Organizational Behavior (BUS282)

Done by: Ebtihal Hassan Ali

Student ID: 6158

Submission Date: 7th May 2011

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Table of Contents
1 Introduction...................................................................................................3
2 Definition......................................................................................................4
3 Theories of Personality..................................................................................5
4 Trait Theory..................................................................................................6
4.1 Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory......................................................................6
4.1.1 Cardinal Traits:.....................................................................................................6
4.1.2 Central Traits:.......................................................................................................6
4.1.3 Secondary Traits:..............................................................................................7
4.2 Raymond Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire.......................7
4.3 Hans Eysenck (PEN theory)..........................................................................8
4.4 Paul Costa & Robert McCrae (‘Five Factor Theory’)..................................9
a) Extraversion............................................................................................................10
Extraversion Facets.........................................................................................................10
b) Agreeableness.....................................................................................................11
Agreeableness Facets......................................................................................................12
c) Conscientiousness.......................................................................................13
d) Neuroticism.............................................................................................................14
Neuroticism Facets.........................................................................................................15
e) Openness to experience........................................................................16
Openness Facets..............................................................................................................16
5 Conclusion..................................................................................................18
6 Reference....................................................................................................19

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1 Introduction

If you have anything really valuable to contribute to the world it will come through
the expression of your own personality, that single spark of divinity that sets you off
and makes you different from every other living creature.
Bruce Barton [ CITATION PEG \l 1033 ]

In this paper I will go through number of theories of personality. many people ask
"who's right." regrettably, this aspect of psychology is the least open to to direct
research that pits one theory against another. Much of it involves things that are only
accessible to the person him- or herself – (your inner thoughts and feelings).
Personality is still very much in a philosophical stage.

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2 Definition

Personality is a collection of thoughts, feelings and behaviors that make a person

unique than others. In addition to this, personality develops from within the individual
and stays consistent throughout life.

Almost every day we analyze the personalities of the people around us. What we do is
similar to what psychologists do.

While our assessments focus on individuals, psychologists instead use theories of

personality that can apply to everyone. The researches have guided us to the
development of a number of theories that can help us to know further about the
human personalities.

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3 Theories of Personality

There are different types of theories that talked about how the human personality
some of these major theories include:

 Type theories are one of the first theories talked about personality. These
theories assumed the existence of limited number of "personality types" which are
associated to biological influences.

 Trait theories: said that personality is the result of internal characteristics that
are genetically based.

 Psychodynamic theories: heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud,

and emphasize the influence of the unconscious on personality. Psychodynamic
theories include Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stage theory and Erik Erikson’s
stages of psychosocial development.[ CITATION Per \l 1033 ]

 Behavioral theories: assumes that personality is a consequence of interaction

between the individual and the surroundings. Behavioral theorists observe the
measurable behaviors and not accepting the theories that take internal emotions into
account. Behavioral theorists include B. F. Skinner

 Humanist theories highlight the importance of individual experience in the

development of personality. Humanist theorists include Abraham Maslow.

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4 Trait Theory

The trait theory of personality is one of the important theoretical areas in the study of
personality. The trait theory assumes that individual personalities are a collection of
different reactions. A trait can be considered of as a constant characteristic that causes
individuals to act in certain ways.

The trait theory of personality is focused on differences between people. The mixture
and interaction of different traits develop a personality that is unique to each
individual. Trait theory is interested in identifying and measuring these individual
personality characteristics.

4.1 Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory

In the year 1936, the psychologist Gordon Allport found that one dictionary alone
contained more than 4,000 words explaining different personality traits. His theory
was to categorize and list these traits into three levels:

4.1.1 Cardinal Traits:

Traits that control an individual’s whole life so the individual becomes known for
these traits. Individuals with those types of personalities regularly become so known
for these traits that their names are often synonymous with these characteristics. For
example we can consider the basis and meaning of the following terms: Don Juan,
Freudian, Machiavellian, etc. Allport assumes that cardinal traits are rare and will
develop later in life.

4.1.2 Central Traits:

These are the common traits that develop the basic of personality. These central traits,
while not as the cardinal traits, are the major distinctiveness we can use to describe
another individual. Expressions like honest, shy and intelligent are considered central
traits.

