carbon) are often heat-treated
(quenched and tempered) to achieve yet higher strength, but it is mainly
the compositions below 0.35% carbon that are relevant to this report.
Carbon steel is one of the most widely used materials in the industry. This
material is used not only in many of the water- and steam-pressure-
containing systems in power plants but also in the supports for these
systems. Although this report concentrates primarily on the pressure-
containing applications of carbon steels, it can also be a useful tool for
structural carbon steel fabrication issues.
As the description implies, the primary alloying element of these iron-

based materials is carbon. Because carbon is such a powerful alloying
element in steel, there are significant differences in the strength, hardness,
and ductility achievable with relatively small variations in the levels of
carbon in the composition. However, other important factors—such as
material fabrication, heat treatment, component fabrication, and
1-1
Introduction
fabrication processes—can result in significant changes to the properties
of the carbon steel components.
In some cases, requirements established by codes and standards must be

supplemented to achieve adequate results when working with carbon
steels. It is important for the utility engineer to have access to
metallurgical and properties information to aid in making decisions for
projects involving carbon steels. This report is intended to provide such
information on the most common boiler and piping materials used in
power plants. Not all carbon steels will be covered explicitly, but the user
should be able to draw relevant information needed for any required
decision.
1-2
2
TECHNICAL BACKGROUND
The carbon steel materials used in pressure applications cover a very wide
range of mechanical properties. Carbon steel materials are listed in the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure
Vessel (B&PV) Code [1] with a room temperature tensile strength range
from 40 kips per square inch (ksi) (275 megapascals [MPa]) up to 100 ksi
(690 MPa). Most of the higher strength materials have very limited
application in power plants; accordingly, the materials covered in this
report will be limited to those with a specified minimum tensile strength
less than 80 ksi (550 MPa).
Carbon steels are used in the United States and throughout the world for
nearly all of the same reasons: their cost, properties, ease of fabrication,
availability, weldability, and so on. Table 2-1 lists some ASME material
specifications covered in this report with some comparative European
material specifications and with those of the UK, Germany, and Japan
(where comparative international specifications are identified) [2].
However, it is important to note that these materials are not necessarily
exactly equivalent because there can be minor differences in the chemical
composition or mechanical properties requirements for the material. Note
that in Table 2-1, these are designated as comparative materials, not
equivalent materials. The material specifications of ASME and ASTM
International (ASTM), which are listed as comparative, are similar in both
chemistry and mechanical properties to those of the international
specifications listed. In general, an alloy is considered comparable if the
specified mechanical properties are essentially the same despite variation
in the compositions. The specifications are not identical, so they cannot be
considered equivalent. It is possible that a material meets the requirements
of any or all of the comparative specifications. Where available, the
Unified Numbering System (UNS) [3] identification is also given because
this identification provides some link between materials with the same
chemical composition (and to some extent, with their mechanical
properties) and has some significance in the ASME Codes.
2-1
Technical Background
Table 2-1
Comparative International Specifications (See general notes A, B, and C.)
CEN BS
UNS Number DIN JIS
ASME/ASTM (European (United
(Note 1) (Germany) (Japan)
Normal) Kingdom)
SA-27 60-30 J03000 3100 A1 G 5101 SC 410
SA-27 65-35 J03001 G 5102 SCW 450
SA-27 70-36 J03501 3100 A2 G 5101 SC 480
A-27 70-40 J02501 3100 A2 G 5101 SCW 480
17175 St35.8
SA-53 Gr. A K02504 (Note 2) 3601 320
(Note 3)
SA-53 Gr. B K03005 (Note 2) 3602-2 430 17175 St45.8 G 3454 STPG 410
SA-105 K03504 (Note 2) 10222-2 P 280GH G 3202 SFVC 2 A
SA-106 Gr. B K03006 (Note 2) 3602-2 430 17175 St45.8 G 3454 STPG 410
SA-106 Gr. C K03501 (Note 2) 3602-2 490 17175 17Mn4 G 3456 STPT 480
SA-135 Gr. A K02509 3601 320
SA-135 Gr. B K03018 3602-2 430 17175 St45.8 G 3454 STPG 410
A-139 Gr. A -- 3601 320
A-139 Gr. B K03003 (Note 2) 3602-2 430 17175 St45.8 G 3454 STPG 410
2-2
Table 2-1 (continued)
CEN BS
UNS Number DIN JIS
Normal) Kingdom)
A-139 Gr. C (Note 4) K03004 (Note 2) 3602-2 430 17175 St45.8 G 3454 STPG 410
A-139 Gr. D (Note 4) K03010 3602-2 430 17175 St45.8 G 3454 STPG 410
A-139 Gr. E (Note 4) K03012 3602-2 490 17175 17Mn4 G 3456 STPT 480
SA-178 Gr. A K01200 3059 320 28180 TTSt 35 N G 3461 STB 340
SA-178 Gr. C K03503 3059-2 440 G 3461 STB 410
SA-178 Gr. D K02709 G 3461 STB 510
SA-179 K01200 (Note 2) 3059 320 28180 TTSt 35 N G 3461 STB 340
SA-181 Cl. 60 K03502 10222-2 P245GH G 3202 SFVC 1
SA-181 Cl. 70 K03502 10222-2 P280GH G 3202 SFVC 2 A
SA-192 K01201 3059 320 28180 TTSt 35 N G 3461 STB 340
SA-210 Gr. A1 K02707 3059-2 440 17175 St45.8 G 3461 STB 410
SA-210 Gr. C K03501 G 3461 STB 510
SA-214 K01807 3059 320 28180 TTSt 35 N G 3461 STB 340
2-3
CEN BS
UNS Number DIN JIS
Normal) Kingdom)
10213-2
SA-216 WCB J03002 G 5151 SCPH 2
GP280GH
10213-2
SA-216 WCC (Note 4) J02503 G 5151 SCPH 2
GP280GH
10222-2 P245GH
SA-266 Gr. 1 K03506 (Note 2) G 3202 SFVC 1
QT
SA-266 Gr. 2 K03506 (Note 2) 10222-2 P280GH G 3202 SFVC 2 A
SA-266 Gr. 4 K03017 10222-2 P280GH G 3202 SFVC 2 B
SA-283 Gr. A K01400 10025 S185
SA-283 Gr. B K01702 G 3101 SS330
SA-283 Gr. C K02401 G 3101 SS400
SA-333 Gr. 1 K03008 17179 TStE 255 G 3460 STPL 380
SA-333 Gr. 6 K03006 17179 TStE 285 G 3460 STPL 450
SA-334 Gr. 1 K03008 17173 TTSt 35 N G 3464 STBL 380
3603 carbon,
SA-334 Gr. 6 K03006
430LT
2-4
CEN BS
UNS Number DIN JIS
Normal) Kingdom)
SA-350 LF1 K03009 10222-2 P245GH G 3202 SFVC 1
SA-350 LF2 K03011 10222-2 P280GH G 3202 SFVC 2 A
SA-352 LCA J02504 10213-3 G17Mn5 G 5152 SCPL 1
SA-352 LCB J03003 10213-3 G17Mn5 G 5152 SCPL 1
SA-352 LCC J02505 10213-3 G20Mn5 G 5152 SCPL 1
SA-508 Gr. 1 K13502 10222-2 P280GH G 3202 SFVC 2 A
SA-515 Gr. 60 K02401 10028-2 P265GH G 3103 SB 410
SA-515 Gr. 65 K02800 10028-2 P295GH G 3103 SB450
SA-515 Gr. 70 K03101 10028-5 P355ML G 3103 SB 480
SA-516 Gr. 60 K02100 10028-2 P265GH G 3103 SB 410
SA-516 Gr. 65 K02403 10028-2 P295GH G 3103 SB450
SA-516 Gr.70 K02700 10028-5 P355ML G 3103 SB 480
10028-5
SA-537 Cl.1 (Note 4) K12437 G 3115 SPV 315
P355ML2
2-5
CEN BS
UNS Number DIN JIS
Normal) Kingdom)
SA-541 Gr. 1 K03506 10222-2 P280GH G 3202 SFVC 2 A
SA-541 Gr. 1A K03020 10222-2 P280GH G 3202 SFVC 2 A
A-573 Gr. 58 K02301 G 3101 SS400
A-573 Gr. 65 K02404 10025 S275J2G4
A-573 Gr. 70 K02701 10025 E 295 G3106 SM490A
General notes:
A. Materials that are fabricated from other listed materials and those that do not have comparative specifications are not included.
B. Some specifications that have been discontinued or that are not listed as comparative in the Handbook of Comparative World Steel Standards [2] are not contained in this table
but are covered in this report. See Appendix A for a complete list of materials covered.
C. The non-U.S. specifications listed in Table 2-1 are British Standards (BSs), Japan Industrial Standards (JISs), and the standards established by the European Committee for
Standardization (CENs) and Deutsches Institut für Normung (DINs).
Notes:
1. UNS numbers are from ASTM DS-56I/SAE HS-1086/2004, 10th Edition, unless otherwise identified.
2. UNS numbers are from ASME B&PV, Section IX, Table QW/QB-422, 2004 Edition with 2005 Addenda.
3. This specification is not listed as comparative in the Handbook of Comparative World Steel Standards [2].
4. The high-yield strength of this material is likely to affect the allowable stresses as compared to the comparable materials.
2-6
2.1 Forms Available

Carbon steel is available in virtually all product forms, including both the
forms needed for pressure-containing applications and the shapes needed
for structural applications. This report addresses the following product
forms:
• Pipes
– SA-53, SA-106, SA-134, SA-135, A-139 (see Note 1), SA-155
(see Note 2), SA-333, A-381 (see Note 1), SA-524, SA-587,
SA-671, SA-672, and SA-691
– BS 3601, BS 3602, BS 3603, DIN 17175, DIN 17173, DIN
17179, DIN 28180, JIS G3454, JIS G3456, and JIS G3460
• Tubes
– SA-178, SA-179, SA-192, SA-210, SA-214, SA-226 (see Note
2), SA-334, and A-573 (see Note 1)
– BS 3059, DIN 17175, DIN 17173, DIN 17179, DIN 28180, JIS
G3461, and JIS G3464
• Plates
– SA-212 (see Note 2), SA-283, SA-285, SA-299, SA-433 (see
Note 2), SA-442 (see Note 2), SA-455, SA-515, SA-516, and
SA-537
– CEN 10025, CEN 10028-2, CEN 10028-5, JIS G3101, JIS
G3103, JIS G3106, and JIS G3115
• Castings
– SA-27 (see Note 3), SA-216, and SA-352
– CEN 10213-2, CEN 10213-3, BS 3100, JIS G5101, JIS G5102,
JIS G5151, and JIS G5152
• Forgings
– SA-105, SA-181, SA-266, SA-350, SA-372, SA-465 (see Note
2), SA-508, and SA-541
– CEN 10222-2 and JIS G3202
• Wrought fittings
– SA-234
2-7
Notes:
1. There is no ASME material specification, only an ASTM material
specification.
2. The specification or grade has been discontinued: information given
is from the last available specification or code. See Table 3-1 for the
specific source.
3. Some grades of ASTM A-27 were not accepted in the ASME
equivalent (SA-27).
2.2 Applications
Carbon steel is used in boilers, pressure vessels, heat exchangers, piping,
and other moderate-temperature service systems in which good strength
and ductility are desired. Significant other factors include cost,
availability, and the ease of fabrication.
2-8
3
STANDARDS AND CODES
3.1 Specifications
The lists provided in Tables 3-1 and 3-2 identify the specifications
covered by this report. In Table 3-1, all specifications listed as SA-nnn are
ASME specifications. Those listed as A-nnn are ASTM specifications that
have not been adopted by the ASME B&PV Code. However, it should be
noted that these steels might have been accepted for use in the ASME
Code for Pressure Piping [4], in Code cases, or in structural Codes. Unless
otherwise noted, all of the information for the ASME materials was
obtained from the ASME B&PV Code, Section II, Part A, 2004 Edition
with the 2005 Addenda [5]. For the discontinued specifications and those
that are unique to ASTM, the specific source information and the edition
year are also noted. The user should recognize that the information can
change between different editions of the specifications or Codes
referenced.
Table 3-2 identifies the international (non-U.S.) material specifications

identified as comparable to a number of the ASME/ASTM specifications
covered.
3-1
Standards and Codes
Table 3-1
Specific Carbon Steel ASME/ASTM Material Specifications Covered
and Source/Edition Information
Number Name
SA-27 Specification for Steel Castings, Carbon, for General

Application. (Note: source information taken from ASTM A-27-
95 [R2000], 2002 Edition.)
SA-53 Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-
Coated, Welded and Seamless: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-105 Specification for Carbon Steel Forgings for Piping
Applications: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-106 Specification for Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for High-
Temperature Service: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-134 Specification for Pipe, Steel, Electric-Fusion Arc-Welded
(Sizes NPS 16 and Over): 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-135 Specification for Electric-Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe: 2004
with 2005 Addenda.
A-139 Specification for Electric-Fusion Arc-Welded Steel Pipe.
(Note: source information was taken from ASTM A-139-00,
2002 Edition.)
SA-155 Specification for Electric-Fusion Welded Steel Pipe for High-
Pressure Service. (Note: ASTM A-155 was discontinued in
1978; source information taken from ASME SA-155, 1977
Edition.)
SA-178 Specification for Electric-Resistance-Welded Carbon Steel
and Carbon-Manganese Steel Boiler and Superheater Tubes:
2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-179 Specification for Seamless Cold-Drawn Low-Carbon Steel
Heat-Exchanger and Condenser Tubes: 2004 with 2005
Addenda.
SA-181 Specification for Carbon Steel Forgings, for General-Purpose
Piping: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-192 Specification for Seamless Carbon Steel Boiler Tubes for
High-Pressure Service: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-210 Specification for Seamless Medium-Carbon Steel Boiler and
Superheater Tubes: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-212 Specification for High Tensile Strength Carbon-Silicon Steel
Plates for Boilers and Other Pressure Vessels. (Note: ASTM
A-212 was discontinued in 1967; source information was
taken from ASTM A-212-1964.)
SA-214 Specification for Electric-Resistance-Welded Carbon Steel
Heat-Exchanger and Condenser Tubes: 2004 with 2005
Addenda.
3-2
Standards and Codes
Number Name
SA-216 Specification for Steel Castings, Carbon, Suitable for Fusion Welding for
High-Temperature Service: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-226 Specification for Electric-Resistance-Welded Carbon Steel Boiler and
Superheater Tubes for High-Pressure Service. (Note: ASTM A-226 was
discontinued in 1997; source information was taken from ASME SA-226,
1998 Edition.)
SA-234 Specification for Piping Fittings of Wrought Carbon Steel and Alloy Steel
for Moderate and High-Temperature Service: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-266 Specification for Carbon Steel Forgings for Pressure Vessel Components:
SA-283 Specification for Low and Intermediate Tensile Strength Carbon Steel
Plates: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-285 Specification for Pressure Vessel Plates, Carbon Steel, Low- and
Intermediate-Tensile Strength: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-299 Specification for Pressure Vessel Plates, Carbon Steel, Manganese-
Silicon: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-333 Specification for Seamless and Welded Steel Pipe for Low-Temperature
Service: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-334 Specification for Seamless and Welded Carbon and Alloy-Steel Tubes for
Low-Temperature Service: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-350 Specification for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Forgings, Requiring Notch
Toughness Testing for Piping Components: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-352 Specification for Steel Castings, Ferritic and Martensitic, for Pressure-
Containing Parts, Suitable for Low-Temperature Service: 2004 with 2005
Addenda.
SA-372 Specification for Carbon and Alloy Steel Forgings for Thin-Walled
Pressure Vessels: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
A-381 Specification for Metal-Arc-Welded Steel Pipe for Use with High-Pressure
Transmission Systems. (Note: source information was taken from ASTM
A-381-96, 2002 Edition.)
SA-433 Specification for Leaded Carbon Steel Plates for Pressure Vessels. (Note:
ASTM A-433 was discontinued in 1972; source information was taken
from ASME SA-433, 1971 Edition.)
SA-442 Specification for Pressure Vessel Plates, Carbon Steel, Improved
Transition Properties. (Note: ASTM A-442 was discontinued in 1991;
source information was taken from ASME SA-442, 1992 Edition.)
3-3
Standards and Codes
Number Name
SA-455 Specification for Pressure Vessel Plates, Carbon Steel, High-Strength
Manganese: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-465 Specification for Leaded Carbon Steel Forged Pipe Flanges and Parts for
Pressure and General Service. (Note: SA-465 was discontinued in 1975;
source information was taken from ASTM A-465-68, 1974 Edition.)
SA-508 Specification for Quenched and Tempered Vacuum-Treated Carbon and
Alloy Steel Forgings for Pressure Vessels: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-515 Specification for Pressure Vessel Plates, Carbon Steel, for Intermediate-
and Higher-Temperature Service: 2004 with 2005 Addenda. (Note:
exception—SA-515 Grade 55 was discontinued in ASME Section II, Part
A as of the 1992 Edition with the 1994 Addenda. Source information was
taken from the 1992 Edition without addenda.)
SA-516 Specification for Pressure Vessel Plates, Carbon Steel, for Moderate- and
Lower-Temperature Service: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-524 Specification for Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for Atmospheric and Lower
Temperatures: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-537 Specification for Pressure Vessel Plates, Heat-Treated, Carbon-
Manganese-Silicon Steel: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-541 Specification for Quenched and Tempered Carbon and Alloy Steel
Forgings for Pressure Vessel Components: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
A-573 Specification for Structural Carbon Steel Plates of Improved Toughness.
(Note: source information was taken from ASTM A-573-00a, 2002
Edition.)
SA-587 Specification for Electric-Resistance-Welded Low-Carbon Steel Pipe for
the Chemical Industry: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-671 Specification for Electric-Fusion-Welded Steel Pipe for Atmospheric and
Lower Temperatures: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-672 Specification for Electric-Fusion-Welded Steel Pipe for High-Pressure
Service at Moderate Temperatures: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
SA-691 Specification for Carbon and Alloy Steel Pipe, Electric-Fusion-Welded
Steel Pipe for High-Pressure Service at High Temperatures: 2004 with
2005 Addenda.
3-4
Standards and Codes
Table 3-2
The Specific Carbon Steel International Material Specifications
Covered [2]
CEN
EN 10025 Hot Rolled Products of Non-Alloy Structural Steels.
EN 10028-2 Specification for Flat Products Made of Steels for Pressure Purposes.
Non-Alloy and Alloy Steels with Specified Elevated Temperature
Properties.
EN 10028-5 Specification for Flat Products Made of Steels for Pressure Purposes.
Weldable Fine Grain Steels, Thermomechanically Rolled.
EN 10213-2 Technical Delivery Conditions for Steel Castings for Pressure
Purposes. Steel Grades for Use at Room Temperature and at
Elevated Temperature.
EN 10213-3 Technical Delivery Conditions for Steel Castings for Pressure
Purposes. Steels for Use at Low Temperatures.
EN 10222-2 Steel Forgings for Pressure Purposes. Ferritic and Martensitic Steels
with Specified Elevated Temperature Properties.
BS
BS 3059 Steel Boiler and Superheater Tubes.
BS 3100 Steel Castings for General Engineering Purposes.
BS 3601 Carbon Steel Pipes and Tubes with Specified Room Temperature
Properties for Pressure Purposes.
BS 3602 Steel Pipes and Tubes for Pressure Purposes: Carbon and Carbon
Manganese Steel with Specified Elevated Temperature Properties.
BS 3603 Carbon and Alloy Steel Pipes and Tubes with Specified Low
Temperature Properties for Pressure Purposes.
DIN
DIN 17173 Seamless Circular Tubes Made from Steels with Low Temperature
Toughness.
DIN 17175 Seamless Tubes of Heat Resistant Steels.
DIN 17179 Seamless Circular Fine Grain Steel Tubes Subject to Special
Requirements.
DIN 28180 Seamless Steel Tubes for Tubular Heat Exchangers.
3-5
Standards and Codes
The Specific Carbon Steel International Material Specifications
Covered [2]
JIS
JIS G 3101 Rolled Steels for General Structure.
JIS G 3103 Carbon Steel and Molybdenum Alloy Steel Plates for Boilers and
Other Pressure Vessels.
JIS G 3115 Steel Plates for Pressure Vessels for Intermediate Temperature
Service.
JIS G 3202 Carbon Steel Forgings for Pressure Vessels.
JIS G 3454 Carbon Steel Pipes for Pressure Service.
JIS G 3456 Carbon Steel Pipes for High Temperature Service.
JIS G 3460 Steel Pipes for Low Temperature Service.
JIS G 3461 Carbon Steel Boiler and Heat Exchange Tubes.
JIS G 3464 Steel Heat Exchanger Tubes for Low Temperature Service.
JIS G 5101 Carbon Steel Castings.
JIS G 5102 Steel Castings for Welded Structure.
JIS G 5151 Steel Castings for High Temperature and High Pressure Service.
JIS G 5152 Steel Castings for Low Temperature and High Pressure Service.
3.2 ASME Codes

