02-1a Fundamentals of Plant Process Layout & Piping Design

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANT PROCESS LAYOUT & PIPING
ME 462: INDUSTRIAL PLANT ENGINEERING

DESIGN
This chapter provides a brief introduction to Process Plant Layout and Piping Design. The fundamental
aspects of process plant layout and piping design are discussed. An overview of the procedures and
workflow methods used in plant layout and piping design is also provided and the physical quantities and
units commonly used are presented.
Learning objectives
• Understanding the fundamental aspects of process plants, plant layout and piping design.
• Understanding the procedures and the workflow methods used in designing process plants and
piping systems.
• Understanding the physical quantities and units used in process plant layout and piping design.
Plant layout fundamentals
Process plants encompass all types of facilities involved in the chemical/physical processing of raw
materials into desired finished products or intermediates for further processing. Examples of such
processing facilities include the following:
• Refineries.
• Chemical/Petrochemical Plants.
• Fertilizer Plants.
• Offshore Processing Facilities.
• Power Plants.
• Pulp and Paper Mills.
• Food/Beverage Industries.
• Pharmaceutical Plants.
• Water Treatment Plants.
• Waste Treatment Facilities.
The processing facilities included in the preceding list play a vital role in meeting the basic needs of
humanity. Therefore, a proper design, maintenance and operation of such facilities is necessary to ensure
steady, dependable supply of materials and products required for comfortable and productive living in the
contemporary modern world.
Process plants are complex facilities consisting of equipment, piping systems, instruments, electrical
systems, electronics, computers and control systems. Figure 1.1 is a picture of a section of a refinery that
illustrates the complexity of the equipment, piping and other entities.
Figure 1.1
A small section of a refinery showing equipment, piping system and other items.
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The design of process plants is a complex team effort involving different disciplines of engineering: process
(chemical), mechanical, piping, electrical, instrumentation, controls, materials and project. It also requires
considerable management and coordination skills.
The objective is to design and construct a plant in a cost-effective manner that will meet the process
requirements and client specifications and that will operate in a safe reliable manner. Other factors to be
considered in the design of process plants are:
• Short design, engineering and construction schedules and getting the plant on stream as quickly
as possible.
• Minimizing or even eliminating field rework, which significantly increases plant construction costs.
• Constructability.
• Maintainability.
• Operability.
• Satisfying environmental requirements.
• Minimizing costs.
Figure 1.2 illustrates the interaction and teamwork between different disciplines in the plant layout and
piping design effort.
Figure 1.2
Plant Design and Piping Design Effort – Contributions from different disciplines
Tasks involved in plant layout and piping design

Plant Layout and Piping Design involve multiple tasks, which include:
• Development and refinement of “Plot Plans”. Plot plans are representations of precise location of
equipment and their associated infrastructure (foundations, ladders, platforms etc.). Plot plans are
developed taking into consideration process, client and safety requirements. Plant coordinates are
used extensively in specifying equipment locations. Plot plans are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 4.
• Establishing equipment nozzle locations. Nozzles are components of equipment that connect to
pipe.
• Routing of pipes. This is a dynamic and iterative process until the equipment and nozzle locations
are finalized.
• Designing equipment ancillaries such as foundations, platforms, and stairways.
• Location of safety equipment such as fire hydrants and safety showers.
• Being cognizant of the location of structures, instruments, control valves, electrical raceways and
miscellaneous plant items while routing pipe.
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The salient skills and qualities required for plant layout and piping design are as follows:
• Sufficient knowledge of the process being used including function of each equipment. This
information is obtained from the process group in the form of “Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs)”.
PFDs are discussed in detail in Chapter 2.
• Knowledge of the operating and maintenance procedures used for equipment.
• Common sense and attention to detail.
• Ability to think creatively to solve layout problems and challenges.
• Ability to think and visualize spatial relationships between plant items in three dimensions.
• Ability to effectively use computer tools such as 3D modeling software and pipe stress analysis
software.
• Excellent communication skills.
• Ability to function effectively as a member of a multi-disciplinary project team.
• Effectively communicate and resolve layout issues and problems with project management.
• Ability to produce, maintain and update project drawings and documents.
• Awareness that conscientious, quality effort during the design and engineering phase can shorten
project schedules resulting in economic benefits and client goodwill.
Data used in plant layout and piping design
Massive amounts of data is generated and used in plant layout and piping design. Proper management of
plant data is necessary to ensure data accessibility and data integrity, which in turn contributes to the overall
quality of the project. Plant data can be classified into three categories.
• Project data consists of information such as plant location, local codes and regulations, access
roads, waterways, railways, seismic conditions, climate data (average temperature, wind speed
and direction, and rainfall).
• Design and engineering data is internally generated during the design and engineering phases
of the project. Examples of such data include equipment sizes, service conditions (temperature,
pressure etc.), and mass flow rates.
• Vendor data consists of information provided by equipment vendors by means of vendor
drawings and data sheets.
Rules of thumb for plant layout and piping design
The approach to plant layout and piping design can vary depending on the nature of the plant and the
project. For example, the design philosophy for an offshore facility is quite different from that for an onshore
chemical plant simply because of limited space available on offshore platforms. However, there are a few
useful rules of thumb that can be followed.
• Knowledge and understanding of project requirements and project documents.