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 4.1.3 Secondary Traits:
Those traits are sometimes related to attitudes and mostly show only in some
situations or under specific circumstances. Getting anxious when speaking to a group
or impatient while waiting in line are a good examples.

4.2 Raymond Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire

The theorist Raymond Cattell decrease the number of core personality traits from
Allport’s primary list of over 4,000 down to 171, typically by removing rare traits and
merging similar characteristics. Then he evaluated a huge sample of individuals for these
171 different traits. And using a statistical method known as factor analysis, he identified
directly linked terms and finally reduced his list to only 16 key personality traits.
According to Cattell, these 16 traits are the foundation of all human personality. He also
developed one of the most broadly used personality assessments known as the Sixteen
Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF).

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 4.3 Hans Eysenck (PEN theory)
Eysenck suggested that only two factors were essential to explain individual
differences in personality. He believed that Cattell's theory has too much factors
which were similar to each other, and that a two factor theory could cover the 16
factors suggested by Cattell. This model had the following scope:

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4.4 Paul Costa & Robert McCrae (‘Five Factor Theory’)
Both Cattell’s and Eysenck’s theories have been the subject of a huge research,
which has guide some theorists to believe that Cattell focused on too many traits,
while Eysenck focused on too few. As a result, a new trait theory often referred to
as the "Big Five" theory emerged. This five-factor model of personality represents
five core traits that interact to form human personality. [ CITATION Tra \l 1033 ]
While researchers often disagree about the exact labels for each dimension, the
following are described most commonly:

 
 
This Costa & McCrae model has acknowledged a huge support from other research
and is now broadly accepted between psychologists. There is some a small
disagreement regarding the naming of these five factors but this is mainly an
academic argue. These five factors of personality are known as the 5-factors or ‘the
Big 5’.
 
Each of these 5 personality traits describes, relative to other people, the frequency or
intensity of a person's feelings, thoughts, or behaviors. Everyone possesses all 5 of
these traits to a greater or lesser degree. For example, two individuals could be
described as ‘agreeable’ (agreeable people value getting along with others). But there
could be significant variation in the degree to which they are both agreeable. In other
words, all 5 personality traits exist on a continuum (see diagram) rather than as
attributes that a person does or does not have. [ CITATION The4 \l 1033 ]

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 a) Extraversion
Extraversion is known by engagement with the external world. Extraverts
enjoy being with people, are full of energy, and often experience positive
emotions. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented, individuals who are
likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's go!" to opportunities for excitement. In groups
they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves.
[ CITATION IPI \l 1033 ]

Introverts have less spirits, energy, and activity levels of extraverts. They
have a tendency to be quiet, deliberate, and away from the external world.
Their lack of social contribution should not be understood as shyness or
depression; the introvert simply needs less interaction than an extravert and
like to be alone. The independence of the introvert is mistakenly understood
as unfriendliness. In reality, an introvert who scores high on the
agreeableness scale will not seek others out but will be quite pleasant when
approached.

Extraversion Facets
 
 Friendliness. Friendly individuals like other people and openly express
positive feelings toward others. They make friends quickly. Individuals
with low scores on Friendliness are not essentially cold, but they don’t
approach others and are perceived as distant and reserved.
 Gregariousness. Gregarious individuals find that being with others
enjoyably inspiring and rewarding. They enjoy the pleasure of crowds.
Individuals with Low scores like to feel overwhelmed by, and therefore
keenly avoid crowds. They do not necessarily hate socialize with
people, but their need for private space and time to themselves is much
greater than for individuals who high score.
 Assertiveness. Individuals with High scores in Assertiveness like to be
in charge, and direct the activities of others. They like to be leaders in
groups. Individuals with Low scores dislike talking much and they let
others control the activities of groups.

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  Activity Level: Active individuals like fast-paced, busy lives. They
move quickly, energetically, and vigorously, and they are occupied in
many activities. Individuals with low scores follow a slower and more
relaxed life.
 Excitement-Seeking. Individuals with High scores are easily bored
without high levels of inspiration. They are likely to take risks and seek
adventures. Individuals with Low scores are overwhelmed by noise and
commotion and are adverse to adventure-seeking.
 Cheerfulness. It measure positive mood and feelings, not negative
emotions individuals with high scores mostly experience a range of
positive emotions, including happiness and joy. Individuals with Low
scores are not such energetic, high spirits.

b) Agreeableness
Agreeableness shows individual differences with regards to the cooperation
and social harmony. Agreeable individuals’ value getting along with others.
They are therefore considerate, welcoming, kind, caring, and willing to
share their interests with others'. Agreeable people also have a positive view
of human nature. They trust that people are basically honest, decent, and
reliable.