The acceptability of materials is controlled by the relevant Codes.
Typically, general information is provided because the specific application
and service are not known. The ultimate selection of the correct material is
therefore the responsibility of the design or fabrication engineer. By
listing the design’s allowable stresses, the Codes do limit the materials
that can be chosen. Only those materials that meet certain requirements as
listed in the specifications should be used. In the B&PV Code, the
acceptable materials are contained in Section II, Materials. Section II
includes four parts—Part A, Ferrous Materials; Part B, Nonferrous
Materials; Part C, Welding Filler Materials; and Part D, Properties
(including allowable stresses).
In the B31 Code for Pressure Piping, including the B31.1 Code for Power
Piping [6] and the B31.3 Code for Process Piping [7], a list of materials is
provided within the specific Code section. The allowable stresses for the
materials are given. Some of the B31 Codes (including B31.1 and B31.3)
3-6
Standards and Codes
allow the use of materials that are not listed. (In the case of B31.1, this has
been true only since the 2001 edition.) However, restrictions apply to the
use of unlisted materials.
3.2.1 Allowable Stresses
The Code-allowable stresses are determined by the ASME Subcommittee

on Materials and are listed in ASME Section II, Part D [8] of the B&PV
Code. That organization also determines the allowable stress for the B31
Codes, although those stresses are not published in Section II. The basic
rules for acceptance of new materials are contained in the “Guideline on
the Approval of New Materials Under the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code” (found in Section II, Part D, Appendix 5) and in the similar
requirements of B31.1, Appendix VI, “Approval of New Materials.” The
allowable stresses are based on properties data provided to the
Subcommittee from at least three heats of the material. The properties that
must be included are the tensile and yield strengths at 100ºF (38ºC)
intervals from room temperature to 100ºF (38ºC) above the maximum
intended use temperature. Also, if the material is expected to be used in
the time-dependent temperature range (that is, creep), creep rate and stress
rupture data must be included starting at approximately 50ºF (10ºC) below
the temperature at which the time-dependent properties might govern to
100ºF (38ºC) above the maximum use temperature. A duration of at least
6000 hours is required for the creep rupture tests.
The basis for the allowable stresses can vary in different Codes, although
the bases are generally the same for most power plant applications. Recent
changes to the safety factor in the B&PV Code and in the B31.1 Code
have resulted in increased allowable stresses (the safety factor based on
tensile strength was reduced from 4 to 3.5). Although different Codes
might have different requirements for the allowable stresses, the criteria
used to establish the allowable stress for the Code’s Tables 1A and 1B are
shown in Table 1-100 of Appendix 1 of ASME Section II, Part D [8].
These criteria follow:
• (1/3.5) x the tensile strength at temperature (2YS/3)
• (2/3) x the yield strength at temperature (TS/3.5)
• A percentage of the creep rupture strength dependent on the testing
period
3-7
Standards and Codes
The data are used to develop trend curves. Each of these values (TS/3.5,
2YS/3, and the creep strength value) is plotted against the temperature,
and the lowest value is the allowable stress for that material and that
temperature. See Figure 3-1 for an example plot for SA-516 Gr. 65.
Figure 3-1
Allowable Stress Trend Curves, SA-516 Gr. 65
Allowable stresses must be obtained from the applicable Code. The

allowable stresses are subject to change because they are a function of the
safety factor used in the applicable Code and of the properties of the
material specification (which are also subject to change). There are also
differences in the temperature limits for the materials. Due to the fact that
the strength requirements and the pressure-temperature tables of the
standards are subject to change, particular attention should be paid to the
edition reference of the material specification or referenced standard. Prior
to referencing a later edition, the Code committees review these changes
and adjust the allowable stresses accordingly.
3-8
Standards and Codes
3.2.2 P Number Identification
The ASME P number is an indication of weldability (see also Section

7.3.1). The ASME B&PV Codes and the B31 Codes all reference ASME
Section IX [9] as a standard approach to qualifying welding procedures
and welders/welding operators. Section IX designates groups of similar
base materials from the weldability standpoint as P numbers (see Section
7.3.1). All of the materials discussed in this report—which include all of
the readily weldable carbon steels listed in the B&PV and B31 Codes—
carry a P number designation of 1. For the purpose of specific toughness
testing, each set of P number materials is subdivided into groups. The P

number 1 materials are divided into groups 1 through 4, which loosely
reflect the strength levels of the materials, as follows:
• Group 1: materials with a minimum tensile strength requirement less
than 70 ksi (485 MPa)
• Group 2: materials with a minimum tensile strength from 70 ksi
(485 MPa) to less than 80 ksi (550 MPa)
• Group 3: materials with a minimum tensile strength from 80 ksi
(550 MPa) to less than 90 ksi (620 MPa)
• Group 4: materials with minimum tensile strength properties of more
than 90 ksi (620 MPa)
Whereas the purpose of P numbers is to establish qualification material

groups based on weldability, the Codes expand the use of the designation
into other areas, such as preheat, post-weld heat treatment (PWHT), and
bending and forming rules.
3-9
4
METALLURGY
4.1 Chemical Composition

The chemical compositions of the materials are also established by the
material specifications for each type or grade of material. The elements
that are not identified should not be present in more than trace amounts—
except iron, of course, the primary constituent of carbon steels.
The chemical compositions for the ASME carbon steels covered herein
are given in Appendix A. Single values are minimums unless otherwise
identified, and ranges are given for other elements. The UNS number is
listed again for convenience and because the main criteria used to
establish that identification is the chemical composition.
The heat analysis is given unless otherwise noted. Although this is the
analysis taken from the molten heat and given on the certified material test
report, the actual composition of the end product might vary in excess of
the heat analysis due to fluctuations that occur during solidification and
processing. The limits on the product analysis are therefore somewhat less
restrictive than those of the heat analysis.
As previously discussed, the alloying that is used for the materials covered
by this report is limited primarily to carbon, manganese, and silicon added
in limited and varying percentages to the iron base. In spite of this limited
alloying, the properties of the materials are wide-ranging, as described in
Section 5. The metallurgical structure and the carbon content are major
contributors to the overall properties of the different carbon steel
materials. Materials classified as carbon steel might also contain small
amounts of other elements, such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum,
copper, vanadium, niobium (columbium), phosphorous, and sulfur.
Each element that is added to the basic constituent of iron has some effect
on the end properties of the material and how that material reacts to
fabrication processes. The alloying additions are responsible for many of
4-1
Metallurgy
the differences between the various types or grades of carbon steels.

Following is a list of the elements commonly added to iron and their
effects on the material:
• Carbon. Carbon is the most important alloying element in steel and
can be present up to 2% (although most welded steels have less than
0.5%). The carbon can exist either dissolved in the iron or in a
combined form, such as iron carbide (Fe3C). Increased amounts of
carbon increase hardness and tensile strength as well as response to
heat treatment (hardenability). On the other hand, increased amounts
of carbon reduce weldability.
• Manganese. Steels usually contain at least 0.3% manganese, which
acts in a three-fold manner: it assists in deoxidation of the steel,
prevents the formation of iron sulfide inclusions, and promotes
greater strength by increasing the hardenability of the steel. Amounts
up to 1.5% are commonly found in carbon steels.
• Silicon. Usually, only small amounts (0.2%, for example) are present
in rolled steel when silicon is used as a deoxidizer. However, in steel
castings, 0.35–1.0% is common. Silicon dissolves in iron and tends
to strengthen it. Weld metal usually contains approximately 0.5%
silicon as a deoxidizer. Some filler metals can contain up to 1.0% to
provide enhanced cleaning and deoxidation for welding on
contaminated surfaces. When these filler metals are used for welding
of clean surfaces, the resulting weld metal strength will be markedly
increased. The resulting decrease in ductility could present cracking
problems in some situations.
• Sulfur. This is an undesirable impurity in steel rather than an alloying
element. Special effort is made to eliminate or minimize sulfur
during steelmaking. In amounts exceeding 0.05%, it tends to cause
brittleness and reduce weldability. Additions of sulfur in amounts
from 0.1% to 0.3% will tend to improve the machinability of steel
but impair weldability. These types of steel can be referred to as free-
machining.
• Phosphorus. Phosphorus is also considered to be an undesirable
impurity in steels. It is normally found in amounts up to 0.04% in
most carbon steels. In hardened steels, it tends to cause
embrittlement. In low-alloy, high-strength steels, phosphorus can be
added in amounts up to 0.10% to improve both strength and
corrosion resistance, although it is not generally added for this reason
in carbon steels.
4-2
Metallurgy
• Chromium. Chromium is a powerful alloying element in steel. It is

added for two principal reasons: first, it greatly increases the
hardenability of steel; second, it markedly improves the corrosion
resistance of iron and steel in oxidizing types of media. Its presence
in some steels could cause excessive hardness and cracking in and
adjacent to the weld. Stainless steels contain chromium in amounts
exceeding 12%.
• Molybdenum. This element is a strong carbide former and is usually
present in alloy steels in amounts less than 1.0%. It is added to
increase hardenability and to elevate temperature strength.
• Nickel. Nickel is added to steels to increase their hardenability. It
performs well in this function because it often improves the
toughness and ductility of the steel, even with the increased strength
and hardness. Nickel is frequently used to improve steel toughness at
low temperatures.
• Vanadium. The addition of vanadium will result in an increase in the
hardenability of steel. It is very effective in this role, so it is generally
added in minute amounts. In amounts greater than 0.05%, there can
be a tendency for the steel to become embrittled during thermal stress
relief treatments.
• Columbium. Columbium (also called niobium), like vanadium, is
generally considered to increase the hardenability of steel. However,
due to its strong affinity for carbon, it can combine with carbon in the
steel to result in an overall decrease in hardenability.
• Other alloying elements. Some carbon steel specifications allow
additions of certain other elements, but they are not deliberately
added. Other specifications might list these elements as a specified
addition to the steel, but the addition would be minor in carbon
steels.
4.2 Carbon Equivalence

Carbon is usually considered to be the most important contributor to the
hardness and strength of ferrous steels. Even when other alloying elements
are not present, high carbon content can result in high local hardnesses.
However, other alloying elements also contribute to the overall
hardenability of the steel. This effect can be generally quantified by the
determination of the carbon equivalence (CE) of the steel.
4-3
Metallurgy
CE is defined by several formulas, and it is important that close attention
be paid to the formula being used. The following formula is used in most
ASME applications:
CE = C + (Mn + Si)/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Ni + Cu)/15
It is important that any CE determination be calculated using the actual

chemical analysis rather than the maximums specified in materials
specifications. If this is not done, the calculation will result in an
unrealistically high CE [10].
The CE can be specified at certain maximum values (for example, SA-537

Class 1; see Appendix A) and can be applied to a variety of fabrication
variables. These are covered within the discussion of those variables.
4.3 Microstructure and Heat Treatment
4.3.1 Microstructure
Metallic materials take the form of a crystalline structure in the solid state
(with the exception of amorphous metals that have been formed under
radical cooling conditions, unlike those that occur in normal processing).
The crystalline structure and the alloying elements added to pure iron give
carbon steel the ability to have a wide range of properties, which make it
one of the most useful materials in industry today. The crystalline
structure of carbon steel might include body-centered cubic (ferrite), face-
centered cubic (austenite), or body-centered tetragonal (martensite) forms.
The crystalline structure forms in many directions during solidification

from the molten state of the material. Solidification starts from initiation
points and continues until the crystalline structure that is formed runs into
another island that started from a different point. Each of these islands of a
single orientation is a grain that exists as a singular structure. The size of
these grains also contributes to the properties of the material and as will be
discussed, also affects the ability of the material to form certain
microstructures. As the material cools, carbon steel crystalline structures
are forced to change from one structure to another—these are called phase
transformations. The different structures have different limits of solubility
of the alloying elements, primarily carbon in carbon steels. The
microstructure can also contain other compounds, such as metallic
carbides, interspersed with the crystalline form. The complex
microstructure of carbon steel includes the crystalline structure, the grain
size, and the size and frequency of the interspersed metallic compounds.
4-4
Metallurgy
Carbon steels can exist in different microstructures or combinations of
microstructures. The microstructures of carbon steels include not only the
crystalline structure but also various metallic carbides or compounds in
different arrangements. Pearlite, upper bainite, and lower bainite are
examples of the arrangements that can exist (see Figure 4-1).
4-5
Metallurgy
Figure 4-1
Carbon Steel Microstructures (These have been created in high
carbon eutectoid steel [0.77% carbon] by isothermal transformation.
A nital etchant and 500x magnification were used.) [11]
Reprinted with permission of the American Welding Society. All rights
reserved.
4-6
Metallurgy
The mechanism by which the arrangements in Figure 4-1 were formed
will be covered in Section 4.3.2, but the following is a brief description of
each of these microstructures.
Pearlite is an arrangement of thin alternating and roughly parallel lamellar

platelets of ferritic (body-centered cubic) structures with iron carbides
(Fe3C) called cementite. The lamellar platelets can be coarse or fine, but
they are often recognizable with optical microscopy. Bainite is an
arrangement of aggregates of ferrite with distributions of precipitated
carbide particles. However, the arrangement can take different forms, thus
the terms upper bainite and lower bainite. Upper bainite consists of small
ferrite grains that form in plate-shaped sheaths. These grains are
interspersed with the cementite that forms at relatively high temperatures.
Lower bainite consists of needlelike ferrite plates containing a dispersion
of very small carbide particles (see Figure 4-1). (Note that the 0.77%
carbon material used to illustrate these structures is not the low- to
medium-carbon steels of this report.) An illustration of the growth of
upper and lower bainite appears in Figure 4-2.
4-7
Metallurgy
Figure 4-2
The Growth of Bainite and the Development of Upper and Lower
Bainite Morphologies [12]
Reprinted with permission of ASM International. All rights reserved.
These different microstructures or crystalline structures have significantly

different properties that are determined by alloy content (again, primarily
carbon) and the various thermal cycles that can exist during fabrication
and heat treatment. This will become more evident during the following
discussions on transformation behavior, transformation diagrams, and heat
treatment (see Sections 4.3.2–4.3.4).
4-8
Metallurgy
4.3.2 Transformation Behavior
The crystalline structure of pure iron is ferrite at room temperature. The

room temperature form of ferrite is called alpha (α) ferrite. At higher
temperatures, the ferritic structure is unstable and transforms into a face-
centered cubic structure called gamma (γ) austenite. At even higher
temperatures, the austenitic structure might again transform into a higher
temperature form of ferrite; this is called delta (δ) ferrite.
Iron-iron carbide phase diagrams (see Figure 4-3) represent the crystalline
structures, or phases, of the carbon steels in an equilibrium state that are
determined by very slow cooling from molten material. This is not a
realistic view of the microstructural phases that exist during normal
fabrication processes because the heating and cooling rates significantly
affect the temperatures at which the suggested phase transformations
occur. This effect can be seen in the temperature difference between A1,
the equilibrium lower transformation temperature, and Ar1, the lower
transformation temperature upon cooling. Although not shown, there is
also a lower transformation temperature upon heating, Ac1, which is
somewhat higher than A1. The Ac1 temperatures depict the start point of
the transformation between the α ferrite and the γ austenite upon heating.
The phase diagram in Figure 4-3 also shows an equilibrium upper
transformation temperature—A3. Similar to the variations noted for A1,
there are also upper transformation temperatures upon heating and cooling
(Ac3 and Ar3, respectively). The transformation temperatures indicate the
points at which the structure becomes an unstable form and begins to
undergo a transformation to a different crystalline structure. It can be seen
that carbon steels, with a typical maximum carbon content of less than
0.35% for pressure-containing applications, will have a transformation
temperature range that will vary with the carbon content and the rate of
heating or cooling.
4-9
Metallurgy
Figure 4-3
Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram [11]
reserved.
The ferritic structure at room temperature has a relatively low ability