• Conservation of space and resources.
• Arrangement of equipment in a neat, organized manner taking into account process needs and
safety.
• Attention to detail including adjacent equipment, supports and other items, which can cause
potential clashes between piping and equipment/supports.
• Consideration of constructability, operability and maintainability of the plant.
• Routing of pipe in a neat, orderly and symmetrical manner keeping in mind the future needs of the
plant.
• Avoiding excessive changes in elevations and directions.
• Ensuring consistency in design.
• Avoiding excessive amounts of relocations and revisions by “doing it right the first time”.
Common abbreviations used in plant layout and piping design
• N,S,E,W: North, South, East and West

• CL: Centerline
• El: Elevation
• TOS: Top of Steel
• BOP: Bottom of Pipe
• POS: Point of Support
• BBP: Bottom of Baseplate
• ISBL: Inside Battery Limits
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• OSBL: Outside Battery Limits

• AG: Above Ground
• UG: Underground
• ϕ: Diameter
• OD: Outside Diameter of pipe
• ID: Inside Diameter of pipe
• TL: Tangent Line
• TYP: Typical
• PFD: Process Flow Diagram
• P&ID: Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
Abbreviations used in PFDs and P&IDs are explained in Chapters 2 and 5 respectively.
Procedures and workflow methods used in plant layout and piping design
Front end engineering and design: The complex task of designing and building process plants consists of
several phases – design, engineering, procurement and construction. The design phase itself consists of
conceptual design, design study and detailed design. The conceptual design phase starts with the Process
Flow Diagram (PFD) and client specifications. The project scope is also defined during this phase. The
working documents used during this phase are the PFD and the Conceptual Plot Plan. Based on the PFD, a
large chemical plant or offshore production facility is sub-divided into several small, manageable areas. A
Plot Plan is then generated for each area. Boundary limits for each area are specified using spatial
coordinates. The boundaries are known as match lines and play an important role in combining the smaller
areas. In offshore platforms, plot plans are generated for each deck of the platform. The outcome of the
conceptual design phase is usually preliminary sizes and locations of major equipment, which results in the
plot plan for use during the design study phase.
The design study phase plot plan is reviewed and discussed by the client and by the project disciplines.
Vessel supports and ancillaries are located during this phase. Preliminary routing of major lines also takes
place during this phase. The outcome of the design study phase is a final plot plan and a preliminary Piping
& Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID). The P&ID contains details and specifications of all equipment, piping,
fittings, instrumentation and control valves. The P&ID also contains references to detailed drawings of
equipment. The P&ID serves as the primary reference document in communication between engineering
and design personnel in all disciplines. Thus, the P&ID is an important working document in the design and
engineering of process plants and piping systems. The final plot plan and the P&ID must be approved by all
disciplines including safety and loss control.
The conceptual design and design study phases together constitute the Front End Engineering and Design
(FEED) phase of the project. The P&ID, plot plans and elevations are used in building a three dimensional
electronic model of the process plant. This 3-D model will contain all the components of the plant including
equipment, piping, fittings, control stations and support structures. In recent years, the ability to build 3-D
electronic models has been greatly enhanced due to advancements in computer hardware and software.
Detailed design and engineering: The FEED phase is followed by the detailed design and engineering
phase where every piece of equipment and every component of piping systems is finalized and specified for
procurement. During this phase, piping isometric drawings known as “Issued-For Design (IFD)” drawings
are generated for analysis and comment by piping engineers and engineers from other disciplines whose
input is required. The IFD drawings are pictorial representations of the piping system and allied components
containing all dimensional information. Piping engineers primarily use the IFD drawings for the following
purposes:
• Pipe Stress Analysis: The piping systems are analyzed for stress and load to ensure that the
pipes are not overstressed (both under installed and operating conditions) and are adequately
supported. In many cases, piping systems need to have enough flexibility to allow for thermal
expansion. Pipe stress analysis also includes computing loads and stresses on equipment
nozzles and ensuring that they are within the allowable limits specified by applicable standards
and codes. Pipe stress analysis is performed with the aid of stress analysis software.
• Code compliance: The code that governs the design of piping systems for process plants is
ASME B31.3: Process Piping. Piping engineers are responsible for interpreting the code using
sound engineering judgment to ensure that the proposed design meets the code requirements.
• Piping material specifications: The piping engineer is responsible for specifying appropriate
materials for the pipes. In accomplishing this task, the piping engineer takes into account
operating conditions such as the pressure and temperature and also the chemical nature of the
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fluid being transported. Piping material specification is a very time consuming task but it is very
important to specify the right material to ensure the safe and efficient operation of the plant.
The 3-D model is an extremely useful design tool that can be used by all disciplines during the detailed
design and engineering phase. The 3-D model is constantly referenced during design review meetings and
discussions. These meetings occur frequently and involve all the engineering disciplines and the client. The
3-D model is also useful in clash detection and interference checking. This process saves considerable
money and effort by minimizing field rework and field rerouting of pipes. An engineering database is also
generated as part of the electronic model. This database is useful in purchasing and procurement functions.
As the design is reviewed and updated, so is the 3-D model.
After the detailed design and engineering phase, piping isometric fabrication drawings (also known as spool
drawings) along with material specifications are issued for creating the required piping spools.
Simultaneously, procurement lists are generated for fittings, instrumentation and other items in the piping
system from the engineering database. The procurement lists are used for purchasing the items and contain
all the information required to accomplish this task. The procurement lists are also known as “Bill of
Materials (BOM)” or “Material Take-off”.
Foundations, structural members and major equipment are put in place using civil/structural drawings,
equipment drawings, the 3-D model and other documents. Now the stage is set for the installation of the
piping system. Drawings and documents known as “Issued for Construction (IFC)” are used for this purpose.
Construction personnel assemble and install the piping system by using IFC drawings and documents.
Figure 1.3 illustrates the workflow methods used in process plant layout and piping design. It should be
noted that workflow methods could vary depending on client and company preferences. It should also be
noted that the entire process is iterative in nature. There is continuous interaction between the different
phases of the project.
Figure 1.3
Procedures and Workflow Methods Used in Plant Layout and Piping Design
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Organizations involved in providing standards and guidelines for plant layout and piping design
Some of the organizations that provide standards and guidelines for plant layout and piping design are listed
here along with their web addresses.
• American Society for Mechanical Engineers (ASME): Publishes and updates codes for piping
design. The code relevant to the design of piping systems is ASME B31.3 – 2004 Process
Piping. (www.asme.org)
• Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS): Publishes documents and guidelines related to
process safety. The focus is on preventing or mitigating catastrophic releases of chemicals,
hydrocarbons, and other hazardous materials. CCPS has published guidelines for “Facility Siting
and Layout”. (www.aiche.org/ccps)
• Construction Industry Institute (CII): Provides guidelines for cost effective and safe construction
methods and has several publications on constructability. (www.construction-institute.org)
• Society of Piping Engineers and Designers (SPED): Promotes excellence and quality in the
practice of piping engineering and design. SPED emphasizes education and training and has
certification programs for piping designers. (www.spedweb.org)
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA): Provides regulations and safety
standards for the operation of process plants. (www.osha.gov)
• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA): Provides fire protection standards for process plants
and for gas storage and handling. (www.nfpa.org)
Physical quantities and units in plant layout and piping design
The physical quantities and units used in plant layout and piping design are summarized in Table 1.1. The
units are specified both in the SI System and in the US Customary System (USCS).
Table 1.1
Physical Quantities and Units Used in Plant Layout and Piping Design
Physical
Symbol SI System USCS
Quantity
Length L Meter (m) Feet (ft)
Diameter D Millimeter (mm) Inch (in)
Thickness Δx Millimeter (mm) Inch (in)
Mass m Kilogram (kg) Pound mass (lbm)
Time t Seconds (s) Seconds (sec)
Temperature T Degree Celcius (°C) Degree Farenheit (°F)
2
Area A Square meter (m ) Square feet (ft2)
Volume V Cubic meter (m3) Cubic feet (ft3)
Velocity v Meters/sec (m/s) Feet/sec (ft/sec)
Acceleration a Meters/sec2 (m/s2) Feet/sec2 (ft/sec2)
Force F Newton (N) Pound force (lbf)
Pressure P Pascal (Pa) Pounds/in2 (psi)
Stress s Megapascal (Mpa) Pounds/in2 (psi)
Strain ɛ Mm/mm in/in
Work W Newton-meter (N.m) Foot pound force (ft-lbf)
Energy E Joule (J) British thermal unit (Btu)
Energy flow kilowatts (kW) Btu/sec or Btu/hr
Enthalpy H kilojoules (kJ) Btu
Mass flow kg/s Lbm/sec
Volume flow m3/s ft3/sec
Notes: The unit of force in the SI system is Newton (N). A Newton is defined as the force required to
produce an acceleration of 1 m/s2 on a body of mass 1 kg. The unit of force in the US Customary System
(USCS) is Pound force (lbf). One pound force is the force required to accelerate 1 lbm at 32.2 ft/sec2. This
leads to the use of a conversion constant, gc in USCS. The following equations are useful in understanding
the units of different physical quantities.
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Figure 1.4
Workflow model
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In this chapter, equipment typically used in process plants is described. This includes process equipment
such as reactors, towers and exchangers and mechanical equipment such as pumps and compressors.
Process and mechanical equipment used in process plants are discussed in this chapter.
Learning objectives
• Process equipment: reactors, towers, exchangers and vessels.