Disagreeable individuals put self-interest above getting along with others.

They are generally not interested with others' well-being, and therefore are
unlikely to broaden themselves for other people. Sometimes their doubt
about others' motives causes them to be doubtful, unsociable, and unhelpful.

Agreeableness is clearly beneficial for getting and maintaining popularity.

Agreeable people are better liked than disagreeable people. On the other
hand, agreeableness is not useful in situations that require tough or absolute
objective decisions. Disagreeable people can make excellent scientists,
critics, or soldiers.

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 Agreeableness Facets
 
 Trust. A person with high trust believed that most people are frank,
truthful, and have good intentions. Persons low in trust may see others as
tricky, selfish, and dangerous.
 Morality. A person with high scorers on this scale sees no need for
pretence or manipulation when dealing with others and is therefore honest,
truthful, and open. A Low scorer believes that a certain amount of
deception in relationships is necessary. People find it relatively easy to
recount to the high-scorers on this scale. They find it more difficult to
recount to the low-scorers. It should be obvious that low scorers are not
immoral; they are simply more secured and less willing to openly disclose
the whole truth.
 Altruism. Altruistic people argue that helping other people truly
rewarding. Accordingly, they are mostly eager to support people in need.
They believe that doing things for others is a sort of self-fulfillment rather
than self-sacrifice. Low scorers do not mainly like helping people in need.
Needs for help feel like an obligation rather than a chance for self-
fulfillment.
 Cooperation. Individuals with high score don’t like confrontations. They
are eager to cooperate or to avoid their own needs in order to get along
with others. Low scorers are more likely to threaten others to get their way.
 Modesty. High scorers dislike claiming that they are better than other
people. Sometimes this attitude may develop from low self-confidence.
Nonetheless, some people with high self-esteem find immodesty unseemly.
 Sympathy. High scorers are sensitive and kind. They feel the pain of
others and are easily moved to pity. People with Low score are not affected
by human suffering. They make objective conclusions. They are more
anxious with truth and objective justice than with mercy.

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 c) Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness interested in the way in which we control, regulate,
and direct our impulses. Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally
time constraints require a snap decision, and acting on our first impulse
can be an effective response. Also, in times of play rather than work,
acting spontaneously and impulsively can be fun. Impulsive individuals
can be seen by others as colorful, fun-to-be-with, and zany. [ CITATION
The2 \l 1033 ]

Conscientious individuals dislike trouble and achieve high levels of

success through focused planning and determination. They are also
known to be intelligent and reliable. On the negative side, they can be
perfectionists. Unconscientiously individuals are known for their
unreliability, lack of ambition.

 Conscientiousness Facets
 
 Self-Efficacy. It describes self-confidence in accomplish things. High
scorers believe they have a common sense, drive and self-control necessary
for achieving success. Individuals with Low scores don’t feel effective, and
may feel that they don’t have control over their lives.
 Orderliness. Individuals whose score high are well-organized. They
respect routines and schedules. They keep lists and make plans. Individual
with Low scores like to be disorganized and unplanned.
 Dutifulness. This scale shows the strength of a person's sense of duty and
obligation. Individuals with high scores have a strongest sense of moral
obligation than the low scorers whose dislike contracts, rules, and
regulations. They are likely to be seen as unreliable or even irresponsible.
 Achievement-Striving. Individuals with high scores attempt hardly to
achieve excellence. Their interest to be successfully recognized keeps them
on track toward their goals. They have a strong sense of path in life.
Individuals with Low scores are satisfied to do a nominal work, and they
are seen by others as lazy.