(probably less than 0.008%) to contain carbon atoms in the space between
the iron atoms (interstitially). The face-centered cubic structure has a
much higher affinity for carbon and can contain as much as approximately
2.1%. Carbon that cannot be contained interstitially can exist in other
forms, such as iron carbides or carbides of other metal elements. In a
carbon steel microstructure, iron carbides can appear as platelets or
particles of cementite (Fe3C). A microstructure that has alternating
4-10
Metallurgy
platelets of ferrite and cementite is called pearlite. With certain rates of

cooling, the carbon steel microstructure can also be bainite. Bainitic
structures represent a variety of ferrite aggregates with a distribution of
small iron carbide precipitates.
Upon heating the carbon steel microstructure through the transformation

range, the ferrite will transform into an austenitic structure. Because the
austenitic structure has a much higher solubility of carbon, the iron
carbides dissolve and the carbon enters into solution with the austenitic
iron microstructure. This is a time- and temperature-dependent mechanism
that takes longer if the cementite particles or platelets are large. An
increased rate of heating will also have the effect of requiring a higher
temperature to complete the dissolution. See Figure 4-4 for an illustration
of the transformations that are expected when low-carbon steel is heated
rapidly.
4-11
Metallurgy
Figure 4-4
Schematic Representation of Plain Carbon Steel (0.20% Carbon)
When Heated Rapidly to the Temperature Shown [11]
reserved.
4-12
Metallurgy
Shortly after full austenization has been completed and upon the
temperature reaching a point slightly above the upper transformation
temperature Ac3, the grain size will be quite small. Upon subsequent
cooling, this fine grain structure will be essentially maintained. However,
if the metal is heated to a higher temperature before cooling, the grain size
will be larger, and the result will be a coarser grain structure in the room
temperature structure. The temperature reached during thermal cycles
upon heating above the transformation temperatures (such as during a
welding process) will therefore have a significant effect on the end
properties of the material.
Transformations of even greater significance occur during cooling from

the austenitic structure of carbon steel. As previously discussed, the
austenitic structure can contain a much higher level of carbon than the
ferritic structure, which can contain a maximum of only about 0.008%
carbon. When austenitized carbon steel is cooled very slowly (when it is
equilibrium cooled, essentially), ferrite grains begin to form just below the
Ar3 (the upper transformation temperature upon cooling). These ferrite
grains cannot contain the typical carbon content levels of carbon steel; as
a result, the content increases in the austenite grains—the reverse of what
happens when the ferritic grains are heated through the transformation
temperatures shown in Figures 4-4a and 4-4b. As the material is cooled
further toward the Ar1 (the lower transformation temperature upon
cooling), more ferrite is formed at the grain boundaries of the austenite,
and the austenite continues to gain carbon content. This can continue until
the Ar1 temperature is reached, at which point the austenite can contain as
much as about 0.77% carbon (the eutectoid composition). This can be
seen in Figure 4-5 in the illustrations from point c down to point d just
above the Ar1 temperature (marked as 723ºC).
4-13
Metallurgy
Figure 4-5
Schematic Representation of Transformations of Carbon Steel with
Slow Cooling [13]
When the structure cools further to just below the Ar1 temperature (as
represented by point d just below Ar1 in Figure 4-5), the high-carbon
austenite transforms to ferrite and cementite because the ferrite is not able
to accommodate the high carbon content. This results in the pearlitic
microstructure in which the ferrite and the cementite are arranged in
alternating lamellar platelets, as shown in Figure 4-1.
Significant differences in the transformation mechanism are realized when

the carbon steel is cooled more rapidly than the slow (essentially
equilibrium) cooling described. The formation of ferrite and pearlite from
austenite is a nucleation and growth mechanism. With slow cooling, there
is adequate time for this mechanism to occur. As the cooling rate
increases, the austenite can be undercooled to a temperature below the Ar1
lower transformation temperature. When this happens, changes occur in
4-14
Metallurgy
the microstructure of the material. The effects of the cooling rates are
discussed more fully in Section 4.3.3. Following is a discussion of the
various microstructures that might result from this more rapid cooling.
Equilibrium cooling of typical carbon steel results in a ferritic structure

with grains of pearlite. In this case, the carbon in the austenite has the time
to diffuse into the cementite platelets and to allow the ferrite platelets to
form. The result is a coarse pearlite with ferrite grains that formed at the
grain boundaries. If the austenite is undercooled slightly before
transformation can occur, the result is a finer pearlitic structure because
the time for the carbon to diffuse into the cementite platelets is shortened.
Also, the nodules of pearlite and the grains of ferrite tend to be smaller.
Strength and hardness are increased as a result.
The existence of bainitic structures is possible in carbon steels. Bainitic

structures occur when the undercooling of the austenite is such that
pearlite can no longer form and the formation of martensite has not yet
started (that is, the martensite start temperature [Ms] has not been
reached). Bainite can take different morphologies (patterns) as either
upper bainite (see Figure 4-6) or lower bainite (see Figure 4-7), depending
on the temperature at which it forms. Upper bainite will be somewhat
harder and tougher than the pearlite if it forms. Lower bainite will not be
as hard as martensite but can be much tougher [11].
4-15
Metallurgy
Figure 4-6
Microstructure of Upper Bainite as Seen in the Transmission Electron
Microscope (Note the carbides in the ferrite lath boundaries. A thin
foil and magnification of 5500x were used.) [12]
4-16
Metallurgy
Figure 4-7
Microstructure of Lower Bainite as Seen in the Transmission Electron
Microscope (Note the carbides at a discrete angular orientation within
the ferrite laths. A thin foil and magnification of 8000x were used.)
[12]
If the cooling rate is too rapid to allow nucleation and growth mechanisms
(this condition is called the critical cooling rate), the result is that the
trapped carbon is forced into the crystalline lattice. Instead of forming
ferrite structures, the austenite lattice shears and results in a body-centered
tetragonal structure called martensite (see Figure 4-8). This martensitic
transformation occurs without diffusion of the carbon and therefore occurs
very rapidly. In addition, once the austenitic structure is undercooled to
the point at which the carbon cannot diffuse and additional ferrite cannot
form, the only remaining transformation that can occur upon further
cooling is to martensite. The temperature at which martensite begins to
form from austenite is the Ms. Because ferrite cannot form, martensite will
4-17
Metallurgy
continue to form as the temperature decreases from any existing austenite
until all of the austenite is transformed, which occurs at the martensite
finish temperature, or Mf. This carbon steel martensitic structure is known
to be both hard and strong but lacks ductility and toughness in the
untempered state. The resulting maximum hardness is closely related to
the carbon content of the steel and the percentage of martensite that is
formed (see Figure 4-9).
Figure 4-8
Microstructure of Water-Quenched Low-Alloy Steel Showing Lath
Martensite (A 2% nital etchant and magnification of 500x were used.)
[12]
4-18
Metallurgy
Figure 4-9
The Relationship Between Carbon Content and Maximum Obtainable
Hardness in Carbon or Alloy Steels [11]
4.3.3 Transformation Diagrams
There are several different variations of transformation diagrams, the most

commonly used and referenced of which are the isothermal transformation
(IT) diagram (commonly called the time-temperature-transformation
diagram) and the continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram. All
of the transformation diagrams plot temperature versus log time, with the
display showing the expected crystalline structures and microstructures.
The IT diagram shows the expected result when the steel is held for
varying lengths of time while the temperature is held essentially constant
(after an initial austenization). The CCT diagram shows the expected
result when the steel is cooled continuously at varying rates from the
austenitic phase. These transformation diagrams appear to be similar, but
the CCT transformation curves are typically depressed and moved to the
right during continuous cooling from those in the IT diagram. This agrees
well with the concept of undercooling of the austenite resulting in the
delay or retardation of the transformations into ferrite, pearlite, or bainite
(see Figure 4-10).
4-19
Metallurgy
Figure 4-10
The Relationship of CCT and IT Diagrams for Eutectoid Steel (Four
cooling rates from different positions on a Jominy end-quench
specimen are superimposed on the CCT diagram.) [14]
4-20
Metallurgy
The Jominy end-quench test is related to the CCT diagram because the
specimen is raised to an austenitizing temperature and then quenched on
one end with water. The result is a varying cooling rate along the
specimen that can then be plotted on the CCT to determine the expected
microstructure. Hardness readings taken at points along the specimen can
then be used to determine the hardenability of the steel.
The IT diagram is useful in helping to predict the resulting microstructures

if the steel is held at certain temperatures above the Ms temperature for a
period of time, such as could be done by quenching the steel in a high-
temperature bath of molten salt or metal. Figure 4-11 and Figure 4-12 are
IT diagrams for carbon steel with about 0.20% and 0.35% carbon,
respectively, that can be used as examples. (AISI is the American Iron and
Steel Institute and SAE is the Society of Automotive Engineers
International.) The transformation curves for the 0.20% carbon steel are
farther to the left than the 0.35% carbon steel. This shows that the
transformation would occur faster (as would be expected because not as
much carbon would need to diffuse) and that it would be more difficult to
avoid transformations upon cooling to the isothermal temperatures. If the
0.35% carbon steel is quenched rapidly down to approximately 1110ºF
(600ºC) from the austenitizing temperature and held at that temperature,
the following would be expected. Initially, the austenite would not have
the time to transform into ferrite or cementite (F or C in Figures 4-11 and
4-12). Shortly after reaching that temperature, the austenite would start to
transform into ferrite at the grain boundaries until about 3 seconds elapse
at which time ferrite and cementite would begin to form a coarse pearlitic
microstructure. If instead the steel were quenched to about 930ºF (500ºC),
the material would form an upper bainitic microstructure (although the
bainite would not start to form for approximately 10 seconds). If quenched
to less than the Ms temperature of about 750ºF (400ºC), martensite would
form nearly immediately (because the transformation to martensite is by
shear rather than by diffusion or nucleation and growth) to the percentage
indicated by the temperature. This transformation of austenite to
martensite would become complete when the steel is cooled to below the
Mf temperature.
4-21
Metallurgy
Figure 4-11
Isothermal Transformation Diagram for SAE 1021 Steel (0.20%
Carbon) [15]
Reprinted with permission of United States Steel Corporation. All rights
reserved.
4-22
Metallurgy
Figure 4-12
Isothermal Transformation Diagram for AISI-SAE 1035 Steel [11]
reserved.
Other than isothermal heat treatments, most fabrication processes do not

hold the material at elevated temperatures for the time required for
transformation at that temperature. To understand the microstructures that
exist, the CCT diagram might be more appropriate for those applications.
However, CCT diagrams are normally developed for specific materials by
experimental determination using dilatometers and temperature
measurements.
4-23
Metallurgy
4.3.4 Heat Treatment
The transformation of carbon steel from one microstructure or crystalline

structure to another also makes the material heat treatable, or in other
words, it allows for changes in the properties of the material just by going
through various heating and cooling cycles, without a change in the
overall chemical composition of the material. This characteristic can also
result in property changes occurring during fabrication processes such as
hot bending/forming, welding, and brazing.
The material specifications provide the heat treatments required to achieve

the properties necessary for the specific material. Heat treatment is highly
dependent on the manufacturing methods used for that product, and the
requirements can range from no required heat treatment to subcritical heat
treatments (such as precipitation heat treatment, tempering, or stress
relief) to high-temperature (austenitizing) heat treatments (such as quench
hardening, annealing, or normalizing) that might be followed by a
tempering heat treatment. If no heat treatment is required, the properties of
the material are dependent on the steelmaking practice, the chemistry, and
the fabrication processes used. Descriptions of common heat treatments
follow:
• Annealing. Annealing is a very broad term used to describe a variety
of heat treatments, but it is a process customarily applied to remove
stresses or work hardening. For the purpose of the heat treatment
used on carbon steels in the material specifications, the more specific
term full annealing better describes the process. Full annealing is
defined as “annealing a steel object by austenitizing it and then
cooling it slowly through the transformation range” [16]. The result
is that the maximum transformation to ferrite and to coarse pearlite is
achieved, which corresponds to the lowest hardness and strength.
Full annealing of carbon steels would likely require the material to be
heated to 1550–1650ºF (845–900ºC) for 1 hour 30 minutes for each
additional 1 in. (25.4 mm) above 1-in. (25.4-mm) thickness.
• Normalizing. Normalizing is a specific term defined as “heating a
steel object to a suitable temperature above the transformation range
and then cooling it in air to a temperature substantially below the
transformation range” [16]. For many of the carbon steels discussed
in this report, the cooling rate in air is not rapid enough to prevent
significant transformation from austenite into ferrite and a pearlitic
microstructure. Higher alloy, air-hardenable materials can be
significantly hardened by normalizing. The normalizing temperature
is typically 100ºF (55ºC) above the upper critical temperature.
4-24
Metallurgy
• Hardening. Quench hardening is often used prior to a tempering heat

treatment. It is defined as “hardening a steel object by austenitizing it
and then cooling it rapidly enough that some or all of the austenite
transforms to martensite” [16]. Quench hardening is normally the
first step in a heat treatment that would then include a tempering heat
treatment. The martensitic steel is excessively hard and strong with
characteristic low toughness, so the tempering treatment is used to
recover some of the more desirable properties. The carbon steel
material is typically heated to 1500–1600ºF (815–870ºC) and
quenched in a medium selected to cause the desired cooling rate.
• Tempering. Tempering is defined as “reheating a quench hardened or
normalized steel object to a temperature below Ac1 and then cooling
it at any desired rate” [16]. Tempering allows some of the carbon
atoms in the strained martensitic structure to diffuse and form iron
carbides or cementite. This reduces the hardness, tensile strength,
yield strength, and stress level but increases the ductility and
toughness. Tempering temperatures and times are interdependent, but
tempering is normally done at temperatures between 350°F and
1300°F (175°C and 705°C) and for times from 30 minutes to 4 hours.
• Stress relieving. Stress relieving is often associated with tempering
and can occur simultaneously with tempering. It is defined as
“heating a steel object to a suitable temperature, holding it long
enough to reduce residual stresses, and then cooling it slowly enough
to minimize the development of new residual stresses” [16]. Locked-
in (residual) stresses in a component cannot exist at a greater level
than the yield strength of the material. An increase in the temperature
of steel lowers the yield strength and thus relieves some of the
stresses. Further reduction in the residual stress can occur due to a
creep mechanism at high stress relief temperatures. Stress relieving
has a time-temperature relationship similar to tempering. Although
some stress relief occurs very quickly as a result of the lower yield
strength at temperature, additional stress relief occurs by the primary
creep mechanism (see Section 5.3). Stress relief temperatures are
typically 1100–1250ºF (595–675ºC) for carbon steels.
4-25
Metallurgy
• Precipitation heat treatment. Precipitation heat treatment is less

common in carbon steels because the precipitates desired are
generally carbides of alloying elements other than iron. However,
some of the carbon steels include a small amount of those elements,
such as chromium, molybdenum, niobium, or vanadium.
Precipitation heat treatment is defined as “artificial aging in which a
constituent precipitates from a supersaturated solid solution” [16].
Because precipitation hardening is not normally used to increase the
strength of carbon steels, this does not apply.
4-26
5
PROPERTIES
5.1 Physical Properties

The following physical properties have been compiled from several
publications [6, 8, 17, 18]:
• Mean coefficient of linear thermal expansion: the ratio of the change
in length to the original length at a reference temperature, T0, per
degree of temperature change, where T0 is normally room
temperature. If l0 is the length at T0 and alpha (α) is the mean
coefficient of linear thermal expansion, the length at temperature T,
lt, is given by
lt = l0[1 + α(T-T0)] [19]

• Instantaneous coefficient of linear thermal expansion: the rate of the
change in length at a specific temperature.
• Linear thermal expansion: the change in length over a specific
temperature range per 100 ft (30.5 m).
• Modulus of elasticity (E): (1) the measure of rigidity or stiffness of a
material; the ratio of stress below the proportional limit to the
corresponding strain or (2) the slope of a stress-strain curve in the
range of linear proportionality of stress to strain. Also known as
Young’s modulus [20].
• Thermal conductivity: the quantity of heat transmitted, k, due to unit
temperature gradient, in unit time under steady conditions in a
direction normal to a surface of unit area and when the heat transfer
is solely dependent on the temperature gradient [19].
• Thermal diffusivity: the constant in the heat conduction equation
describing the rate at which heat is conducted through a material. It is
linked to thermal conductivity, k, specific heat, Cp, and density, ρ,
through the equation
Thermal diffusivity = k / ρCp [19]
5-1
Properties
• Electrical resistivity: a measure of how strongly a material opposes

the flow of electric current [20].
Electrical resistivity = ρ = RA/L

• Specific heat: the amount of heat, Cp, measured in calories, required
to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree
Celsius [19].
• Density: the mass per unit volume of a solid material [20].
• Specific gravity: the ratio of the density of a substance to the density
of water [19].
• Shear modulus (G): the ratio of shear stress to the corresponding
shear strain for shear stresses below the proportional limit of the
material. Values of shear modulus are usually determined by torsion
testing. Shear modulus is also known as the modulus of rigidity [20].
• Melting point: the temperature at which a metal changes from solid
to liquid; the temperature at which the liquid and the solid are at
equilibrium [20].
• Poisson’s Ratio: the absolute value of the ratio of transverse (lateral)
strain to the corresponding axial strain resulting from uniformly
distributed axial stress below the proportional limit of the material
[20].
Tables 5-1 through 5-3 and Figure 5-1 present the physical properties for
carbon steels.
Table 5-1
Typical Physical Properties of Carbon Steel
Property Standard Metric

Density at room temperature 0.2833 lb/in.3 7.85 x 103 kg/m3
Specific gravity at room
7.85 7.85
temperature
Shear modulus at room 10.88–11.61 ksi x 75.0–80.0 gigapascals
3
temperature 10 (GPa)
Melting point 2597ºF 1425ºC
Poisson’s Ratio at room
0.29 0.29
temperature
5-2
Properties
Table 5-2
The Variation in Selected Physical Properties with Temperature
Temperature Thermal Conductivity Thermal Mean Coefficient of Modulus of Electrical

ºF British thermal units Diffusivity Thermal Expansion Elasticity Resistivity
2
(Note 1) (Btu)/hr.ft°F (Note 5) ft /hr (Note 6) (70°F to Temp) Pounds per square inch µΩ-m
-6
10 in./in./°F (Note7) (psi) x 106 (Notes 2, 3) (Note 4)
-200 -- -- 5.8 30.6 --
-100 -- -- 6.0 30.1 --
0 -- -- 6.3 29.6 0.200
70 27.3 0.53 6.4 29.2 0.213
100 27.6 0.52 6.5 29.1 0.219
200 27.8 0.487 6.7 28.6 0.292
300 27.3 0.455 6.9 28.1 0.390
400 26.5 0.426 7.1 27.7 0.487
500 25.7 0.399 7.3 27.1 0.623
600 24.9 0.373 7.4 26.4 0.758
700 24.1 0.346 7.6 25.3 0.925
800 23.2 0.319 7.8 24.0 1.094
900 22.3 0.291 7.9 22.3 1.136
5-3
Properties
The Variation in Selected Physical Properties with Temperature
Temperature Thermal Conductivity Thermal Mean Coefficient of Modulus of Electrical

ºF British thermal units Diffusivity Thermal Expansion Elasticity Resistivity
2
(Note 1) (Btu)/hr.ft°F (Note 5) ft /hr (Note 6) (70°F to Temp) Pounds per square inch µΩ-m
-6
10 in./in./°F (Note7) (psi) x 106 (Notes 2, 3) (Note 4)
1000 21.1 0.263 8.1 20.2 1.167
1100 19.8 0.234 8.2 17.9 1.194
1200 18.3 0.204 8.3 15.4 1.219
Notes:
1. ºC = (ºF - 32) x 5/9
2. 1 psi = 6.89 kilopascal (kPa)
3. For carbon content > 0.30%. Might be slightly lower (~ 0.2) for carbon content ≤ 0.30%.
4. Data for AISI 1025 steel.
5. 1.72 x (W/m - ºC)
6. 1 ft2/hr = 0.9290 m2/hr
7. in./in./ºF = µm/µm/ºC
5-4
Properties
°F = (9/5) x (°C + 32)
Figure 5-1
Carbon Steel (AISI 1025) Specific Heat Versus Temperature
Table 5-3
Carbon Steel (AISI 1025) Specific Heat (Joules/Kilogram - °Kelvin)
Data Versus Temperature
ºC Range AISI 1025

50–100 486
150–200 519
200–250 532
250–300 557
300–350 574
350–400 599
450–500 662
550–600 749
650–700 846
700–750 1432
750–800 950
°F = (9/5) x (°C + 32)
5-5
Properties
5.2 Mechanical Properties

The design tensile and yield strengths of carbon steel typically decrease
with an increase in temperature. Figure 5-2 illustrates this reduction for
some typical carbon steels. Figure 3-1 shows the effect that this has on the
calculation of the allowable stresses within the construction codes. It
should be noted that this is not in fact the actual behavior of the carbon
steel because the actual tensile strength might decrease slightly and then
increase due to strain aging. The design values are modified so that the
design tensile strength is not allowed to increase with temperature.
Figure 5-2
Design Tensile and Yield Strength of Carbon Steels Versus
Temperature [8]
The material specifications establish the required minimum mechanical

properties for each type or grade and for each class of material covered. In
cases where a range is identified, the property has both a minimum and
maximum value. These mechanical properties for various carbon steels
are listed in Appendix B. Again, these property values can change with a
different edition of the material specification. Some mechanical properties
are not required to be determined and are not listed. For the many cases in
which the product requires the base material to be plate of a different
specification, that plate specification is referenced for the properties.
5-6
Properties
5.3 Creep Properties

The allowable stresses permitted by the various construction codes
(discussed in Section 3.2) are based in part on time-dependent creep
properties. For carbon steels, these time-dependent properties dominate
the allowable stress above about 750ºF (400ºC), although creep begins to
occur in carbon steels at about 700ºF (370ºC). Because the creep rupture
strength is heavily influenced by temperature, the allowable stress drops
off rapidly above that temperature. In addition, graphitization (covered in
Section 5.4) is also a time-dependent mechanism in carbon steels above
800ºF (425ºC), although this mechanism is not included in the
development of allowable stresses because it is mostly unrelated to the
stress level. Therefore, other materials are often used in power plant
applications for which continuous operation is expected at or near a design
temperature above 800ºF (425ºC). Some codes, such as B31.1 Power
Piping, do not give allowable stresses above 800ºF (425ºC), but this is out
of concern for graphitization rather than creep. Creep failure can be
avoided through appropriate control over the temperature and the imposed
stress.
Unfortunately, with power plants, other factors enter the story. These
factors are often related to the operation of the plant and can include the
desire to operate at higher temperatures to increase efficiency, the buildup
of corrosion products within the pipe or tube (this can expose the material
to a higher localized temperature than that intended in a boiler),
obstructions in the pipe or tube, and local flaws that can cause local stress
concentrations.
Creep can be defined simply as time-dependent strain occurring under

constant stress. There are basically three stages of creep identified—
primary, secondary, and tertiary [21]. Primary creep is the initial
instantaneous elastic strain from the applied load, followed by a region of
increasing inelastic strain at a decreasing strain rate. Secondary creep
occurs when the creep rate is nominally constant at a minimum rate.
Tertiary creep is characterized by a drastically increased strain rate with
rapid extension to fracture.
The Larson-Miller Parameter (LMP) can be used to determine the

expected life of a component. Temperature and time are combined in the
LMP, which can be expressed as
LMP = (ºF + 460) (C + Log10 t) (10-3)
5-7
Properties
where (ºF + 460) is the absolute temperature, C is a constant assumed to
be 20 for carbon and low-alloy steels, and t is the time to failure in hours.
Graphs for different material groups are available, such as those shown in
Figure 5-3 for medium carbon steel, Figure 5-4 for carbon steel pipe or
tube, and Figure 5-5 for carbon steel plate.
Creep is a result of microstructural changes that occur with stress.