• Mechanical equipment: pumps and compressors.
• Equipment nozzle specifications.
• Equipment drawings.
• Equipment foundations and supports.
Introduction
Equipment in process plants can be classified into two categories – process equipment and mechanical
equipment. Process equipment is used in the different processing steps as indicated by the Process Flow
Diagram (PFD). Reactors and heat exchangers are examples of process equipment. Mechanical equipment
is used in the transport of fluids from one process unit to another and also in the compression of gases.
Pumps and compressors are examples of mechanical equipment. Mechanical equipment consists of
rotating machinery. Good practices in process plant layout and piping design requires adequate knowledge
of equipment used in process plants and the ability to interpret equipment documents and drawings. Both
these types of equipment are discussed in this chapter.
Process equipment
Towers
Towers are tall, slender pieces of vertical equipment found in process plants. The most important example
of a tower is the distillation column, also known as a fractionating tower. The distillation column is used in
the separation of components based on the differences in the boiling points of the components. For
example, in the distillation of crude oil, preheated feed is fed to a “flash zone” in the column where liquid and
vapor separate. The lighter fractions boil first and rise to the top of the column and the heavier fractions
remain as liquid and settle at the bottom of the column. Figure 3.1a shows a PFD for a typical distillation
column.
Figure 3.1a
Process Flow Diagram (PFD) for a Typical Distillation Column. (Source: “Process Plant Layout and Piping
Design”, Ed Bausbacher and Roger Hunt, Prentice Hall)
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Layout and design considerations for towers