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  Self-Discipline. Self-discipline-what many people call will-power-refers to
the ability to persist at difficult or unpleasant tasks until they are
completed.[ CITATION IPI1 \l 1033 ] Individuals with high scores are able to
defeat unwillingness to begin tasks and stay on track despite distractions.
Individuals with low scores show poor follow-through, and not able to
complete tasks even the ones that they really want to complete.
 Cautiousness. It is the ability to think throughout possibilities before
acting. Individuals with High scores take time when making decisions.
Individuals with Low scores do the first thing that comes to mind without
thinking about alternatives.

d) Neuroticism
Freud originally used the term neurosis to describe a condition marked by
mental distress, emotional suffering, and an inability to cope effectively
with the normal demands of life. He suggested that everyone shows some
signs of neurosis, but that we differ in our degree of suffering and our
specific symptoms of distress. Today neuroticism refers to the tendency to
experience negative feelings.[ CITATION IPI2 \l 1033 ]

Individuals with high scores on Neuroticism may have one specific negative
feeling such as anger, anxiety, or depression, but they might experience a
mixture of these emotions. On the other hand, individuals with low scores
shows to be emotionally stable, calm and free from persistent negative
feelings.

 Neuroticism Facets
 

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  Anxiety. Individuals with who score high in anxiety feel like something
hazardous is about to happen. Individuals with low scores mainly calm and
fearless.
 Anger. Individuals with high scores feel angry when they don’t get things
on their way. They are sensitive about being treated fairly and feel
offended when they feel that they were cheated. Individuals with low score
don’t get angry easily.
 Depression. It measures the trend to feel sad and discouraged. Individuals
with High scores have difficult initiating activities and lack energy.
Individuals with Low scores mostly are free of these feelings.
 Self-Consciousness. People with high score are sensitive about what others
opinions about them. They fear from refusal force them to feel shy and
uncomfortable with others. They are simply embarrassed and often feel
ashamed. Individuals with Low scores don’t feel that everyone is judging
them. They do not feel worried in social situations.
 Immoderation. Individuals with high scores show to be focusing toward
short-term rewards rather than long- term. Individuals with Low scores do
not experience those strong cravings.
 Vulnerability. Individuals with High scores experience confusion and
panic under pressure or stress. Individuals with Low scores feel more
confident when stressed.

e) Openness to experience.
It describes a dimension of cognitive style that distinguishes imaginative,

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 creative people from down-to-earth, conventional people. Open people are
intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They tend
to be, compared to closed people, more aware of their feelings. They tend to
think and act in individualistic and nonconforming ways.[ CITATION The3 \l
1033 ]
Openness is mostly known as healthier or more mature. Though, open and
closed way of thinking is useful in different conditions.

Openness Facets
 
 Imagination. To the imaginative people, the real life is too ordinary.
Individuals with High scores use imagination to create a more interesting
world. Individuals with Low scores are more oriented to facts than
imagination.
 Artistic Interests. Individuals with High scores admire beauty in both art
and nature. They are easily involved in arty and natural events. Individuals
with Low scores lack of interest in arts.
 Emotionality. Individuals with Emotions have good awareness of their
own feelings. Individuals with Low scores have less awareness of their
feelings and they don’t express their emotions easily.
 Adventurousness. Individuals with High scores are excited to try new
activities, travel to foreign places, and try different things. They find
routine boring, and will approach a new route to home only because it is
different. Individuals with Low scores will feel uncomfortable with change
and like routines.
 Intellect. An intellect interest is one of the most significant aspects of
openness to experience. Individuals with High scores love to play with
ideas. They are open-minded to unusual ideas. They enjoy puzzles, and
brain teasers. Individuals with Low scorers prefer dealing with people or
things more than ideas. They evaluate intellectual exercises as a waste of
time.
 Liberalism. It refers to a readiness to challenge authority, convention, and
traditional values. In its most extreme form, psychological liberalism can

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 even represent outright hostility toward rules, sympathy for law-breakers,
and love of ambiguity, chaos, and disorder. Psychological conservatives
prefer the security and stability brought by conformity to tradition.
Psychological liberalism and conservatism are not identical to political
affiliation, but certainly incline individuals toward certain political parties.
[ CITATION IPI3 \l 1033 ]

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5 Conclusion

As a conclusion to this paper we can say that as we go through the various theories,
however, there will be ones that fit well with our experiences of self and others. And
there will be times that several theorists say similar things, even though they are
taking very different approaches and sometimes there is a research program that
supports certain ideas over others.

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