Initially, dislocations occur in the grain structure during the primary stage
of creep. During the secondary stage, voids begin to form in the structure,
starting at the grain boundaries. When these voids form an orientation and
begin to link, the tertiary stage of creep starts, signaling impending failure
under the same operating conditions.
Figure 5-3
Elevated Temperature Material Properties, Including Creep Rupture
for Medium Carbon Steel (In LMP, C=20, T [°R].) [22]
5-8
Properties
Figure 5-4
Variation of the LMP with Stress for Rupture of Carbon Steel Pipe and
Tube [23]
5-9
Properties
Figure 5-5
Variation of LMP with Stress for Rupture of Carbon Steel Plate [23]
Creep failures can occur in carbon steel materials when subjected to long-
term overheating while under stress. Although carbon steel materials are
generally not used under conditions where creep is expected, a number of
factors can cause the material to see higher temperatures than expected,
particularly within a boiler with a heat source external to the material. The
buildup of an internal oxide scale or tube blockage can cause this
5-10
Properties
overheated condition and, if left unresolved, can contribute to long-term

failure. An oxide buildup of just 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) can allow a tube
temperature within a boiler to increase by approximately 3ºF [24]; an
oxide buildup of 0.020 in. (0.508 mm), therefore, can result in an increase
in the metal temperature by as much as 60ºF (16ºC). This increase can
result in a significant increase in cumulative damage by creep in the
material. The effects of this increase can readily be seen in the rapid loss
of rupture strength in the carbon steel material with increases in the
temperature (see Figure 5-3).
5.4 Graphitization
Several major failures have occurred in carbon and carbon-molybdenum
steels as a result of long-term service at elevated temperatures. The
mechanism of these failures has been graphitization [25, 26], a
microstructural change that occurs primarily in materials that have been
deoxidized using aluminum. The pearlitic microstructure is a mixture of
ferrite and iron carbide (cementite). However, the cementite is unstable at
higher temperatures and breaks down into essential pure iron and
randomly dispersed carbon. The breakdown occurs over a significant
period related to the temperature (see Figure 5-6): this can result in a very
localized failure of the weak pure iron associated with the brittle carbon.
Often, the primary location for this failure is in the heat-affected zone of a
weld at the point where the material is briefly heated above the lower
transformation temperature (in the intercritical zone). (See Figure 5-7.)
This occurs slightly away from the fusion line of the weld and can extend
around the entire circumference of the pipe at a girth weld. The failure can
be similar to a brittle failure and can therefore be catastrophic. Some
failures have resulted in complete separation of a pipe at a girth weld (a
double-ended pipe break).
5-11
Properties
Figure 5-6
The Relationship Between Graphitization, Temperature, and Time [27]
Figure 5-7
Photomicrograph Illustrating Graphitization (the Black Nodules) in a
Weld Heat-Affected Zone (Graphitization took place in the carbon
steel after approximately 15 years of service at 850ºF [455ºC].) [24]
5-12
Properties
This mechanism was first recognized in the early 1940s, but significant
failures have occurred much more recently—for example, a graphitization
failure occurred in August 1977 that resulted in six fatalities. Failures
have occurred even though Codes such as B31.1 recognized the
mechanism and took steps to limit the use of the carbon and carbon-
molybdenum steels to temperatures at which this mechanism would not be
expected. The problem was that many plants had already been designed
and built using these materials at higher temperatures. The temperature
above which graphitization is expected to occur is approximately 800ºF
(427ºC) for carbon steels. Although the materials used today have much
better resistance to graphitization due to the use of silicon instead of
aluminum as a deoxidizer, they are still susceptible. Long-term operation
of carbon steels at temperatures above 800ºF (427ºC) should therefore be
avoided. Modern power plant design would not allow carbon steels to be
used for long-term operation at the elevated temperature at which
graphitization could occur. However, the failure mechanism is still a
concern due to material identification or design errors.
The recommended method to determine if graphitization is present is to

examine a sample metallurgically. A bend test of the material will help to
determine the degree of graphitization that has occurred. Bend test results
that show failure with a bend angle from approximately 30º down to
approximately 10º or less indicate extensive to severe graphitization.
Results that show failure with a bend angle from approximately 90º down
to approximately 30º indicate moderate to heavy graphitization. Results
with a bend angle greater than 90º and up to 180º indicate mild to no
graphitization [25].
Mild to moderate graphitization can be rehabilitated by heating to about

1750ºF (954ºC) for about 2 hours, followed by slow cooling and a final
heat treatment of about 1250ºF (677ºC) for about 4 hours. This method is
not recommended for more severe graphitization because the graphite
particles might not fully dissolve back in the ferritic matrix and might also
leave voids in the material. The more frequent approach to repair of a
graphitized weld joint is to remove the weld and heat-affected zone
beyond the point of graphitization and to reweld and perform PWHT. This
will not prevent graphitization from reoccurring, but it is intended to delay
any further problem for several years. Complete resolution of the problem
would likely require replacement with material that is not susceptible to
graphitization.
5-13
Properties
5.5 Fatigue Properties

The fatigue properties [28, 29] of steels can be affected by mechanical
discontinuities, metallurgical discontinuities, microstructures, and
environmental/service conditions. The fatigue life is typically expressed
with a fatigue design (S-N) curve, such as that shown in Figure 5-8 for
medium strength steel. This curve shows the characteristic of ferrous
materials that have a fairly well-defined fatigue limit or endurance limit
(the stress level at which a failure is not likely to occur, regardless of the
number of cycles). The fatigue limit for the medium carbon steel in Figure
5-8 is slightly less than 50% of the fracture strength load under which
fatigue failure is not likely to occur, even if the number of cycles exceeds
about 10,000,000 cycles.
Figure 5-8
Typical S-N Curve for Medium Strength Carbon Steel [28]
Mechanical discontinuities that have a significant effect on fatigue include

the planar flaws perpendicular to the direction of the stress, such as
undercut, sharp entrance angles at the weld toe, cracks, non-fusion flaws,
incomplete penetration, and mismatch. More information can be found in
the Metals Handbook published by ASM International [29].
5-14
Properties
Metallurgical discontinuities are those for which the microstructure is
crack-sensitive, such as those with high hardness, low toughness, or high
residual stresses. These discontinuities can often occur within the heat-
affected zone of a weld or in the weld itself. The effect of microstructural
differences can be seen in Figure 5-9 (the endurance ratio is the endurance
limit divided by the ultimate tensile strength). Because some of the
microstructures illustrated are the result of welding in the areas of the
heat-affected zone, this is in part the same issue as the metallurgical
discontinuities. The environment and the service will also affect the
fatigue strength of a component because corrosion and creep will also
contribute to an acceleration of fatigue.
Figure 5-9
The Effect of Steel Microstructure on the Endurance Ratio [28]
5.6 Grain Growth Effect on Properties

The grain size of carbon steel materials can vary depending on the
practices used during the initial steelmaking, alloying, heat treatment, or
recrystallization. Initial steelmaking practices might include using
aluminum as a deoxidizer—which will also have the effect of reducing the
5-15
Properties
grain size—or adding other grain-refining elements, such as niobium,
vanadium, or titanium. Heat treatment can also result in grain growth or
refinement by austenitizing at different temperatures, as discussed in
Section 4.3.2. An aging heat treatment on material that has been
recrystallized after cold working might increase the grain size.
Fine-grained microstructures tend to have better toughness, and materials

that have been specifically treated to have a fine-grained structure are used
for low-temperature applications. A fine grain size is ASTM 5 or greater
(higher numbers are finer); 7 is typical. See Figure 5-10.
The opposite effect is true for creep rupture properties—creep rupture

strength is greater for coarse-grained microstructures than it is for fine-
grained microstructures. A coarse grain size is typically in the range of
ASTM 1–5. See Figure 5-11.
Figure 5-10
The Effect of Grain Size on Transition Temperature (Variation in
fracture appearance transition temperature [FATT] with ferritic grain
size for 0.11% carbon mild steel.) [30]
5-16
Properties
Figure 5-11
The Relationship Between 105-Hour Creep Rupture Strength and
Ultimate Tensile Strength for Carbon Steel [31]
5-17
6
OXIDATION RESISTANCE
6.1 Scale Formation

Oxidation is a naturally occurring process in carbon steel materials. The
rate of oxidation depends on the environment and temperature of the
material. The oxides are generally a beneficial coating that helps to resist
corrosion. However, excessive buildup of oxide layers can insulate boiler
tube material and result in higher tube temperatures (see Section 5.3) [24].
Guidelines on the maximum temperature of use of carbon steel materials
are given in applicable Codes and by manufacturers (see Table 6-1).
Table 6-1
Maximum Metal Temperatures [31]
ASME ASME Section II Babcock &

ALSTOM Riley
Specification D, Table 1A [8] Wilcox
SA-178 C
1000ºF/ 538ºC 950ºF/
SA-192 850ºF/454ºC 850ºF/454ºC
(Note 1) 510ºC
SA-210 A1
Note 1: Upon prolonged exposure to temperatures above 800ºF (454ºC), the carbide
phase of carbon steel can be converted to graphite (see Section 5.4).
The condition of the oxide scales—their thickness morphology and

composition—can also yield significant information about the operation
of the component. The most beneficial form of iron oxide is Fe3O4
(magnetite), which forms at normal operating ranges and results in a
stable, thin, protective layer on the water/steam side of boiler tubing. A
less stable form is FeO (wustite), which forms at high temperatures
(>1040ºF [>560ºC]) and can lead to rapid oxidation of the tube wall. Poor
operating chemistry can contribute to the breakdown of the magnetite and
result in early boiler tube failures [32].
6-1
Oxidation Resistance
6.2 Life Assessment by Oxide Thickness

Measurement
Scale thickness measurements are widely used in life assessment of tubes
in fossil fuel power plants. Exposure to this increased temperature can
cause a rapid loss of tube life. A nondestructive measurement of the oxide
scale thickness across the tube bank suggests whether a given tube has
developed an excessive scale thickness. A greater-than-average scale
thickness is taken as indicative of an excessively high temperature, which
could deteriorate the remaining life of the particular tube and necessitate
replacement of the tube bank. To correlate the thickness of the in-service
oxide scale with the temperature history of a component, scale growth rate
data are generated over a range of temperatures. For the purpose of life
assessment, research groups that serve the power industry have also
generated long-term scale growth data over an industrially relevant range
of temperatures.
6-2
7
FABRICATION
7.1 Machinability
The carbon steels covered by this report have generally high levels of
machinability [33, 34] even though this is not a factor for selection of the
steel in the applications intended (primarily, power plant and pressure
applications). Machinability can be based on tool life, cutting speed,
power consumption, comparison with standard steels, quality of surface
finish, and feeds resulting from constant thrust force [33]. As with other
properties—such as strength, hardness, and ductility—carbon content is
the dominant factor in machinability. Compared to a free-machining steel
containing a high level of sulfur that would give the steel low weldability
and a possible machinability rating of 100 (based on cutting speed), a
carbon steel with approximately 0.15% carbon might have a machinability
rating of 60. Carbon steel with 0.30% carbon might have a rating of 70.
Steels with higher carbon contents, however, can result in lower ratings
because the hardness of the material starts to reduce the machinability—
carbon steel with 0.50% carbon might have a rating of only 45 [34].
7.2 Forming and Forging

Forming operations on carbon steels include any method of plastically
deforming the material to achieve the desired component. Included are
bending (both hot and cold), rolling, extrusion, drawing, and forging.
Carbon steels are capable of being formed extensively due to the relatively
high ductility of the material. Forming that is performed at temperatures
lower than the transformation temperatures will result in cold strain,
which can both increase the strength and reduce the ductility of the
component, at times requiring a post-forming heat treatment to relieve
stresses. Hot forming can affect the properties of the material and might
require a heat treatment to recover those properties.
Forging is done with the steel in a high-temperature condition in the

2350–2400ºF (1290–1350ºC) range, with increasing forgeability as the
forging rate increases. Generally, carbon steels can be forged very
successfully; therefore, many carbon steel components are fabricated by
7-1
Fabrication
forging. Forging results in increased properties as a result of the fibrous

grain structure that can enhance the properties in the high-stress direction.
Forging can also heal porosity and reduce large as-cast grain sizes.
7.3 Welding
7.3.1 Weldability
Weldability is defined as “the capacity of a material to be welded under

the imposed fabrication conditions into a specific, suitably designed
structure and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service” [35].
Carbon steel is generally considered to be quite weldable, particularly
when the carbon content is below 0.35%, which it is by specification in all
of the materials covered in this report. A wide variety of processes are
available to weld carbon steel satisfactorily, with properties and
composition comparable in the weld and the base material.
The term weldability is also used in a narrower sense to mean the ease
with which a material can be welded without cracking or other
discontinuities. It is this meaning that is more relevant to the welding
qualification.
P Number Designation
Section IX of the ASME B&PV Code groups base metals with others of
similar weldability. The materials covered in this report all have the
current ASME Section IX designation of P number 1, with the exceptions
listed in Table 7-1. The P number 1 materials are carbon or carbon-
manganese steels. For the purpose of addressing toughness considerations,
the P number 1 materials are subdivided into Groups 1–4. Although
variations might be considered by the Section IX Code Committee, the
following breakdown is used:
• P number 1: Carbon or carbon-manganese steels
– Group 1: Minimum tensile strength of less than 70 ksi
(485 MPa)
– Group 2: Minimum tensile strength of 70–80 ksi
(485–550 MPa)
– Group 3: Minimum tensile strength of 80–90 ksi
(550–620 MPa)
– Group 4: Minimum tensile strength of greater than 90 ksi
(>620 MPa)
7-2
Fabrication
Table 7-1
Listed Materials Without Current ASME Section IX P Number
Designations or with Group Number Exceptions
Material P Number Explanation

Still available as ASTM A-27 Specification; a P
SA-27 60-30
1 number was assigned in 1952 ASME Section
(Note 1)
IX.
Still available as ASTM A-27 specification; a P
SA-27 65-35
(Note 1)
IX.
Still available as ASTM A-27 specification; a P
SA-27 70-36
(Note 1)
IX.
None
A-27 70-40
(Note 2)
None This material is not included in ASME Section
A-27 N1
(Note 2) IX or any B31 Code section.
None
A-27 N2
(Note 2)
A-139 Gr. A S number1 Note 3.
A-139 Gr. B S number 1 Note 3.
A-139 Gr. C S number 1 Note 3.
A-139 Gr. D S number 1 Note 3.
A-139 Gr. E S number 1 Note 3.
SA-155 KC55
1
(Note 1)
SA-155 KC60
1
(Note 1)
SA-155 KC65
1
(Note 1)
A P number was assigned to ASTM A-155
SA-155 KC70
1 materials by ANSI B31.1, 1977 Edition,
(Note 1)
Appendix A-1.
SA-155 KCF55
1
(Note 1)
SA-155 KCF70
1
(Note 1)
SA-212 Gr. B
1
(Note 1)
A P number was assigned by ASME Section IX,
SA-226 (Note 1) 1
1998 Edition.
A-381Y35 S number 1 Note 3.
A-381 Y42 S number 1 Note 3.
7-3
Fabrication

Note 3: exception to group number assignment.
A-381 Y52 S number 1 S number 1, Group 2, even though the
minimum tensile strength is <70 ksi (485 MPa).
SA-433 Gr. L-45
1
(Note 1)
SA-433 Gr. L-50
1
(Note 1)
SA-433 Gr. L-55
1
(Note 1)
SA-433 Gr. LK- A P number was assigned by ASME Section IX,
1
55 (Note 1) 1971 Edition. No group number is assigned.
SA-433 Gr. LK-
1
60 (Note 1)
SA-433 Gr. LK-
1
65 (Note 1)
SA-433 Gr. LK-
1
70 (Note 1)
SA-442 Gr. 55 A P number was assigned by ASME Section IX,
1
(Note 1) 1989 Edition.
SA-442 Gr. 60 A P number was assigned by ASME Section IX,
1
(Note 1) 1989 Edition.
None
A-465 Gr. L-I
(Note 2)
None
A-465 Gr. L-II
(Note 2) These materials are not included in ASME
None Section IX or any B31 Code section.
A-465 Gr. L-III
(Note 2)
None
A-465 Gr. L-IV
(Note 2)
Discontinued grade; a P number was assigned
SA-515 Gr. 55 1
by ASME Section IX, 1992 Edition.
7-4
Fabrication