The following factors are considered in the design and layout of distillation columns:
• Column height: The column height is a function of the number of stages. The number of stages
required depends on components being separated and their vapor-liquid equilibrium
characteristics.
• Column diameter: The column diameter is a function of the mass flow rate of the mixture being
separated.
• Space for ancillary equipment: A distillation column has associated with it ancillary equipment
such as an overhead condenser, a reboiler at the bottom, a reflux drum and reflux and bottom
pumps. The location and space occupied by the ancillary equipment must be considered during
the design and layout of distillation columns.
• Maintenance access: Space must be provided for the use of davits and trolley beams and
equipment used in the removal internal and external items of the tower.
• Tower elevation: The tower elevation is the distance from the grade to the Bottom Tangent Line
(BTL) of the vessel. Factors used in determining tower elevation are – Net Positive Suction Head
(NPSH) required for the bottoms pump, operator access, tower dimensions, type of heads, tower
support (skirt), diameter of bottoms pipe and tower foundation.
• Tower internals: These are devices used in promoting contact between vapor and liquid phases
and in ensuring even distribution of the liquid phase. Commonly used internal devices are trays
and packing. In tray towers, the normal spacing between trays is two feet. Tray towers require the
use of down comers which are channels that promote the flow of liquid from the top to bottom
trays. Packed towers consist of a liquid distributor at the top, the packing material and packing
support. Raschig rings and slotted rings are examples of packing materials.
Figure 3.1b shows a typical plan arrangement for a distillation column and Figure 3.1c shows the elevation
view of a distillation column and its ancillary equipment.
Figure 3.1b
Plan Arrangement for a Distillation Column
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Figure 3.1c
Elevation View of a Distillation Column and Ancillary Equipment
A “Process Vessel Sketch” for a typical distillation column. The process vessel sketch gives the major
dimensions of the column including the diameter and tangent-to-tangent height.
Figure 3.2
Process Vessel Sketch for a Distillation Column
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An important consideration in piping layout and design is the location of equipment nozzles. Equipment
nozzles provide the connection between equipment and piping. In addition, nozzles are used for
instrumentation such as temperature and pressure sensors. Large diameter nozzles are used in providing
maintenance access. The process vessel sketch also includes information on the location of nozzles. The
nozzles are described in a nozzle summary table, which is shown in Table 3.1. The process vessel sketch
and the nozzle summary table provide information for vessel fabrication.
Table 3.1
Nozzle Summary for a Distillation Column
Symbol Size and Rating Service
A 18” 150# RF Vapor
B 3” 150# RF Reflux
C 6” 150# RF Feed
D 10” 150# RF Reboiler Draw Off
E 10” 150# RF Reboiler Return
F 6” 150# RF Botoms Outlet
Patient 1” 150# RF Pressure
T 1” 150# RF Temperature
L 2” 150# RF Level
S 1” 150# RF Steam Out
M 24” 150# RF Maintenance Access
G 3” 150# RF Drain
Platforms and ladders:

Tall towers are equipped with platforms and ladders to provide access for operation and maintenance.
Platforms are attached to the tower using brackets. Circular platforms are commonly used. Usually,
platforms have minimum width of about 3 ft beyond the projection of controls and instruments. The minimum
headroom above a platform is about 7 ft. Ladders are used in accessing platforms and the maximum ladder
run is 30 ft. Figure 3.3 shows nozzle and platform elevations for a typical distillation column.
Figure 3.3
Nozzle and Platform Elevations for a Distillation Column
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Tower piping: The piping associated with the tower is routed in areas away from ladders and platforms.
Adequate spacing is provided between adjacent piping and the insulation thickness is taken into account in
determining this spacing. Sufficient room for expansion must be provided for high temperature piping.
Reactors
Reactors are process units used in accomplishing unit processes. Unit processes are chemical reactions
necessary to transform raw materials to finished products and were discussed in Chapter 2. Reactors are
usually vertical, hollow steel vessels operating at high temperatures and pressures.
Layout and design considerations for reactors

The following factors must be considered in the layout and design of reactors:
• Facility for loading and removal of catalysts, mostly in the form of pellets. Very often, reactions
take place in the presence of a ‘catalyst’ material that promotes the reaction but does not take
part in the chemical reaction. Examples of catalysts are alumina, zinc oxide and platinum.
• Requirement of space for loading/unloading of catalyst.
• Flexibility of connecting lines to accommodate line expansion due to high temperature during
operation and contraction during shut down.
• Location of sampling ports to sample catalyst pellets. It is necessary to sample and test the
catalyst for its effectiveness. The catalyst needs to be regenerated periodically after it is “spent”.
• Location and sizes of nozzles for catalyst unloading and loading.
The following factors are considered in determining the elevation of the Bottom Tangent Line (BTL) of a
reactor: reactor dimensions, type of heads, type of support and catalyst unloading method. The piping layout
for a reactor should minimize piping runs of expensive alloy piping and should also provide sufficient
flexibility for high temperature piping.
Figure 3.4 shows the details for a typical reactor.
Figure 3.4
Typical Reactor Details
The important nozzles for a reactor are nozzles for raw material inlet and catalyst loading on the top head
and nozzles for product outlet and catalyst unloading on the bottom head. In addition, there are several
nozzles for temperature probes and sampling probes. The layout should leave sufficient room for the
withdrawal of the probes. Figure 3.5 is a process vessel sketch for a reactor showing the location of the
important nozzles.
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Figure 3.5
Process Vessel Sketch for a Reactor
The different types of supports for a reactor are skirt support, lug support and ring girder support and are
shown in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6
Methods for supporting a Reactor
Heat exchangers
Heat Exchangers are used in heating, cooling, vaporizing, and condensing process fluids by exchanging
heat from other fluids or outside sources.
Types of heat exchangers: The five major types of heat exchangers are Shell and Tube, Double Pipe,
Plate and Frame, Spiral, and Air-cooled and they are illustrated in Figure 3.7.
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Figure 3.7
Types of Heat Exchangers
Heat exchanger applications:

Typical applications of heat exchangers are described here.
• Coolers: A process fluid is cooled using a cooling medium such as cooling water, refrigerant, air
or dowtherm.
• Heaters: A process fluid is heated using heating media such as hot water, hot oil or condensing
steam.
• Chiller: A process stream is cooled to very low temperature by using a refrigerant. The refrigerant
absorbs heat from the process stream and evaporates.
• Condensers: Process vapors are condensed to liquid state by using cooling water, air or other
medium.
• Reboilers: Used in distillation systems to boil/vaporize the bottoms liquid using steam/hot oil as
the heating medium.
• Heat/Energy conservation: Hot, effluent streams are used in pre-heating feed streams before
discharge. This saves energy and also reduces environmental problems.
A description of the five major types of exchangers is provided in the following section.
1. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger (STHE): A typical STHE consists of a cylindrical shell containing a
bundle of tubes. The shell side fluid passes over the tubes and the tube side fluid passes through the tubes
causing exchange of heat between the tube fluids. The following points should be noted about the STHE:
• Nozzles are provided for the shell side and tube side fluids.
• Horizontal baffles are provided to create multiple passes on the tube side.
• Vertical baffles in the shell side to ensure a flow pattern that provides good contact between shell
and tube side fluids.
• Tubes are supported in a frame called tube sheet.
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• For horizontal installations, the exchanger is supported by saddles and by lugs for vertical
installations.
• Layout for STHE: The most important factor is to provide enough space for the removal of tube
bundles and for the removal of shell bonnet.
Figure 3.8 illustrates typical components of a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger.
Figure 3.8
Shell and tube heat exchanger with floating head
2. Plate and frame exchangers: They are generally used in low temperature, low pressure applications.
The advantage they offer is economy of space. Sufficient space must be provided for plate removal and for
controls.
3. Spiral heat exchangers: They have the advantages of economy of space and compact layout. Sufficient
space must be provided for opening of swing cover plates and for controls.
4. Double pipe heat exchangers: They are also known as Fin Tube Heat Exchangers. They consist of two
concentric pipes. One of the fluids flows in the inner tube and the other fluid flows in the annular region
between the two tubes. The inner tube may be finned to increase heat transfer surface area. The
disadvantage is the large amount of space occupied.
5. Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers: In this type of exchanger, circulating air is the cooling medium. It consists
of a bank of tubes carrying the hot fluid, which is cooled by flow of air across the tube bank. Air fans and
their drives occupy most of the space. Air-cooled exchangers are usually mounted on top of the pipe racks.
Layout and piping design for heat exchangers:

Heat Exchangers are located close to the process equipment they service. For example, a reboiler is
located close to the distillation tower it services. Some of the factors to be considered in the layout and
piping design for heat exchangers include:
• Adequate space must be provided for the removal of channel heads, tube bundles and shell
covers.
• Piping runs should be minimized for expensive, high temperature, alloy piping.
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• High temperature lines should be routed so as to provide sufficient flexibility for thermal
expansion.
• Sufficient space must be provided for operator and maintenance access.
Figure 3.9 illustrates typical layout for heat exchangers
Figure 3.9
Typical Layout for Heat Exchangers
Vessels and other process equipment
Vessels can be grouped into horizontal vessels and vertical vessels. Horizontal vessels are also known as
drums or accumulators. They are used in the storage of process liquids. Process liquids are received and
collected in these vessels. Drums consist of nozzle connections for inlet and outlet and man-ways for
maintenance access. They also consist of level gauges, indicators and alarms. Distillation columns and
reactors, which were discussed earlier, are examples of vertical equipment. Another example of vertical
equipment is a “Gas Absorption Tower”. The gas absorption tower is a vertical column consisting of packing
material, which provides the contact surface between the gas and the liquid. Liquid solvent is distributed
from the top and the gas mixture is blown from the bottom. The liquid solvent absorbs the soluble portion of
the gas mixture. For example, ammonia is absorbed from a mixture of ammonia and air using water as the
solvent.
Mechanical equipment
Mechanical equipment is used in the transport of fluids and also in the compression of gases. Pumps are
used in the transport of fluids and compressors are used in gas compression.
Pumps
Pumps are mechanical equipment used in the transport of fluids. Pumps add mechanical energy or “head”
to the fluid being transported. The criteria used in the selection of pumps are as follows:
• Characteristics and properties of the fluid being pumped including density, viscosity, vapor
pressure and chemical composition.
• The capacity or the volume flow rate (gpm or m3/s) of the fluid to be pumped.
• The head to be supplied by the pump. This is usually expressed in terms of feet (or meters) of the
fluid being pumped.
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• Pressure, temperature of the fluid being pumped.