Exception to group number assignment: P
SA-537 Cl. 1 1 number 1, Group 2 for plate > 2.5–4 in. (63.5–
101.6 mm).
A-573 Gr. 58 S number 1 Note 3.
Notes:
1. Discontinued specification.
2. Welding procedures for materials that are not assigned a P number require
material-specific qualification.
3. The material is not included in an ASME material specification and is therefore
assigned a P number equivalent called an S number. An S number can be used the
same way as a P number regarding weldability groupings, but there are qualification
limitations. See ASME Section IX, QW-420.2. A P number might be assigned in
ASME B31.1.
There are relatively few P number 1 Group 3 or 4 materials, and none of

the materials listed in this report belongs to Group 3 or 4. All of the
materials with a listed minimum tensile strength of less than 70 ksi (485
MPa) are included in Group 1; all of the materials with a listed minimum
tensile strength from 70 ksi (485 MPa) to less than 80 ksi (550 MPa) are
included in Group 2 (exceptions are noted in Table 7-1). See Appendix B
for minimum specified tensile strengths.
7.3.2 Weld Joint Preparation
The preparation of the weld joint is an important parameter in a successful

weld. The factors that influence the joint design include the access to the
joint, the process to be used (including whether the application is manual
or mechanized), the strength required of the joint, the existence of fatigue
loading, the required examination, and the materials. Although a wide
weld joint preparation can provide easy access for welding, it might also
require excessive welding time to complete the weld. The weld joint
preparation must therefore balance the need for access against the need to
minimize the amount of welding required.
7-5
Fabrication
Most applications in pressure-containing equipment require complete or

mostly complete penetration welds so that the entire thickness of the joint
is filled with sound weld metal. In many applications, this needs to be
done from one side only because the root area of the joint might not be
accessible after welding. In addition, filled welds are also expected to
achieve essentially complete penetration into the root of the joint.
Some structural designs (and to a very limited extent, pressure designs)

allow the use of partial penetration joints. The joint design in these cases
must provide adequate access so that the required penetration can be
achieved. When complete penetration welds are required, structural weld
joints usually require either backing or welding from both sides.
The type of examination can also influence the joint design. For example,
when an ultrasonic examination is required, the joint is prepared in a way
that the backside of the weld minimizes the signal interruption by the joint
configuration. Also, the use of backing rings can complicate the
interpretation of radiographs.
The welding procedure specification (WPS) is required to specify the type

of weld joint but might not always provide the detailed dimensions
needed. Whether provided by the WPS or by other methods, the detailed
dimensions are needed to provide the proper fit-up of the weld joint in
preparation for welding. Due to welder preference, some variation in the
fit-up requirements is required when the weld is to be done manually.
Some typical weld joint designs are illustrated in Figures 7-1 through 7-3,
although there are many variations possible that are not shown for special
applications such as machine or automatic welding processes. Specific
reference to ASME B16.5, Buttwelding Ends [36]; AWS D1.1, Structural
Welding Code – Steel [37]; the welding procedure; and the Code being
used for construction can provide additional direction.
7-6
Fabrication
Figure 7-1
Typical Butt Weld Joint Preparations
Reprinted from ASME B31.3-2004 [7], by permission of The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers. All rights reserved.
7-7
Fabrication
Figure 7-2
A Typical Weld Joint Preparation Trimmed for Misalignment
7-8
Fabrication
Figure 7-3
A Typical Welding End Transition: Maximum Envelope
The weld joint at times has been designed to minimize the effects of
thermal transients on dissimilar welds in high-temperature environments.
This configuration can actually provide a much wider weld with a flatter
angle on the bevel than would otherwise be used. When possible, this joint
design is avoided because it increases the amount of welding required.
The weld joint preparation must also be made so that the surfaces to be
welded (and the surfaces close to the weld) are clean and dry. Even minor
contaminants can be the cause of an unsuccessful weld.
When the application is repair, the weld joint is the cavity to be filled.
Like any other joint, this cavity must be prepared to allow the welder
access to the weld location.
7-9
Fabrication
7.3.3 WPSs
WPSs are required for all Code welding. When the fabrication is being
done in accordance with ASME B&PV Code or ASME B31 Pressure
Piping Codes, the WPSs that are required are those qualified in
accordance with ASME Section IX, “Welding and Brazing
Qualifications,” or those that are acceptable to the Section IX rules
(specific rules are applicable in the case of standard welding procedures
[SWPs] that have been accepted by ASME Section IX). These WPSs are
intended to provide direction to the welder in order to make a weld that
meets the design requirements for properties and soundness.
7.3.3.1 WPS Qualification

WPSs are generally required to be qualified by mechanical testing in
accordance with ASME Section IX, “Welding and Brazing
Qualifications,” in order to prove that welds using the WPS will provide
the expected mechanical properties. A sample weld is typically subjected
to tensile tests and bend tests (for groove welds) that verify that the
weldment can achieve tensile and ductility properties similar to, but not
less than, the base metals being tested. Additional tests might be required
in cases for which impact toughness is required.
The American Welding Society (AWS) Structural Welding Code D1.1

[37] is often required for structures rather than the ASME B&PV or B31
Codes. The D1.1 code has its own rules for WPSs and the qualification of
them. (It is possible that Section IX qualifications can be used in lieu of
D1.1 qualifications. See the EPRI report Single Welding Qualification
Code Project [38].)
The user is cautioned that the qualification rules for WPSs are simplified
and apply to a broad range of materials (the P numbers described in
Section 7.3.1). This can result in a WPS that is qualified but not
technically adequate for welding some materials. For instance, a P number
1 carbon steel welding procedure qualified using 60-ksi (415-MPa)
material and 60-ksi (415-MPa) filler metal could be considered to be
qualified for P number 1 carbon steel material of 90 ksi (620 MPa) tensile
strength using the same 60-ksi (415-MPa) filler metal. This presents the
problem that the weldment might not meet the strength requirements of
the base metal. Some (but not all) Codes require that the WPS
qualification be performed using materials of the maximum strength level
to be used or that the filler metal selected be of similar strength and
chemical composition as the base metal. In this latter case, the designer
can select other filler metals.
7-10
Fabrication
7.3.3.2 Selection of a Welding Procedure
The WPS selection is based on several factors. All of the requirements of

the Code used for the construction, fabrication, or repair must be followed
to comply with those rules. These requirements include preheat heat
treatment and PWHT for the weldment as well as any specific
requirements that affect the qualification of the WPS. Therefore, any WPS
to be used must at a minimum be qualified to meet those requirements.
The WPS must also be qualified for the base metals to be welded (P
number 1 materials for the materials in this report) and for the welding
process. The welding process to be used is generally chosen on the basis
of quality requirements, access, production, and the availability of
personnel qualified to use the WPS.
7.3.3.3 Welding Techniques
Carbon steels are relatively insensitive to the techniques used during

welding (in comparison to alloy steels). This is due to the relatively low
hardenability of this class of material. However, because a relatively high
carbon content does exist in carbon steels as compared to alloyed steels,
high hardnesses can be created by welding. Normally, multiple pass welds
will temper the previous passes to some extent, but this will not occur
with a single pass weld or with the last pass. As a result, single pass welds
should be used with caution, and the last pass should probably be on the
cap of the weld rather than at the toe. (This would not be particularly
important if the weld were required to undergo PWHT.)
This leads to the possible use of controlled deposition techniques in order

to avoid the need to do PWHT. The typical controlled deposition
techniques are half bead and temper bead techniques. Half bead
techniques reduce each pass by grinding to allow a subsequent pass to
effectively temper the previous weld and heat-affected zone. Temper bead
techniques do the same thing by controlling not only the placement of
each weld bead but also the relative heat input of the weld so that the same
tempering effect occurs. These techniques might not reduce the residual
stresses in the weldment by much, but the hardness and the toughness of
the weld will be enhanced, possibly with better properties than a similar
weld after PWHT.
7-11
Fabrication
7.3.4 Welder and Welding Operator Qualification
The intent of the performance qualification of welding personnel is to

verify that the welder or welding operator is capable of producing a sound
weld using a qualified WPS. The variables established by ASME Section
IX and by AWS D1.1 for welder qualification can make the welding more
difficult. Both Section IX and D1.1 have specific welder and welding
operator qualification rules, but like the WPS qualification, it is possible
to apply Section IX qualifications to D1.1 [38].
Regarding personnel qualification, it is very important that personnel

maintain the validity of their qualifications. The welder must maintain his
or her qualification; for example, a welder must perform welding no less
than once every six months. Perhaps even more important is to be aware
that there are many influences that can prevent a qualified welder from
making sound welds, including physical and mental barriers and access
issues. When there is a reason to question the ability of the welder to make
a weld that is sound and in accordance with the WPS, the qualification
should be reviewed to determine if additional steps should be taken. This
is a requirement of the Codes that cover welding qualification (for
example, Section IX, QW-322).
7.3.5 Preheat and PWHT
7.3.5.1 Preheat
The primary purpose of preheat prior to and during welding is to slow the
cooling rate in the weld area. This has multiple effects on the resulting
weldment. For those materials that have a high hardenability, the effect is
to lower the hardness levels that result from the extreme thermal cycles
that occur during welding. For carbon steel materials of fairly high
relative carbon content, this becomes important—particularly for single
pass welds because these will result in very high peak hardnesses that are
not somewhat tempered by other passes.
The objective in lowering the hardness is to minimize the crack sensitivity

in the heat-affected zone where the highest hardnesses often occur. These
high local hardnesses, particularly adjacent to the weld fusion line,
contribute to local material differences that can contribute to fatigue
cracking. High hardness levels also increase the susceptibility to
corrosion. Finally, the high local hardnesses, coincident with the existence
of diffusible hydrogen being rejected from the molten weld metal, can
also contribute to hydrogen cracking.
7-12
Fabrication
The hydrogen cracking mechanism is not common in most carbon steels
belonging to the P number 1 Groups 1 and 2 covered by this report,
although it can occur if normal precautions are not taken. Normal
precautions include the preheat required or recommended by the Codes,
the care of electrodes and fluxes to minimize the moisture content, and the
normal use of multiple pass welds.
The cooling rates that occur during welding are a result of multiple factors
beyond the use of preheat. Included are factors such as material thickness
(because the primary heat removal is by conduction), thermal
conductivity, and welding heat input. Preheat might be needed to
counteract such factors. With the exception of the material thicknesses,
the rules contained in the Codes do not directly address these factors.
The current Code (B&PV and B31) rules for preheat of carbon steels are
fairly consistent. The general requirements are as follow: the minimum
preheat is 50ºF (10ºC), and for materials with a carbon content > 0.30%
and a thickness at the joint > 1 in. (25 mm), the minimum preheat is 175ºF
(80ºC).
Specific preheat rules follow:

• B31.1 – Mandatory.
• B31.3 [7] – Recommended. Uses a tensile strength criteria (> 71 ksi
[490MPa]) in lieu of a carbon content criteria.
• Section I [39] – Recommended.
• Section III [40] – Recommended. Appendix D suggests an upper
preheat temperature minimum of 250ºF (120ºC).
• Section VIII [41] – Recommended.
Consideration of preheat beyond the requirements of the Codes might be

necessary under some circumstances, such as when there is a significant
concern for hydrogen cracking. The AWS D1.1 Code [37], Annex XI,
“Guidelines on Alternative Methods for Determining Preheat,” provides
some criteria for making these decisions. There are also Code
requirements for preheat under conditions for which an otherwise required
PWHT can be exempted.
There are some restrictions within ASME Section IX qualified WPSs on

changes in the preheat being applied. These include a reduction in preheat
from that which was qualified (a reduction > 100ºF [55ºC]) or, when
impact toughness testing is required, an increase in the interpass
7-13
Fabrication
temperature from that qualified (an increase > 100ºF [55ºC]). It is
necessary to observe the preheat requirements of the WPS being used as
well as the Code requirements and recommendations.
Preheating the weld joint is done through a variety of methods. Smaller

joints can be adequately preheated with a heating torch, although care is
required to avoid large temperature differences and contamination of the
weld joint. Alternatively, the weld joint area can be preheated using
electrical resistance pads or induction heating coils. Both are effective in
maintaining a consistent and controllable preheat temperature. The
temperature of the preheated joint can be measured with temperature-
indicating crayons (avoid using directly in the area to be welded),
pyrometers, thermocouples (with readout equipment), and even infrared
devices. The objective is to reach the required temperature prior to starting
any welding. It is recommended that the area to be preheated extend
beyond the weld joint by at least 1 in. (25 mm).
Related to preheating, the control of interpass temperatures can be

required, although this is not generally a requirement for carbon steels. If
required, interpass temperature is usually expressed as a maximum (the
preheat is the minimum) prior to welding. Again, the same methods can
be used to determine the temperature, but the measurement is taken during
welding or between weld passes.
7.3.5.2 PWHT
The primary reasons that components are required to be subjected to

PWHT within the ASME Code rules are that PWHT reduces residual
stresses and tempers hardened microstructures [42]. PWHT will achieve
both of these results but might not positively benefit the overall properties
of the weldment if not properly controlled, particularly in terms of the
toughness in the heat-affected zone. When toughness is a requirement, the
Codes will impose additional controls on the PWHT, such as time at
temperature controls. PWHT done to meet the Code requirements is
typically performed at subcritical temperatures (see Section 4.3).
Residual stresses can contribute to increases in the susceptibilty to

corrosion mechanisms and to fatigue. Because residual stresses cannot
exceed the yield strength of the materials, an immediate benefit of
increasing the temperature of the material during PWHT is a
corresponding drop in the yield strength of the material and thus a
reduction of the maximum residual stresses in the weldment. In order to
further reduce the residual stresses, the weldment will need to be held for
7-14
Fabrication
longer periods at the elevated temperatures (this reduction occurs by

relaxation-recrystallization or primary creep mechanisms). Although the
reduction of residual stresses is a benefit of PWHT, most of the rules for
PWHT specified in the Codes are targeted at the hardened
microstructures. This is because the applications that might require a
reduction in residual stresses are not addressed specifically in the Codes.
Post-weld treatment acts as a tempering process by reducing the hardness

of the heat-affected zone and the weld metal. Tempering is a heat
treatment whereby the material is heated to a temperature below the lower
critical temperature (often assumed to be approximately 1340ºF [725ºC]
for carbon steels). The PWHT for carbon steels is generally done in the
range of 1100–1200ºF (600–650ºC), although some Codes specify only
the minimum temperature of 1100ºF (600ºC). A secondary effect of
tempering is to allow some additional transformation of the martensitic
grain structure into ferrite, but the main objective is tempering the
martensite. The result can be increased ductility and toughness in addition
to reduced hardness. If the tempering temperature is too high or held too
long, some corresponding reduction in the toughness can result.
The Code requirements for PWHT of carbon steels are quite inconsistent.
They are, however, mandatory within each Code application. The
thicknesses that require PWHT vary from 0.75 in. (19.1 mm) for the
greater thickness at the joint to 1.5 in. (38.1 mm) for the thinner thickness
at the joint. There are also many exemptions that apply to different types
of welds and for welds in which the weld thickness is less than the
exemption thickness. There are efforts to try to bring more consistency to
the various Codes, and changes are likely. The one value that is
reasonably consistent for carbon steels is the holding temperature
previously described. In addition to the Code requirements describing the
PWHTs, the WPSs also contain the requirements for PWHT. Both the
Code requirement and the WPS requirement must be followed.
Although not normally considered during construction, there can also be

requirements for PWHT at temperatures greater than the lower critical
temperatures, most likely a heat treatment that will be greater than the
upper critical temperature such that the affected material will be
austenitized prior to cooling. These heat treatments can be normalizing,
annealing, or quenching. In the case of the quenching heat treatment, a
subcritical tempering heat treatment would likely follow for carbon steels.
The purpose of these heat treatments is to affect the properties of the
material and to remove the metallurgical inconsistencies that result from
welding. These types of heat treatments are often not required on carbon
steel until high strength properties are required.
7-15
Fabrication
PWHT can be accomplished either in a furnace in a shop setting or locally
in a field setting. Shop furnaces can be quite large and might include an
entire large component. They can be gas fired or electric resistance heated.
Care is necessary when using this type of heat treatment equipment: the
furnace temperatures must be evenly controlled and the loading balanced.
The heating and cooling rates are required by the Codes to be controlled at
maximum rates of either 400ºF (220ºC) per hour or 600ºF (335ºC) per
hour, normally above 600ºF (315ºC) to the holding temperature. The
purpose of this is to minimize distortion and stresses developed by high
thermal gradients.
Local PWHT is often the only choice in field applications. For large
vessels, this can be an extensive undertaking because it normally requires
the entire circumference of the vessel to be subjected to the PWHT even if
the welding occurred at a limited area. ASME Section VIII does allow
local PWHT without heating the entire circumference in some
applications (see Section VIII, Div. 1, paragraph UW-40 [41]). Local
PWHT requires that the soak band (the heated material that is held at the
required PWHT temperature) extend beyond the edges of the weld usually
by at least one thickness at the joint or a thickness that is three times the
total width. The purpose of this width is to ensure that the inner diameter
of the weld has been adequately heat-treated because the heated band will
be much narrower at the inner diameter when it is uninsulated and the
only heating occurs on the outer diameter.
Local PWHT might require multiple controlled zones as a result of heat

losses that are not equal at all points (for example, the top and bottom of
heated areas, unequal thicknesses, and so forth). In order to properly
control the PWHT zone or zones, it is necessary to install thermocouples
not only on the weld but also at the limits of the soak band. Excellent
suggestions for this are available in AWS’s publication Recommended
Practices for Local Heating of Welds in Piping and Tubing [43].
Care must be exercised to ensure that the components are supported

during PWHT because the strength of the materials at the high
temperatures can be significantly lower. It is also necessary to protect or
remove materials that cannot tolerate the high PWHT temperatures (such
as valve packing and instruments).
7-16
Fabrication
7.3.6 Filler Metal Selection
An ideal weld would be one that is invisible to the environment and the
loads imposed on it. This means that in the ideal weld, the weld metal and
the heat-affected zone are very similar in chemical composition and
strength properties to those of the base metals being welded. Obviously,
this is not always possible due to factors such as dissimilar joints, the
availability of filler metals that will result in a deposit of a similar
composition, certain weld designs that require different strength
properties, the inability to duplicate manufacturing heat treatments, and
the inherent isotropy of the dendritic weld structure. However, when these
factors are not controlling, the choice of filler metals should achieve as
much similarity as possible. In carbon steels, this is primarily achieved by
selecting filler metals whose deposit strength is not significantly less or
more than the base materials being welded.
As with all of the variables associated with welding, the choice of filler
metals is controlled by the WPS and what was used during the WPS
qualification. However, particularly for the carbon steels, there can be an
excessive range of qualified filler as a result of one qualification test. For
example, procedure qualification using a low tensile strength P number 1
carbon steel base material and low tensile strength filler would serve to
qualify a much higher tensile strength P number 1 base material with the
same low tensile strength filler. This would obviously violate the intent to
achieve similar strength properties in the weld and the base material.
Some Codes have rules that would require the qualification of the highest
strength base materials to be used or to use filler metals of similar strength
as the base material.
For the materials in this report, the typical filler metals can be those types
designated as E60xx or E70xx for shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),
ER70S-x for gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) or gas metal arc welding
(GMAW), and E6xT-x or E7xT-x for flux-cored arc welding (FCAW).
The choice of filler metal for the submerged arc welding (SAW) process
is more complicated because it involves both the electrode selection and
the flux selection. The filler metal specifications (AWS [44] and ASME
[45]) for these materials are as follows:
• SMAW: AWS A-5.1 or ASME SFA-5.1
• GTAW or GMAW: AWS A-5.18 or ASME SFA-5.18
• FCAW: AWS A-5.20 or ASME SFA-5.20
• SAW: AWS A-5.17 or SFA-5.17
7-17
Fabrication
Although carbon steels are not as susceptible to hydrogen cracking as the
alloy steel materials, it is advisable to use electrodes that have low
diffusible hydrogen content of H8 or less.
7.4 Repair
Repair can take the form of restoring the item to the original configuration
by a total replacement of sections or components. Repair sometimes takes
the form of techniques in which there is a new configuration but the
resulting repair will serve the need. In some cases, the repair is not
expected to be permanent but rather a stop-gap measure to gain time until
a permanent repair can be made. Repair of a component or section
requires some knowledge of the expected cause of the failure or
degradation in order to avoid a repeat failure or to avoid exacerbating the
cause. However, in the case of a temporary repair, often the true cause can
not be resolved, but the prior history allows temporary operation in order
to properly prepare for a permanent repair.
Repairs in power plants are usually accomplished by welding in new

sections or components or reinforcing the failed or degraded area with
weld metal. In some cases, rather than to strictly provide strength, the
weld metal is added to provide corrosion resistance or a hard, wear-
resistant surface. When the pressure boundary is not violated, there might
even be occasions when the repair can be done during operation.
Modern repair techniques have been developed for specific problems,

often supported by EPRI. Significant work has gone into the acceptance of
weld repair on heavy section components and low alloys using the temper
bead techniques in order to avoid PWHT. The National Board Inspection
Code (NBIC) [46] specifically outlines temper bead and similar controlled
deposition techniques for repair welding without PWHT. EPRI has
sponsored extensive testing of temper bead welds in support of this
method. ASME Section IX [9] has also incorporated qualification rules for
temper bead welding procedures.
A number of organizations are providing some direction on repairs.

Section XI, “Rules for Inservice Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant
Components [47],” includes a number of acceptable repair methods, and
ASME has also issued a number of Code cases that address different
repair methods. ASME B31.1 [6] contains a nonmandatory Appendix V,
“Recommended Practice for Operation, Maintenance, and Modification
for Power Piping Systems.” The NBIC also allows the repair buildup of
wasted areas and the installation of certain types of patches by welding.
7-18
Fabrication
The ASME Post Construction Committee is generating guides on repair

techniques (not yet published as of this writing). The American Petroleum
Institute (API) publishes API 510, Pressure Vessel Inspection Code:
Maintenance Inspection, Rating, Repair and Alteration [48] and API 570,
Piping Inspection Code: Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Rerating of
In-Service Piping Systems [49]. It is not possible to include all of the
directions contained in these and other documents on repair methods; it is
left to the user to identify specific approaches to satisfy the user’s needs.
7.5 Welding Dissimilar Steels

Steels of many different compositions or properties are often required to
be joined to the carbon steels covered in this report. The change in
composition might be for a wide variety of reasons, including changes in
the temperature of operation, corrosion problems (particularly flow-
assisted corrosion), and transitions between components (such as valves to
pipe, pumps to pipe, and so on). When welding carbon steels to low-alloy
steels, a slight preference would be to use filler metals similar in
composition to the alloy material or to some intermediate composition.
However, the practice of using fillers similar to the carbon steel material
has also been used.
When the weld is between carbon steel and austenitic stainless steel, a
filler with increased chromium and nickel content, such as a Type 309
alloy, is often used. This increased alloy content will help to form a
similar composition in the weld when diluted with the carbon steel base
material. Nickel-based fillers are also used—particularly in high-
temperature applications—because the nickel-based material has a thermal
expansion coefficient that is closer to the carbon steel than the austenitic
filler.
Other techniques are used to provide for transitions between dissimilar

metals. One technique is to “butter” the end of the carbon steel with a
transition material. This is done by weld depositing a surface layer on the
carbon steel joint and then preparing it for welding to the alloy or the
stainless material. This technique is often used to avoid the requirement to
perform PWHT on the final weld because the “buttered” surface can
receive the PWHT required for the carbon steel, eliminating the need to
perform PWHT on the final joint.
7-19
8
REFERENCES
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, various editions. American

Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York.
2. J. E. Bringas, Handbook of Comparative World Steel Standards, 2nd
Edition. ASTM DS67A. ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
PA: 2002.
3. Metals and Alloys in the Unified Numbering System. SAE HS-
1086/ASTM DS-56, various editions. SAE International,
Warrendale, PA and ASTM International, Conshohocken, PA.
4. Pressure Piping. ASME B31. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York: 2004.
5. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section II, Part A,
“Properties.” American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York:
6. Power Piping. ASME B31.1. American Society of Mechanical
7. Process Piping. ASME B31.3. American Society of Mechanical
8. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section II, Part D, “Ferrous
Material Specifications.” American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
9. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX, “Welding and
Brazing Qualification.” American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
10. Realistic Carbon Equivalent for Underwater Welding. EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 2002. 1006799.
11. G. E. Linnert, Welding Metallurgy: Fundamentals, 4th Edition,
Volume 1. American Welding Society, Miami, FL: 1994.
12. Metals Handbook, Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures,
“Metallurgy and Microstructure,” “Bainitic Structures.” ASM
International, Materials Park, OH: 2004.
8-1
References
13. Metallurgical Guidebook for Fossil Power Plant Boilers. EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 2006. 1011912.
14. Metals Handbook, Volume 4: Heat Treating, “Heat Treating of
Steel,” “Quantitative Prediction of Transformation Hardening in
Steels,” “Relationship Between IT, CCT, and Jominy Curves.” ASM
15. United States Steel, I-T Diagrams, 1963.
16. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section II, Part A, Ferrous
Material Specifications, SA-941, “Specification for Terminology
Relating to Steel, Stainless Steel, Related Alloys, and Ferroalloys.”
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York: 2004.
17. Metals Handbook, Volume 1, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels,
and High Performance Alloys, “Carbon and Low Alloy Steels,”
“Physical Properties of Carbon and Low Alloy Steels.” ASM
18. “General Properties of Steels.” Retrieved from www.eFunda.com,
2006.
19. The Grade 22 Low Alloy Steel Handbook. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2005. 1012840.
20. Metals Handbook, Desk Edition, “Glossary of Terms.” ASM
21. Metals Handbook, Volume 11: Failure Analysis and Prevention,
“Fracture,” “Creep and Stress Rupture Failures,” “Bulk Creep
Behavior.” ASM International, Materials Park, OH: 2003.
22. Boiler Tube Failure Metallurgical Guide, Volume 2: Appendices.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1994. TR-102433-V2.
23. G. V. Smith, An Evaluation of the Elevated Temperature Tensile and
Creep-Rupture Properties of Wrought Carbon Steel. ASTM Data
Series DS 11S1. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA:
1970.
24. Boiler Tube Failures: Theory and Practice, Volume 3: Steam-
Touched Tubes. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1996. TR-105261-V3.
8-2
References
25. Metals Handbook, Volume 1: Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels,

and High Performance Alloys, “Service Characteristics of Carbon
and Low-Alloy Steels,” “Elevated Temperature Properties of Ferritic
Steels,” “Factors Affecting Mechanical Properties.” ASM
26. H. Thielsch, “Material Selection,” Defects and Failures in Pressure
Vessels and Piping. Reinhold Publishing, New York: 1965.
27. P. Duebler, personal correspondence related to B31.1 Code Revision,
2005.
28. Atlas of Fatigue Curves. ASM International, Materials Park, OH:
1986.
29. Metals Handbook, Volume 19: Fatigue and Fracture, “Fracture
Mechanics, Damage Tolerance, and Life Assessment,” “Fatigue and
Fracture Control of Weldments,” “Fatigue in Welded Joints.” ASM
30. Metals Handbook, Desk Edition, “Service Characteristics of Carbon
and Low Alloy Steels,” “Notch Toughness of Steels, Effects of
Manufacturing Practices.” ASM International, Materials Park, OH:
2002.
31. M. K. Booker and B. L. P. Booker, “Factors Influencing the Time-
Dependent Properties of Carbon Steels for Elevated Temperature
Pressure Vessels,” Analysis of Elevated Temperature Tensile and
Creep Properties of Wrought Carbon Steels, MPC-Volume 19.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York: 1983.
32. Boiler Tube Failures: Theory and Practice, Volume 1, Boiler Tube
Fundamentals. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1996. TR-105261-V1.
and High Performance Alloys, “Fabrication Characteristics of
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels,” “Machinability of Steels,”
“Machinability Ratings of Steels.” ASM International, Materials
Park, OH: 2002.
and High Performance Alloys, “Fabrication Characteristics of
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels,” “Machinability of Steels,”” Carbon
Steels.” ASM International, Materials Park, OH: 2002.
35. R. D. Stout, Weldability of Steels. Welding Research Council, 1987.
8-3
References
36. Buttwelding Ends. ASME B16.25. American Society of Mechanical
37. Structural Welding Code – Steel. D1.1/D1.1M. American Welding
Society, Miami, FL: 2004.
38. Single Welding Qualification Code Project. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2004. 1009714.
39. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I, “Power Boilers.”
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York: 2004 with
2005 Addenda.
40. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, “Nuclear Power
Plant Components.” American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
41. ASME, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1,
“Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels.” American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York: 2004 with 2005 Addenda.
42. BPTCS Task Group on PWHT – Final Report. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York: 1998.
43. Recommended Practices for Local Heating of Welds in Piping and
Tubing. D10.10/ D10.10M. American Welding Society, Miami, FL:
1999.
44. Filler Metal Specifications. A5.xx. American Welding Society,
Miami, FL: various dates.
45. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section II, Part C,
“Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metals.”
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York: 2004 with
2005 Addenda.
46. National Board Inspection Code. NB-23. National Board of Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Inspectors, Columbus, OH: 2001.
47. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section XI, “Rules for
Inservice Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components.” American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York: 2004 with 2005
Addenda.
48. Pressure Vessel Inspection Code: Maintenance Inspection, Rating,
Repair and Alteration, API 510. API, Washington, D.C.: 2003.
8-4
References
49. Piping Inspection Code: Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Rerating

of In-Service Piping Systems. API 570. API, Washington, D.C.:
2003.
8-5
A
CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF SELECTED
CARBON STEELS
Including a list of materials covered.
A-1
Chemical Compositions of Selected Carbon Steels
Table A-1
Material Chemical Compositions
UNS Man- Phos- Molyb- Vana-

ASME/ Carbon Sulfur Silicon Copper Nickel Chromium Niobum
Number ganese phorus denum dium Notes
ASTM (C) (S) (Si) (Cu) (Ni) (Cr) (Nb)
(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
SA-27
J03000 0.30 0.60 0.05 0.06 0.80 -- -- -- -- -- -- Increase of Mn
60-30
allowed above
SA-27
J03001 0.30 0.70 0.05 0.06 0.80 -- -- -- -- -- -- maximum up to
65-35
1.40% for
SA-27 Gr.70–40 and
J03501 0.35 0.70 0.05 0.06 0.80 -- -- -- -- -- --
70-36 1.0% for all
A-27 70- other grades at
J02501 0.25 1.20 0.05 0.06 0.80 -- -- -- -- -- -- rate of 0.04%
40
per 0.01% C
A-27 N1 J02500 0.25 0.75 0.05 0.06 0.80 -- -- -- -- -- -- reduction.
A-27 N2 J03500 0.35 0.60 0.05 0.06 0.80 -- -- -- -- -- --
1.0% maximum
SA-53 K02504 for sum of Cu,
0.25 0.95 0.05 0.045 -- 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.15 -- 0.08
Gr. A (Note 3) Ni, Cr, Mo, and
V.
1.0% maximum
SA-53 K03005 for sum of Cu,
0.30 1.20 0.05 0.045 -- 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.15 -- 0.08
Gr. B (Note 3) Ni, Cr, Mo, and
V.
1.0% maximum
K03504 0.60- 0.10-
SA-105 0.35 0.035 0.040 0.40 0.40 0.30 0.12 0.02 0.05 for sum of Cu,
(Note 3) 1.05 0.35
Ni, Cr, and Mo.
A-2
Table A-1 (continued)

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
SA-106 K03006 0.29– 1.0% maximum
0.30 0.035 0.035 0.10 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.15 -- 0.08
Gr. B (Note 3) 1.06 for sum of Cu,
Ni, Cr, Mo, and
V.
Increase of Mn
allowed above
SA-106 K03501 0.29–
0.35 0.035 0.035 0.10 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.15 -- 0.08 maximum up to
Gr. C (Note 3) 1.06
1.35% at rate of
0.06% per
0.01% C
reduction.
SA-134 Si: 0.15–0.40
K01400 0.14 0.90 0.035 0.04 0.40 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. 283A for plates > 1.5
SA-134 in.
K01702 0.17 0.90 0.035 0.04 0.40 -- -- -- -- -- -- Cu: 0.20
Gr. 283B
minimum when
SA-134
K02401 0.24 0.90 0.035 0.04 0.40 -- -- -- -- -- -- specified.
Gr. 283C
These products
SA-134 are fabricated
K02702 0.27 0.90 0.035 0.04 0.40 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. 283D from SA-283
plate.
A-3

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
SA-134 Product
K01700 0.17 0.90 0.035 0.035 -- --- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. 285A analysis, Mn:
SA-134 0.98.
K02200 0.22 0.90 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. 285B
These products
SA-134 are fabricated
K02801 0.28 0.90 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- from SA-285
Gr. 285C
plate.
SA-135
K02509 0.25 0.95 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. A
SA-135
K03018 0.30 1.20 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. B
A-139
-- 0.25 1.00 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. A
A-139 K03003
0.26 1.00 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. B (Note 3)
A-139 K03004
0.28 1.20 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. C (Note 3)
A-139
K03010 0.30 1.30 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. D
A-139
K03012 0.30 1.40 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. E
A-4

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
This product is
fabricated from
SA-155 SA-515 Gr. 55
K02001
KC55 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
(Note 4)
(Note 1) See SA-515 Gr.
55 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-155 SA-515 Gr. 60
KC60 K02401 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
60 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-155 SA-515 Gr. 65
65 for
composition.
A-5
UNS Man- Phos- Molyb-

ASME/ Carbon Sulfur Silicon Copper Nickel Chromium Niobum Vana-
Number ganese phorus denum Notes
ASTM (C) (S) (Si) (Cu) (Ni) (Cr) (Nb) dium (V)
(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo)
This product is
fabricated from
SA-155 SA-515 Gr. 70
70 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-155 SA-516 Gr. 55
KCF55 K01800 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
55 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-155 SA-516 Gr. 60
60 for
composition.
A-6

This product is
fabricated from
SA-155 SA-516 Gr. 65
(Note 1) See SA-516
Gr. 65 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-155 SA-516 Gr. 70
(Note 1) See SA-516
Gr. 70 for
composition.
SA-178 Gr. 0.27–
K01200 0.06–0.18 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
A 0.63
SA-178 Gr.
K03503 0.35 0.80 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
C
SA-178 Gr. 1.00– 0.10
K02709 0.27 0.030 0.015 -- -- -- -- -- --
D 1.50 minimum
K01200 0.27–
SA-179 0.06–0.18 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
(Note 4) 0.63
A-7

SA-181 Cl. 0.10– Increase of Mn
K03502 0.35 1.10 0.05 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --
60 0.35 allowed above
maximum up to
1.35% at rate
SA-181 Cl. 0.10– of 0.06% per
K03502 0.35 1.10 0.05 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --
70 0.35 0.01% C
reduction.
0.27–
SA-192 K01201 0.06–0.18 0.035 0.035 0.25 -- -- -- -- -- --
0.63
SA-210 Gr. 0.10 Increase of Mn
K02707 0.27 0.93 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- --
A1 minimum allowed. above
maximum up to
1.35% at rate
SA-210 Gr. 0.29– 0.10 of 0.06% per
K03501 0.35 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- --
C 1.06 minimum 0.01% C
reduction.
A-8

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
0.04 for 0.31 for ≤ 1 in.
0.05 for
flanges 0.33 for > 1 in.,
SA-212 flanges
See ; 0.15– ≤ 2 in.
Gr. B -- 0.90 ; -- -- -- -- -- --
note. 0.035 0.30 0.35 for > 2 in.,
(Note 1) 0.04 for
for ≤ 8 in.
firebox.
firebox.
Product
analysis, Si:
0.13–0.33.
0.27–
SA-214 K01807 0.18 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
0.63
Increase of Mn
allowed above
maximum up to
1.28% at rate of
0.04% per
SA-216 0.01% C
J03002 0.30 1.00 0.04 0.045 0.60 0.30 0.50 0.50 0.20 -- 0.03
WCB reduction.
1.0% maximum
for sum of Cu,
Ni, Cr, Mo, and
V.
A-9

Increase of Mn
allowed above
maximum up to
1.40% at rate of
SA-216 0.04% per 0.01%
J02503 0.25 1.20 0.04 0.045 0.60 0.30 0.50 0.50 0.20 -- 0.03
WCC C reduction.
1.0% maximum
for sum of Cu, Ni,
Cr, Mo, and V.
SA-226 K01201 0.27–
0.06–0.18 0.035 0.035 0.25 -- -- -- -- -- --
(Note 1) (Note 4) 0.63
SA-234 0.29– 0.10 Increase of Mn
K03006 0.30 0.050 0.058 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.15 -- 0.08
WPB 1.06 minimum allowed above
maximum up to
1.35% at rate of
0.06% per 0.01%
SA-234 0.29– 0.10 C reduction.
K03501 0.35 0.050 0.058 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.15 0.02 --
WPC 1.06 minimum
1.0% maximum
for sum of Cu, Ni,
Cr, Mo, and V.
A-10

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
SA-266 K03506 0.40– 0.15–
0.30 0.025 0.025 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr.1 (Note 3) 1.05 0.35
SA-266 K03506 0.40– 0.15–
0.30 0.025 0.025 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. 2 (Note 3) 1.05 0.35
SA-266 K05001 0.80– 0.15–
0.35 0.025 0.025 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. 3 (Note 3) 1.35 0.35
SA-266 0.80– 0.15–
K03017 0.30 0.025 0.025 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. 4 1.35 0.35
Si: 0.15–0.40
for plates > 1.5
SA-283 in.
K01400 0.14 0.90 0.035 0.04 0.40 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. A Cu: 0.20
minimum when
specified.
Si: 0.15–0.40
for plates > 1.5
SA-283 in.
K01702 0.17 0.90 0.035 0.04 0.40 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. B Cu: 0.20
minimum when
specified.
A-11

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Si: 0.15–0.40
for plates > 1.5
SA-283 in.
K02401 0.24 0.90 0.035 0.04 0.40 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. C Cu: 0.20
minimum when
specified.
Si: 0.15–0.40
for plates > 1.5
SA-283 in.
K02702 0.27 0.90 0.035 0.04 0.40 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. D Cu: 0.20
minimum when
specified.
SA-285 Product
Gr. A analysis, Mn:
Also: SA- K01700 0.17 0.90 0.035 0.035 -- --- -- -- -- -- -- 0.98.
672 Gr.
A45
SA-285 Product
Gr. B analysis, Mn:
Also: SA- K02200 0.22 0.90 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.98.
672 Gr.
A50
A-12