• Space constraints.
• Cost factors – capital and operating costs.
• Maintenance requirements and reliability.
Classification of pumps
The three major types of pumps are – centrifugal pumps, reciprocating pumps and rotary pumps.
Centrifugal pumps:
Centrifugal pumps are the most commonly used pumps. They are very versatile pumps and can handle a
broad range of flow rates and pressures. They operate at constant speeds. They can be configured either
horizontally or vertically and in single or multiple stages. Figure 3.10 illustrates the typical components of a
centrifugal pump, which consists of an impeller, a casing, and suction and discharge nozzles. Associated
with the pump are the motor drive and the base plate.
Figure 3.10
Typical Components of a Centrifugal Pump
Reciprocating pumps:
Reciprocating pumps consist of a piston-cylinder mechanism. They are typically used in injecting precise
amount of fluids and in handling lower flow rates. Reciprocating pumps are also known as “Positive
Displacement Pumps”.
Rotary pumps:
Rotary pumps use gears, screws and cams to move the fluid. They are useful in pumping viscous fluids and
in achieving a constant and smooth discharge.
Terminology associated with pumps
• Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH): The NPSH required (NPSHR) is a measure of the pressure
drop from the inlet nozzle to the eye of the impeller. The pump manufacturer specifies the NPSHR
usually in feet of water. The NPSH available (NPSHA) must be greater than NPSHR. NPSHA is
determined by the layout of the source vessel and the pump.
• Allowable Nozzle Loads: Stresses are induced in the suction and discharge nozzles of the pump
because of the forces and displacements of the connecting pipe. These stresses should be within
limits specified by the vendor and by the codes. The limits specified are called as allowable loads.
• Vapor Pressure and Cavitation: The vapor pressure of the fluid being pumped is the saturation
pressure at the operating temperature of the pump. This can be obtained from thermodynamic
tables and charts. If the pressure in the pump suction drops below the vapor pressure, the liquid
will flash forming some vapor. The liquid–vapor mixture leads to the formation of vapor bubbles,
which collapse upon impact on the surfaces of the impeller and the casing. This results in the
erosion and damage of the impeller and casing surfaces. Cavitation also causes noise, loss of
head and capacity.
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Layout and design considerations for pumps and pump piping
• Pump piping must be adequately supported so as to avoid excessive loads on pump nozzles.
• Pump piping must be routed such that existing support structures can be used.
• The length of the suction piping must be minimized to avoid excessive pressure drops.
• Pump piping is routed so as to satisfy line flexibility requirements to allow room for line expansion
and contraction (thermal effects).
• Pumps are located so as to optimize the use of existing structural steel for providing adequate
support for pump piping. It is for this reason that pumps are located adjacent to pipe racks. Pumps
can also be located directly under the process equipment serviced by the pump.
Figure 3.11 is a plan view of typical pump locations and Figure 3.12 is an elevation view of typical pump
locations.
Figure 3.11
Plan View of Typical Pump Locations
Figure 3.12
Elevation View of Typical Pump Locations
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Configuration of pump piping

Pump piping consists of valves, strainers and pressure indicators. Figure 3.13 shows typical components of
piping systems on the suction side as well as the discharge side. The suction side piping system consists of
the suction line, a shut-off valve, a strainer to trap particles and an eccentric reducer. The discharge piping
consists of a concentric reducer, a pressure indicator to monitor the discharge pressure of the pump, a
check valve to prevent back flow, a gate valve and the discharge line.
Figure 3.13
Typical Components of Suction and Discharge Piping
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This chapter discusses the basic principles used in plant layout. Plant layout specifications and guidelines
are described. The starting point for the design of process plants and piping system is the generation of
“Plot Plans” and equipment arrangement drawings. Examples of plot plans and equipment arrangement
drawings are provided in this chapter.
Learning objectives
• Plant layout specifications.