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
SA-285 Product
Gr. C analysis, Mn:
Also: SA- 0.98.
671 Gr. K02801 0.28 0.90 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
CA55
SA-672
Gr. A55
SA-299
Product
Also: SA- 0.90– analysis:
671 Gr. 0.28 for 1.40 for
CK75 Mn: 0.84–1.52
≤1 in. ≤ 1 in. 0.13–
SA-672 K02803 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- for ≤ 1 in.
0.30 for 0.90– 0.45
Gr. N75 0.84–1.62 for
> 1 in. 1.50 for
SA-691 > 1 in.
> 1 in.
Gr.
CMS75
Increase of Mn
allowed above
maximum up to
SA-333 0.40–
K03008 0.30 0.025 0.025 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1.35% at rate of
Gr. 1 1.06
0.05% per
0.01% C
reduction.
A-13

Increase of Mn
allowed above
SA-333 Gr. 0.29– 0.10 maximum up to
K03006 0.30 0.025 0.025 -- -- -- -- -- --
6 1.06 minimum 1.35% at rate of
0.05% per 0.01%
C reduction.
Increase of Mn
allowed above
SA-334 Gr. 0.40– maximum up to
K03008 0.30 0.025 0.025 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
1 1.06 1.35% at rate of
0.05% per 0.01%
C reduction.
Increase of Mn
allowed above
SA-334 Gr. 0.29– 0.10 maximum up to
K03006 0.30 0.025 0.025 -- -- -- -- -- --
6 1.06 minimum 1.35% at rate of
0.05% per 0.01%
C reduction.
A-14

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
1.0% maximum
for sum of Cu,
Ni, Cr, Mo, and
SA-350 0.60– 0.15–
K03009 0.30 0.035 0.040 0.40 0.40 0.30 0.12 0.02 0.08 V; 0.32%
LF1 1.35 0.30
maximum for
sum of Cr and
Mo.
1.0% maximum
for sum of Cu,
Ni, Cr, Mo, and
SA-350 0.60– 0.15–
K03011 0.30 0.035 0.040 0.40 0.40 0.30 0.12 0.02 0.08 V; 0.32%
LF2 1.35 0.30
maximum for
sum of Cr and
Mo.
Increase of Mn
allowed above
maximum up to
1.10% at rate of
SA-352 0.04% per
J02504 0.25 0.70 0.04 0.045 0.60 0.30 0.50 0.50 0.20 -- 0.03 0.01% C
LCA
reduction.
1.0% maximum
for sum of Cu,
Ni, Cr, and V.
A-15

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Increase of Mn
allowed above
maximum up to
1.28% at rate of
0.04% per
SA-352 0.01% C
J03003 0.30 1.00 0.04 0.045 0.60 0.30 0.50 0.50 0.20 -- 0.03
LCB reduction.
1.0% maximum
for sum of Cu,
Ni, Cr, Mo, and
V.
Increase of Mn
allowed above
maximum up to
1.40% at rate of
0.04% per
SA-352 0.01% C
J02505 0.25 1.20 0.04 0.045 0.60 -- 0.50 0.50 0.20 -- 0.03
LCC reduction.
1.0% maximum
for sum of Cu,
Ni, Cr, Mo, and
V.
SA-372 0.15–
K03002 0.30 1.00 0.025 0.025 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. A 0.35
A-16

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
SA-372 0.15–
K04001 0.35 1.35 0.025 0.025 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. B 0.35
Ladle analysis
given.
A-381, Check analysis:
all K02601 0.26 1.40 0.025 0.025 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- C: 0.30
grades Mn: 1.50
P: 0.030
S: 0.025
Maximum C
content:
0.15 for ≤ 0.75
in.
0.20 for > 0.75
in. ≤ 2 in.
SA-433
See See Maximum P
Gr. L-45 -- 0.80 0.04 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
note. note. content:
(Note 1)
0.04 (acid)
0.035 (basic)
Lead (Pb)
content:
0.15–0.35
A-17

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
0.20 for ≤ 0.75
in.
0.22 for > 0.75
SA-433 in. ≤ 2 in.
See See
Gr. L-50 -- 0.80 0.04 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Maximum P
note. note.
(Note 1) content:
0.04 (acid)
0.035 (basic)
Pb content:
0.15–0.35
Maximum C
content:
0.25 for ≤ 0.75
in.
0.30 for > 0.75
SA-433 in., ≤ 2 in.
See See
Gr. L-55 -- 0.80 0.04 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
note. note. Maximum P
(Note 1)
content:
0.04 (acid)
0.035 (basic)
Pb content:
0.15–0.35
A-18

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
0.20 for ≤ 1 in.
0.24 for > 1 in.,
≤ 2 in.
SA-433 0.27 for > 2 in.,
Gr. LK- See See ≤ 4 in.
-- 0.80 0.035 0.04 -- -- -- -- -- --
55 (Note note. note. Si content:
1) Ladle analysis:
0.15–0.30
Check analysis:
0.13–0.33
Pb content:
0.15–0.35
A-19

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
0.24 for ≤ 1 in.
0.27 for > 1 in.,
≤ 2 in.
SA-433 0.30 for > 2 in.,
-- 0.80 0.035 0.04 -- -- -- -- -- --
1) Ladle analysis:
0.15–0.30
Check analysis:
0.13–0.33
Pb content:
0.15–0.35
A-20

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
0.28 for ≤ 1 in.
0.31 for >1 in.,
≤ 2 in.
SA-433 0.33 for >2 in.,
-- 0.80 0.035 0.04 -- -- -- -- -- --
1) Ladle analysis:
0.15–0.30
Check analysis:
0.13–0.33
Pb content:
0.15–0.35
A-21

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
0.31 for ≤ 1 in.
0.33 for >1 in.,
≤ 2 in.
SA-433 0.35 for >2 in.,
-- 0.80 0.035 0.04 -- -- -- -- -- --
1) Ladle analysis:
0.15–0.30
Check analysis:
0.13–0.33
Pb content:
0.15–0.35
Product
SA-442 analysis:
Gr.55 0.80– Mn content
0.22 for
(Note 1) 1.10 for 0.74–1.20 for
≤ 1 in. 0.15–
Also: SA- K02202 ≤ 1 in. ≤ 1 in.
0.035 0.040 0.40 for -- -- -- -- -- --
671 Gr. (Note 4) 0.60– 0.55–0.98 for
0.24 for > 1 in.
CE55 0.90 for > 1 in.
> 1 in.
SA-672 > 1 in. Si content:
Gr. E55 0.13–0.45 for
> 1 in.
A-22

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Product
analysis:
SA-442
Gr. 60 0.80- Mn content
0.24 for
(Note 1) ≤ 1 in. 1.10 for 0.74–1.20 for
≤ 1 in. 0.15– ≤ 1 in.
Also: SA- K02402
0.035 0.040 0.40 for -- -- -- -- -- --
671 Gr. (Note 4) 0.60– 0.55–0.98 for
0.27 for > 1 in.
CE60 0.90 for > 1 in.
SA-672 > 1 in. > 1 in. Si content:
Gr. E60
0.13–0.45 for
> 1 in.
If Si > 0.10,
maximum C =
0.28
Product
0.85– analysis:
SA-455 K03300 0.33 0.035 0.035 0.10 -- -- -- -- -- --
1.20 Mn content
0.79–1.30
Si content
0.13 maximum
A-465
Gr. L-I -- 0.30 0.90 0.05 0.05 0.35 -- -- -- -- -- -- Pb: 0.15–0.35
(Note 1)
A-23

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
A-465
Gr. L-II -- 0.30 0.90 0.05 0.05 0.35 -- -- -- -- -- -- Pb: 0.15–0.35
(Note 1)
A-465
Gr. L-III -- 0.35 0.90 0.05 0.05 0.35 -- -- -- -- -- -- Pb: 0.15–0.35
(Note 1)
A-465
Gr. L-IV -- 0.35 0.90 0.05 0.05 0.35 -- -- -- -- -- -- Pb – 0.15–0.35
(Note 1)
SA-508 0.40– 0.15–
K13502 0.35 0.025 0.025 -- 0.40 0.25 0.10 -- 0.05
Gr. 1 1.05 0.40
A-24

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
0.20 for ≤ 1 in.
0.22 for >1 in.,
SA-515 ≤ 2 in.
Gr. 55
0.24 for > 2 in.,
(Note 1)
≤ 4 in.
Also: SA- K02001 See 0.15–
0.90 0.035 0.04 -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.26 for > 4 in.,
155 Gr. (Note 5) note. 0.40
≤ 8 in.
KC55
SA-672 0.28 for > 8 in.
Gr. B55 Mn and Si
product
analyses:
Mn: 0.98; Si:
0.13–0.45
A-25

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
0.24 for ≤ 1 in.
SA-515 0.27 for >1 in.,
Gr. 60 ≤ 2 in.
Also: SA- 0.29 for >2 in.,
155 Gr. See 0.15– ≤ 4 in.
KC60 K02401 0.90 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- --
note. 0.40 0.31 for > 4 in.,
SA-671
≤ 8 in.
Gr. CB60
SA-672 0.31 for > 8 in.
Gr. B60 Product
analyses:
Mn: 0.98; Si:
0.13–0.45
A-26

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
SA-515 0.28 for ≤ 1in.
Gr. 65 0.31 for >1 in.,
Also: SA- ≤ 2 in., 0.33 for
155 Gr. > 2 in., ≤ 4 in.
See 0.15–
KC65 K02800 0.90 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.33 for > 4 in.,
note. 0.40
SA-671 ≤ 8 in.
Gr. CB65 0.33 for > 8 in.
SA-672 Product
Gr. B65 analyses:
Mn: 0.98; Si:
0.13–0.45
A-27

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
0.31 for ≤ 1 in.
SA-515 0.33 for > 1 in.,
Gr. 70 ≤ 2 in.
Also: SA- 0.35 for >2 in.,
155 Gr. See 0.15– ≤ 4 in.
KC70 K03101 1.20 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- --
note. 0.40 0.35 for > 4 in.,
SA-671
≤ 8 in.
Gr. CB70
SA-672 0.35 for > 8 in.
Gr. B70 Product
analyses:
Mn: 1.30; Si:
0.13–0.45
A-28

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
0.18 for ≤
0.5 in.
0.20 for >
0.60– 0.5 in., ≤ 2 in.
SA-516 0.90 for 0.22 for > 2 in.,
Gr. 55 ≤ 0.5 ≤ 4 in.
Also: SA- in.
See 0.15– 0.24 for > 4 in.,
155 Gr. K01800 0.60– 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- ≤ 8 in.
note. 0.40
KCF55, 1.20 for
> 0.5 0.26 for > 8 in.
SA-672
Gr. C55 in. Product
analyses:
Mn: 0.55–0.98
for ≤ 0.5 in.,
0.55–1.30 for
> 0.5 in.
Si: 0.13–0.45
A-29

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
0.21 for ≤
0.5 in.
0.23 for >
SA-516 0.5 in., ≤ 2 in.
0.60–
Gr. 60
0.90 for 0.25 for > 2 in.,
Also: SA- ≤ 0.5 ≤ 4 in.
155Gr. in.
KCF60, See 0.15– 0.27 for > 4 in.,
K02100 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- ≤ 8 in.
SA-671 note. 0.40
0.85–
Gr. 0.27 for > 8 in.
1.20 for
CC60, Product
> 0.5
SA-672 analyses:
in.
Gr. C60
Mn: 0.55–0.98
for ≤ 0.5 in.,
0.79–1.30 for
> 0.5 in.
Si: 0.13–0.45
A-30

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
0.24 for
≤ 0.5 in.
0.26 for >
SA-516 0.5 in., ≤ 2 in.
0.60–
Gr. 65
0.90 for 0.28 for > 2 in.,
Also: SA- ≤ 0.5 ≤ 4 in.
155 Gr. in.
KCF65, See 0.15– 0.29 for > 4 in.,
K02403 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- ≤ 8 in.
SA-671 note. 0.40
0.85–
Gr. 0.29 for > 8 in.
1.20 for
CC65, Product
> 0.5
SA-672 analyses:
in.
Gr. C65
Mn: 0.55–0.98
for ≤ 0.5 in.,
0.79–1.30 for
> 0.5 in.
Si: 0.13–0.45
A-31

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Maximum C
content:
0.27 for ≤
0.5 in., 0.28 for
SA-516
0.85– > 0.5 in., ≤ 2 in.
Gr. 70
1.20 for 0.30 for > 2 in.,
Also: SA- ≤ 0.5 ≤ 4 in., 0.31 for
155 Gr. in.
See 0.15– >4 in., ≤ 8 in.
KCF70, K02700 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- --
SA-671 note. 0.40 0.31 for > 8 in.
0.85–
Gr. Product
1.20 for
CC70, analyses:
> 0.5
SA-672 Mn: 0.79–1.30
in.
Gr. C70 for ≤ 0.5 in.
0.79–1.30 for
> 0.5 in.
Si: 0.13–0.45
SA-524 0.90– 0.10–
K02104 0.21 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. I 1.35 0.40
SA-524 0.90– 0.10–
K02104 0.21 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. II 1.35 0.40
A-32

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
Mn: Given for
SA-537 ≤ 1.5 in., 1.0–
Cl.1 1.62 for
heat > 1.5 in.
analysis Mn and Ni can
0.70– 0.15–
Also: SA- K12437 0.24 0.035 0.035 0.35 0.25 0.25 0.08 -- -- exceed limit
1.35 0.50
671 Gr. based on C
CD70, equivalent ≤
SA-672 0.57 – up to
Gr. D70 1.60 (Mn) and
0.50 (Ni)
SA-537
Cl.1
product
analysis Mn: Given for
0.64– 0.13– ≤ 1.5 in., 0.92–
Also: SA- K12437 0.24 0.035 0.035 0.38 0.28 0.29 0.09 -- --
1.46 0.55 1.72 for
672 Gr. > 1.5 in.
D70, SA-
691 Gr.
CMSH70
SA-541 0.40– 0.15–
K03506 0.35 0.025 0.025 -- 0.40 0.25 0.10 -- 0.05
Gr. 1 0.90 0.35
SA-541 0.70– 0.15–
K03020 0.30 0.025 0.025 -- 0.40 0.25 0.10 -- 0.05
Gr. 1A 1.35 0.40
A-33

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
A-573 0.60– 0.10–
K02301 0.23 0.035 0.04 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. 58 0.90 0.35
C content: 0.24
A-573 See 0.85– 0.15– (≤ 0.5 in.), 0.26
K02404 0.035 0.04 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. 65 note. 1.20 0.40 (> 0.5 in., ≤ 1.5
in.)
C content: 0.27
A-573 See 0.85– 0.15– (≤ 0.5 in.), 0.28
K02701 0.035 0.04 -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. 70 note. 1.20 0.40 (> 0.5 in., ≤ 1.5
in.)
Aluminum (Al)
0.27–
SA-587 K11500 0.15 0.035 0.035 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- content: 0.02–
0.63
0.100
This product is
fabricated from
SA-285 Gr. C
SA-671
K02801 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. CA55
See SA-285 Gr.
C for
composition.
A-34

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
This product is
fabricated from
SA-515 Gr. 60
SA-671
K02401 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. CB60
See SA-515 Gr.
60 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-515 Gr. 65
SA-671
K02800 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. CB65
See SA-515 Gr.
65 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-515 Gr. 70
SA-671
K03101 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. CB70
See SA-515 Gr.
70 for
composition.
A-35

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
This product is
fabricated from
SA-671 SA-516 Gr. 60
Gr. K02100 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
CC60 See SA-516 Gr.
60 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-671 SA-516 Gr. 65
CC65 See SA-516 Gr.
65 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-671 SA-516 Gr. 70
CC70 See SA-516 Gr.
70 for
composition.
A-36

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
This product is
fabricated from
SA-671 SA-537 Cl. 1
CD70 See SA-537 Cl.
1 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-671
SA-442 Gr. 55
Gr. CE55 K02202
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
(Notes 1, (Note 4)
See SA-442 Gr.
5)
55 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-671
SA-442 Gr. 60
Gr. CE60 K02402
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
(Notes 1, (Note 4)
See SA-442 Gr.
5)
60 for
composition.
A-37

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
This product is
fabricated from
SA-671 SA-299 plate
K02803 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. CK75 material. See
SA-299 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-285 Gr. A
SA-672
K01700 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. A45
See SA-285
Gr.A for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-285 Gr. B
SA-672
K02200 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. A50
See SA-285
Gr.B for
composition.
A-38

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
This product is
fabricated from
SA-285 Gr. C
SA-672
K02801 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. A55
See SA-285
Gr.C for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-672
SA-515 Gr. 55
Gr. B55
K02001 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
(Notes 1,
See SA-515 Gr.
5)
55 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-515 Gr. 60
SA-672
K02401 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. B60
See SA-515 Gr.
60 for
composition.
A-39

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
This product is
fabricated from
SA-515 Gr. 65
SA-672
K02800 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. B65
See SA-515 Gr.
65 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-515 Gr. 70
SA-672
K03101 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. B70
See SA-515 Gr.
70 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-516 Gr. 55
SA-672
K01800 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. C55
See SA-516 Gr.
55 for
composition.
A-40

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
This product is
fabricated from
SA-516 Gr. 60
SA-672
K02100 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. C60
See SA-516 Gr.
60 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-516 Gr. 65
SA-672
K02403 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. C65
See SA-516 Gr.
65 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-516 Gr. 70
SA-672
K02700 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. C70
See SA-516 Gr.
70 for
composition.
A-41

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
This product is
fabricated from
SA-537 Cl.1
SA-672
K12437 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
Gr. D70
See SA-537
Cl.1 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-672 SA-442 Gr. 55
K02202
Gr. E55 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
(Note 5)
(Note 1) See SA-442
Gr.55 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-672 SA-442 Gr. 60
K02402
Gr. E60 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- plate material.
(Note 5)
(Note 1) See SA-442
Gr.60 for
composition.
A-42

(Note 2) (Mn) (P) (Mo) (V)
This product is
fabricated from
SA-672 SA-299 plate
K02803 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Gr. N75 material. See
SA-299 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-691 SA-537 Cl.1
CMSH70 See SA-537
Cl.1 for
composition.
This product is
fabricated from
SA-691
K02803 SA-299 plate
Gr. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
(Note 3) material. See
CMS75
SA-299 for
composition.
General notes:
The analysis given is the heat analysis unless otherwise noted.
1 in. = 25.4 mm.
A-43
Other notes:
1. The specification or grade has been discontinued. The information given is from the last available specification or code. See Table 3-1 for the specific source edition.
2. UNS numbers were obtained from ASTM DS-56I/SAE HS-1086/2004, 10th Edition, unless otherwise identified.
3. UNS numbers were obtained from ASME B&PV Code [1], Section IX, Table QW/QB-422, 2004 Edition with 2005 Addenda.
4. UNS numbers were obtained from DS-56G/SAE HS-1086/Jan 99, 8th Edition.
5. These grades are no longer made, although they are listed in the current specification (2004 with 2005 Addenda). Plates required were fabricated to a now-discontinued
specification.
A-44
B
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SELECTED
CARBON STEELS
B-1
Mechanical Properties of Selected Carbon Steels
Table B-1
Mechanical Properties
ASME/ASTM UNS Minimum Minimum
Material Number Tensile Strength Yield Strength Elongation Reduction in Other
Specification (Note 3) (2 in./ 50mm), % Area, %
ksi MPa ksi MPa
SA-27 60-30 J03000 60 415 30 205 24 35 --
SA-27 65-35 J03001 65 450 35 240 24 35 --
SA-27 70-36 J03501 70 485 36 250 22 30 --
A-27 70-40 J02501 70 485 40 275 22 30 --
A-27 N1 J02500 Mechanical testing not required
A-27 N2 J03500 Mechanical testing not required
K02504 (Based on
SA-53 Gr. A 48 330 30 205 (Based on size) --
(Note 4) size)
K03005 (Based on
SA-53 Gr. B 60 415 35 240 (Based on size) --
(Note 4) size)
K03504 187 Brinell
SA-105 70 485 36 250 22 30
(Note 4) hardness (HB)
K03006
SA-106 Gr. B 60 415 35 240 16.5 -- --
(Note 4)
B-2
Table B-1 (continued)
ksi MPa ksi MPa
K03501
SA-106 Gr. C 70 485 40 275 16.5 -- --
(Note 4)
SA-134 Gr. 283A K01400 45–60 310–415 24 165 30 -- --
SA-134 Gr. 283B K01702 50–65 345–450 27 185 28 -- --
SA-134 Gr. 283C K02401 55–75 380–515 30 205 25 -- --
SA-134 Gr. 283D K02702 60–80 415–550 33 230 23 -- --
SA-134 Gr. 285A K01700 45–65 310–450 24 165 30 -- --
SA-134 Gr. 285B K02200 50–70 345–485 27 185 28 -- --
SA-134 Gr. 285C K02801 55–75 380–515 30 205 27 -- --
SA-135 Gr. A K02509 48 331 30 207 35 -- --
SA-135 Gr. B K03018 60 414 35 241 30 -- --
A-139 Gr. A -- 48 330 30 205 35 -- --
K03003
A-139 Gr. B 60 415 35 240 30 -- --
(Note 4)
B-3
ksi MPa ksi MPa
K03004
A-139 Gr. C 60 415 42 290 25 -- --
(Note 4)
A-139 Gr. D K03010 60 415 46 315 23 -- --
A-139 Gr. E K03012 66 455 52 360 22 -- --
SA-155 KC55 K02001 From
55–75 380–515 30 205 27 --
(Note 1) (Note 5) A-515 Gr. 55
SA-155 KC60 From
K02401 60–80 415–550 32 220 25 --
(Note 1) A-515 Gr. 60
SA-155 KC65 From
K02800 65–85 450–585 35 240 23 --
(Note 1) A-515 Gr. 65
SA-155 KC70 From
K03101 70–90 485–620 38 260 21 --
(Note 1) A-515 Gr. 70
SA-155 KCF55 From
K01800 55–75 380–515 30 205 27 --
(Note 1) A-516 Gr. 55
SA-155 KCF60
K02100 60–80 415–550 32 220 25 -- --
(Note 1)
B-4
ksi MPa ksi MPa
SA-155 KCF65
K02403 65–85 450–585 35 240 23 -- --
(Note 1)
SA-155 KCF70 From
K02700 70–90 485–620 38 260 21 --
(Note 1) A-516 Gr. 70
SA-178 Gr. A K01200 47 325 26 180 35 -- --
SA-178 Gr. C K03503 60 415 37 255 30 -- --
SA-178 Gr. D K02709 70 485 40 275 30 -- --
K01200
SA-179 47 325 26 180 35 -- --
(Note 4)
SA-181 Cl. 60 K03502 60 415 30 205 22 35 --
SA-181 Cl. 70 K03502 70 485 36 250 18 24 --
SA-192 K01201 47 325 26 180 35 -- --
SA-210 Gr. A1 K02707 60 415 37 255 30 -- --
SA-210 Gr. C K03501 70 485 40 275 30 -- --
B-5
ksi MPa ksi MPa
SA-212 Gr. B 21 for flange;
-- 70–85 485–585 38 260 -- --
(Note 1) 22 for firebox
72 Rockwell
SA-214 (Note 2) K01807 47 325 26 180 -- -- hardness (B
scale) (HRB)
SA-216 WCB J03002 70–95 485–655 36 250 22 35 --
SA-216 WCC J02503 70–95 485–655 40 275 22 35 --
K01201
SA-226 (Note 1) 47 325 26 180 35 -- 72 HRB
(Note 5)
SA-234 WPB K03006 60–85 415–585 35 240 30 -- --
SA-234 WPC K03501 70–95 485–655 40 275 30 -- --
K03506
SA-266 Gr. 1 60–85 415–585 30 205 23 38 --
(Note 4)
K03506
SA-266 Gr. 2 70–95 485–655 36 250 20 33 --
(Note 4)
B-6
ksi MPa ksi MPa
K05001
SA-266 Gr. 3 75–100 515 690 37.5 260 19 30
(Note 4)
SA-266 Gr. 4 K03017 70–95 485–655 36 250 20 33 --
SA-283 Gr. A K01400 45–60 310–415 24 165 30 -- --
SA-283 Gr. B K01702 50–65 345–450 27 185 28 -- --
SA-283 Gr. C K02401 55–75 380–515 30 205 25 -- --
SA-283 Gr. D K02702 60–80 415–550 33 230 23 -- --
SA-285 Gr. A K01700 45–65 310–450 24 165 30 -- --
SA-285 Gr. B K02200 50–70 345–485 27 185 28 -- --
SA-285 Gr. C K02801 55–75 380–515 30 205 27 -- --
290 ≤ 1
42 ≤ 1 in. in.
SA-299 K02803 75–95 515–655 19 -- --
40 > 1 in. 275 > 1
in.
B-7
ksi MPa ksi MPa
13 feet/pound
SA-333 Gr. 1 K03008 55 380 30 205 35 -- (ft-lb) @
-50ºF
13 ft-lb @
SA-333 Gr. 6 K03006 60 415 35 240 30 --
-50ºF
HRB 85
SA-334 Gr. 1 K03008 55 380 30 205 35 -- 13 ft-lb @
-50ºF
HRB 90
SA-334 Gr. 6 K03006 60 415 35 240 30 -- 13 ft-lb @
-50ºF
13 ft-lb @
SA-350 LF1 K03009 60–85 415–585 30 205 28 38
-20ºF
B-8
ksi MPa ksi MPa
15 ft-lb @
-50ºF for
Cl. 1
SA-350 LF2 K03011 70–95 485–655 36 250 30 30
20 ft-lb @
0ºF for
Cl. 2
13 ft-lb @
SA-352 LCA J02504 60.0–80.0 415–585 30.0 205 24 35
-25ºF
13 ft-lb @
SA-352 LCB J03003 65.0–90.0 450–620 35.0 240 24 35
-50ºF
15 ft-lb @
SA-352 LCC J02505 70.0–95.0 485–655 40.0 275 22 35
-50ºF
SA-372 Gr. A K03002 60–85 415–585 35 240 20 -- 121 HB
SA-372 Gr. B K04001 75–100 515–690 45 310 18 -- 156 HB
A-381Y35 K02601 60 415 35 240 26 -- --
B-9
ksi MPa ksi MPa
A-381 Y42 K02601 60 415 42 290 25 -- --
A-381 Y46 K02601 63 435 46 316 23 -- --
A-381 Y48 K02601 62 430 48 330 21 -- --
A-381 Y50 K02601 64 440 50 345 21 -- --
A-381 Y52 K02601 66 455 52 360 20 -- --
A-381 Y56 K02601 71 490 56 385 20 -- --
A-381 Y60 K02601 75 515 60 415 20 -- --
SA-433 Gr. L-45
45–55 -- 24 -- 30 -- --
(Note 1)
SA-433 Gr. L-50
50–60 -- 27 -- 28 -- --
(Note 1)
SA-433 Gr.L-55
55–65 -- 30 -- 27 -- --
(Note 1)
SA-433 Gr. LK-55
55–65 -- 30 -- 27 -- --
(Note 1)
B-10
ksi MPa ksi MPa
SA-433 Gr. LK-60
60–72 -- 32 -- 24 -- --
(Note 1)
SA-433
65–77 -- 35 -- 22 -- --
Gr. LK-65 (Note 1)
SA-433
70–85 -- 38 -- 20 -- --
Gr. LK-70 (Note 1)
SA-442 Gr. 55 K02202
55–75 380–515 30 205 26 -- --
(Note 1) (Note 5)
SA-442 Gr.60 K02402
60–80 415–550 32 220 23 -- --
(Note 1) (Note 5)
≤ 0.375-in.
75–95 515–655 38 260
K03300 thick
SA-455 22 --
-- >0.375 in.
73–93 505–640 37 255
≤0.580 in.
A-465 Gr. L-I
-- 60 414 30 207 22 35 --
(Note 1)
B-11
ksi MPa ksi MPa
A-465 Gr. L-II
-- 60 414 30 207 25 38 --
(Note 1)
A-465 Gr. L-III
-- 70 483 36 248 18 24 --
(Note 1)
A-465 Gr. L-IV
-- 70 483 36 248 22 30 --
(Note 1)
SA-508 Gr. 1 K13502 70–95 485–655 36 250 20 38 --
SA-515 Gr. 55 K02001
55–75 380–515 30 205 27 -- --
(Note 1) (Note 5)
SA-515 Gr. 60 K02401 60–80 415–550 32 220 25 -- --
SA-515 Gr. 65 K02800 65–85 450–585 35 240 23 -- --
SA-515 Gr. 70 K03101 70–90 485–620 38 260 21 -- --
SA-516 Gr. 55 K01800 55–75 380–515 30 205 27 -- --
SA-516 Gr. 60 K02100 60–80 415–550 32 220 25 -- --
SA-516 Gr. 65 K02403 65–85 450–585 35 240 23 -- --
SA-516 Gr. 70 K02700 70–90 485–620 38 260 21 -- --
B-12
ksi MPa ksi MPa
SA-524 Gr. I K02104 60–85 414–586 35 240 30 -- --
SA-524 Gr. II K02104 55–80 380–550 30 205 35 -- --
485–620
70–90 for
≤ 2.5 in. for ≤ 2.5 50 for 345 for
in. ≤ 2.5 in. ≤ 2.5 in.
SA-537 Cl. 1 K12437 65–85 22 -- --
450–585 45 for 310 for
for > 2.5 > 2.5 in. > 2.5 in.
in. for > 2.5
in.
15 ft-lb @
SA-541 Gr. 1 K03506 70–95 485–660 36 250 20 38
40ºF
15 ft-lb @
SA-541 Gr.1A K03020 70–95 485–660 36 250 20 38
40ºF
A-573 Gr. 58 K02301 58–71 400–490 32 220 24 -- --
A-573 Gr. 65 K02404 65–77 450–530 35 240 23 -- --
A-573 Gr. 70 K02701 70–90 485–620 42 290 21 -- --
B-13
ksi MPa ksi MPa
SA-587 K11500 48 331 30 207 40 -- --
Fabricated
SA-671 Gr. CA55 K02801 55–75 380–515 30 205 27 -- from SA-285
Gr. C
Fabricated
SA-671 Gr. CB60 K02401 60–80 415–550 32 220 25 -- from SA-515
Gr. 60
Fabricated
SA-671 Gr. CB65 K02800 65–85 450–585 35 240 23 -- from SA-515
Gr. 65
Fabricated
SA-671 Gr. CB70 K03101 70–90 485–620 38 260 21 -- from SA-515
Gr. 70
Fabricated
SA-671 Gr. CC60 K02100 60–80 415–550 32 220 25 -- from SA-516
Gr. 60
B-14
ksi MPa ksi MPa
Fabricated
SA-671 Gr. CC65 K02403 65–85 450–585 35 240 23 -- from SA-516
Gr. 65
Fabricated
SA-671 Gr. CC70 K02700 70–90 485–620 38 260 21 -- from SA-516
Gr. 70
485–620
70–90 for
≤ 2.5 in. for 50 for 345 for
≤ 2.5 in. ≤ 2.5 in. ≤ 2.5 in. Fabricated
SA-671 Gr. CD70 K12437 65–85 22 -- from SA-537
450–585 45 for 310 for Cl.1
for > 2.5 in. > 2.5 in.
> 2.5 in. for
> 2.5 in.
Fabricated
SA-671 Gr. CE55 K02202
55–75 380–515 30 205 26 -- from SA-442
(Note 1) (Note 5)
Gr. 55
B-15
ksi MPa ksi MPa
Fabricated
SA-671 Gr. CE60 K02402
60–80 415–550 32 220 23 -- from SA-442
(Note 1) (Note 5)
Gr. 60
290 ≤ 1
Fabricated
42 ≤ 1 in. in.
SA-671 Gr. CK75 K02803 75–95 515–655 19 -- from
40 > 1 in. 275 > 1
SA-299
in.
Fabricated
SA-672 Gr. A45 K01700 45–65 310–450 24 165 30 -- from SA-285
Gr. A
Fabricated
SA-672 Gr. A50 K02200 50–70 345–485 27 185 28 -- from SA-285
Gr. B
Fabricated
SA-672 Gr. A55 K02801 55–75 380–515 30 205 27 -- from SA-285
Gr. C
B-16
ksi MPa ksi MPa
Fabricated
SA-672 Gr. B55
K02001 55–75 380–515 30 205 27 -- from SA-515
(Note 1)
Gr. 55
Fabricated
SA-672 Gr. B60 K02401 60–80 415–550 32 220 25 -- from SA-515
Gr. 60
Fabricated
SA-672 Gr. B65 K02800 65–85 450–585 35 240 23 -- from SA-515
Gr. 65
Fabricated
SA-672 Gr. B70 K03101 70–90 485–620 38 260 21 -- from SA-515
Gr. 70
Fabricated
SA-672 Gr. C55 K01800 55–75 380–515 30 205 27 -- from SA-516
Gr. 55
Fabricated
SA-672 Gr. C60 K02100 60–80 415–550 32 220 25 -- from SA-516
Gr. 60
B-17
ksi MPa ksi MPa
Fabricated
SA-672 Gr. C65 K02403 65–85 450–585 35 240 23 -- from SA-516
Gr. 65
Fabricated
SA-672 Gr. C70 K02700 70–90 485–620 38 260 21 -- from SA-516
Gr. 70
485–620
70–90 for
for 50 for 345 for
≤ 2.5 in. Fabricated
≤ 2.5 in. ≤ 2.5 in. ≤ 2.5 in.
SA-672 Gr. D70 K12437 65–85 22 -- from SA-537
450–585 45 for 310 for
for Cl.1
for > 2.5 in. > 2.5 in.
> 2.5 in.
> 2.5 in.
Fabricated
SA-672 Gr. E55 K02202
55–75 380–515 30 205 26 -- from A-442
(Note 1) (Note 6)
Gr. 55
B-18
ksi MPa ksi MPa
Fabricated
SA-672 Gr. E60 K02402
60–80 415–550 32 220 23 -- from A-442
(Note 1) (Note 6)
Gr. 60
290 ≤ 1
Fabricated
42 ≤ 1 in. in.
SA-672 Gr. N75 K02803 75–95 515–655 19 -- from
40 > 1 in. 275 > 1
SA-299
in.
485–620
70–90 for
≤ 2.5 in. for 50 for 345 for
≤ 2.5 in. ≤ 2.5 in. ≤ 2.5 in. Fabricated
SA-691 Gr.
K12437 65–85 22 -- from SA-537
CMSH70 450–585 45 for 310 for
for Cl.1
for > 2.5 in. > 2.5 in.
> 2.5 in.
> 2.5 in.
B-19
ksi MPa ksi MPa
290
Fabricated
K02803 42 ≤ 1 in. ≤ 1 in.
SA-691 Gr. CMS75 75–95 515–655 19 -- from
(Note 4) 40 > 1 in. 275
SA-299
> 1 in.
Conversion notes:
1 in. = 25.4 mm
ºC = (ºF - 32) x 5/9
1 ft-lb = 1.356 joules
ºF = (ºC x 9/5) + 32
Other notes:
1. The specification or grade has been discontinued. The information given is from the last available specification or code. See Table 3-1 for specific source edition.
2. Mechanical properties are not specified in the SA-214 material specification; those shown were obtained from ASME Section II, Part D.
3. UNS numbers obtained from ASTM DS-56I/SAE HS-1086/2004, 10th Edition, unless otherwise identified.
4. UNS number obtained from ASME B&PV, Section IX, Table QW/QB-422, 2004 Edition with 2005 Addenda.
5. UNS number obtained from DS-56G/SAE HS-1086/Jan 99, 8th Edition.
6. These grades are no longer made, although they are listed in the current specification (2004 with 2005 Addenda). Plates required were fabricated to a now-discontinued
specification.
B-20
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Carbon Steel Handbook

Final Report, March 2007

EPRI Project Manager

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION

(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT

Flenner Engineering Services, LLC

Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, and TOGETHER…SHAPING

Copyright © 2007 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights

This report was prepared by

Flenner Engineering Services, LLC

This report describes research sponsored by the Electric Power Research

The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in

Carbon Steel Handbook. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2007. 1014670.

This report, one in an ongoing series of metallurgical reports, is devoted to

Results and Findings

Challenges and Objectives

2 TECHNICAL BACKGROUND............................................................... 2-1

3 STANDARDS AND CODES.................................................................. 3-1

3.2.1 Allowable Stresses .................................................................... 3-7

3.2.2 P Number Identification ............................................................. 3-9

4 METALLURGY ..................................................................................... 4-1

4.3.1 Microstructure ............................................................................ 4-4

4.3.2 Transformation Behavior ........................................................... 4-9

4.3.3 Transformation Diagrams ........................................................ 4-19

4.3.4 Heat Treatment........................................................................ 4-24

5 PROPERTIES ....................................................................................... 5-1

6 OXIDATION RESISTANCE................................................................... 6-1

7.3.1 Weldability ................................................................................. 7-2

7.3.2 Weld Joint Preparation .............................................................. 7-5

7.3.3 WPSs ....................................................................................... 7-10

7.3.4 Welder and Welding Operator Qualification............................ 7-12

7.3.5 Preheat and PWHT ................................................................. 7-12

7.3.6 Filler Metal Selection ............................................................... 7-17

A MATERIAL CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS .......................................... A-1

B MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SELECTED CARBON

Table 2-1 Comparative International Specifications..................................................... 2-2

It is important to clarify the meaning of carbon steel in the generic sense

As the description implies, the primary alloying element of these iron-

In some cases, requirements established by codes and standards must be

2.1 Forms Available

Table 3-2 identifies the international (non-U.S.) material specifications

SA-27 Specification for Steel Castings, Carbon, for General

3.2 ASME Codes

3.2.1 Allowable Stresses

The Code-allowable stresses are determined by the ASME Subcommittee

Allowable stresses must be obtained from the applicable Code. The

3.2.2 P Number Identification

The ASME P number is an indication of weldability (see also Section

testing, each set of P number materials is subdivided into groups. The P

Whereas the purpose of P numbers is to establish qualification material

4.1 Chemical Composition

the differences between the various types or grades of carbon steels.

• Chromium. Chromium is a powerful alloying element in steel. It is

4.2 Carbon Equivalence

CE = C + (Mn + Si)/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Ni + Cu)/15

It is important that any CE determination be calculated using the actual

The CE can be specified at certain maximum values (for example, SA-537