• Guidelines and codes for plant layout.
• Safety considerations.
• Plot plans.
• Equipment arrangement drawings.
Plant layout specifications
Plant layout specifications provide guidelines and requirements for arrangement of equipment and
structures within a plant. These guidelines take into account compliance with national and local codes and
regulations. Additional factors to be considered are:
• Plant safety
• Plant operability
• Plant maintenance
• Site conditions – soil, seismic data etc.
• Environment
• Atmospheric conditions – prevailing winds, average ambient temperature
The following terminology is frequently used in plant layout and plot plans:
• Operator Access: This is the space required between units for operator functions such as
walking, climbing, operating valves, viewing instruments and for safe exit in case of an
emergency.
• Maintenance access: This is the space required for servicing of process equipment and for
removal and restoration of components of equipment.
Some examples of plant layout specifications are listed here.
• Provision of adequate service roads and access paths for maintenance and emergency response.
Recommended road widths are 24 ft for main roads, 16 ft for secondary roads and 10 ft for
access paths.
• Minimum safety distances between hazardous equipment (at high temperature, high pressure)
and inhabited spaces such as control rooms and administrative buildings.
• Minimum recommended distances between process units such as furnaces and reactors and
other equipment.
• Equipment elevations allowing adequate room for supports, operation and maintenance. Usually
grade or datum is fixed at 100 ft.
• Tall equipment adequately equipped with platforms and ladders to provide operator and
maintenance access.
• A minimum head room of 7 ft above platforms and platform width should be a minimum of 3ft plus
any equipment/instrument projections.
• Access to platforms is by means of ladders. Maximum vertical run for ladders is 30 ft and
minimum width is 1’ – 6”.
Plot plans
Plot plans are plan view drawings of the processing facility. Plot plans specify the location of all equipment
and associated structures (pipe racks, buildings) in the facility. Plot plans play a crucial in determining the
real estate and space requirements for the plant and hence the cost of the plant. Plot plans are generated
during the preliminary design phase but are constantly reviewed and updated as the project progresses.
Plot plans are used in every phase of the project and they are used by every project discipline. The use of
plot plans by different disciplines is described here.
• Piping: Layout of interconnecting piping systems (pipes and associated fittings).
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• Civil engineering: Designing access roads and paths and in locating major support structures.
Designing foundations, supports and drainage systems.
• Electrical Engineering: Location of electrical substations, switchgear, routing of cables and motor
control centers.
• Instrumentation: Location of main control house, analyzer houses and cable trays.
• Process engineering: Hydraulic design, line sizing, pressure drop and pump requirements.
• Project management/scheduling: Proper and orderly completion of engineering/construction
activities. Constructibility reviews and erection sequence of major equipment. Estimating the
overall cost of the plant. Review of plant operability, maintenance and safety with the client.
Development of plot plans
The development of plot plans is not an exact science. It varies with the unique requirements of each
process plant. The layout designer must anticipate field problems during construction, operation and
maintenance. The goal is to produce a safe, cost-effective plant with ease of operation and maintenance.
As the project progresses, the following plot plans are produced in sequence.
• Proposal Plot Plan: This is developed during the estimate phase of the project. It includes only
principal equipment, main supporting facilities and overall dimensions. It is used in the estimation
of bulk materials and presented to the client for approval of the overall arrangement concept.
• Planning Plot Plan: This is produced after the award of the contract award. The proposal plot
plan is reviewed, updated and approved by client. The planning plot plan serves as a working
document for the plant layout phase of the project. In the planning plot plan, different areas of the
plant are identified and equipment is tagged and positioned at appropriate locations.
• Construction Plot Plan: This is produced as a result of the activities in the plant layout phase of
the project. At this stage, all equipment has been sized and positioned. Equipment positions are
indicated in terms of coordinate dimensions (North-South, East-West, and Elevations).
Additionally, the location of pipe racks, support structures and ancillaries has also been finalized.
Locations of access roads, paths and buildings have also been finalized. This is the final plot plan
and is used in the construction of the plant.
Figure 4.1
Sample construction plot plan
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Documents used in the development of plot plans
• Equipment Lists: Major equipment includes reactors, towers, furnaces, exchangers, pumps,
compressors, drums and miscellaneous (lube oil console, corrosion inhibitor packages etc.)
• Process Flow Diagram: Discussed in detail in Module 2.
• Plant Layout Specifications: Discussed earlier in this module.
• Site Information: Includes geographic information, information on roads, rivers, railroads, land
contours, inhabited areas, real estate available, climate conditions including seasonal averages of
temperatures, rainfall, prevailing winds etc.
• Equipment Sketches: The best available information is used during the preliminary phases.
Equipment sizes are updated as the project progresses.
• Materials of Construction: Materials specialists identify critical piping, that is, piping with
expensive, special alloys and heavy piping. It is important to locate equipment so as to minimize
piping runs for critical lines.
Types of equipment arrangements
• Grade Mounted Arrangement: This is also known as “Horizontal In-Line Arrangement”. In this
arrangement, equipment is located in a rectangular area mostly at grade level and serviced by
access roads and pipe racks. The advantages are it is easy to construct and it is easy to access
for operation and maintenance. The disadvantages are large real estate required and longer run
of piping and cables. This type of arrangement is mostly used in refineries and in
chemical/petrochemical plants.
Figure 4.2
Grade Mounted Arrangement
• Structure-mounted vertical arrangement: In this arrangement, equipment is located in multi-

level concrete or steel structures. The structures could be completely enclosed to accommodate
extreme climates. Here, piping and cables are routed through different levels at some common
points between levels or floors. Access to different levels is by means of elevators or stairs.
Advantages:
Small amount of space required, compact plants, protection from extreme weather conditions,
accommodation of gravity feeds, smaller runs of piping and cables.
Disadvantages:
Construction is more complex, access for operation and maintenance is cumbersome, pumping costs can
increase.
This type of arrangement is used in off shore platforms, pulp and paper mills, polymer manufacturing, food
and beverage, pharmaceuticals, detergents and other consumer products.
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Figure 4.3
Structure Mounted Arrangement
Factors to be considered while developing plot plans
• Distances between equipment to meet safety and code requirements.

• Process Requirements.
• Divide the PFD into smaller, manageable subsystems based on unit operations and unit
processes. These subsystems constitute different plant areas.
• Proper sequencing of equipment based on PFD.
• Consider constraints such as pressure drop, line pocketing and gravity feed.
• Discuss unknowns with process group
• Minimize piping runs for expensive, high temperature piping but provide sufficient line flexibility
• If possible, use common servicing units. For example, use common surface condenser for
multiple compressors driven by steam turbines and common racks for piping and cables between
different areas.
• Locate large sized, awkwardly shaped equipment first. Then locate symmetrical (rectangular,
circular) equipment.
• Provide sufficient access for operation and maintenance.
• Towers: Removal of internals – trays, packing.
• Reactors: Space for catalyst loading, unloading.
• Shell and Tube HE: Removal and maintenance of tube bundles.
• Rotating equipment: Removal of casing and drives.
• Provide access roads and pathways (or stairs in vertical arrangement).
• Provide sufficient space to view instruments and operate control valves.
• Locate furnaces, compressors, stacks, reactors, control houses, and towers with wind direction in
mind.
• Flammable vapors should be directed away from inhabited areas.
• Operating areas such as control rooms should not be in the direct path of smoke and vapors.
• Pipe Racks: Provide a way of organizing interconnecting pipes and cables between different
areas/units of process plants. Pipe racks are either single or multilevel structural steel members
usually spaced 20 ft apart. The width of the rack is dependent upon the number of pipes and
cables to be supported with room for future expansion. The width is usually in the range of 20 ft to
40 ft. In a multilevel pipe rack, the lower level is used for process lines, the mid level is used for
utility lines and the top level is used for cable trays.
Figure 4.1 shows a typical pipe rack configuration.
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Figure 4.4 Typical Pipe Rack Configuration Hall
Figure 4.5
Equipment Arrangement Plan
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This chapter covers the fundamentals of Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs) and their
significance in process plant layout and piping design. The symbols and terminologies used in P&IDs are
described. Control valve manifolds and meter runs are also discussed in this chapter.
Learning objectives
• Understand the fundamental aspects of Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs).

• Know how P&IDs are used in process plant layout and piping design.
• Know the symbols and terminologies associated with P&IDs.
• Understand the layout and components of control valve manifolds.
• Understand the layout and components of flow meters.
Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) and their role in process plant layout and piping
design
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs) play a crucial role in the design and engineering of process
plants and piping systems. P&IDs are also known as “Engineering Flow Diagrams” or “Mechanical Flow
Diagrams”. P&IDs are schematic diagrams that contain engineering and design details of the process
plants. Thus, the P&IDs are much more detailed than PFDs. A P&ID is a working document that is used by
every discipline involved in the design, engineering and construction of process plants. It is used as a
reference for checking engineering and design documents and drawings associated with a project. P&IDs
are also used in material take-off, that is, in generating a “Bill of Materials” for procurement and construction.
P&IDs typically contain the following information:
• All the equipment and their specifications, usually presented in the form of a table.
• All piping and line specifications.
• All piping system components such as fittings, flanges and valves with their specifications.
• All instrumentation and control components.
• Flow directions.
• Information on process variables such as pressure and temperature.
• Material Specifications.
• Specialty Items such as strainers.
P&ID symbols and terminologies
Process instrumentation and control components
The primary functions of instrument and control components are monitoring, display, recording and control
of process variables. Instrument and control symbols consist of an instrument bubble with the instrument
abbreviation lettered inside the bubble. The abbreviation completely describes the function of the
instrument/control component. Instruments/control elements can be grouped into different categories based
on the process variable that the instrument or the control element is monitoring or controlling. The first letter
in the instrument abbreviation indicates the process variable being monitored or controlled. The process
variables are:
• Flow (F)
• Level (G)
• Pressure (P)
• Temperature (T)
Instruments can be further grouped into different categories based the function they perform. The second
letter in the instrument abbreviation indicates the instrument function. The common functions performed by
instrument and control components are:
• Alarms (A): Alarms are devices responsible for alerting plant operators about an upset condition
of the process variable. Alarms typically consist of sound and light outputs that attract the
attention of the plant operators.
• Controllers (C): Controllers are responsible for the control of the process variable. A typical
controller receives input on the status of the process variable and compares the value with the
“set point” and initiates the appropriate action. Actuators and control valves execute the control
action.
• Indicator (I): An indicator is a device that indicates the value of the process variable. Typically,
indicators are digital or analog devices located in a remote control building. Display devices are
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also located at the process unit for local access and back up purposes. Indicators located at the
process unit are also known as “Gauges”. A Level Gauge (LG) is an indicator used in the
measurement of liquid level in process vessels.
• Sensors: Sensors are devices that actually measure the value of the process variable. Examples
of sensors are thermocouples and orifice meters used in temperature and flow measurements
respectively. Transducers are used in converting the analog measurements into digital values.
• Recorders (R): Recorders are devices that record the value of the process variable in the form of
time dependent graph or strip chart. This information is very useful in monitoring plant
performance and in quality control of the products.
• Transmitters (T): Transmitters are devices that transmit the information on the process variable to
controllers or to remotely located indicators.
Typically instrument abbreviations consist of two letters; the first indicating the process variable and the
second indicating the instrument/controller function. As an example, the instrument abbreviation “TI”
denotes a “Temperature Indicator”. Occasionally, third letter is included in the instrument abbreviation to
describe a simultaneous function or a special function. The following examples illustrate this situation: the
abbreviation “FRC” denotes a “Flow Recording Controller” which describes both the recording and control
functions and the abbreviation “LAL” denotes a “Level Alarm Low” which describes an alarm used in the
event of a low level upset condition.
The following list contains some of the instrument abbreviations and their expansions.
FC: Flow Controller LC: Level Controller

FE: Flow Element LG: Level Gauge
FIC: Flow Indicating Controller LA: Level Alarm
FR: Flow Recorder LAH: Level Alarm High
FRC: Flow Recording Controller LAHH: Level Alarm High High
FT: Flow Transmitter LAL: Level Alarm Low
FA: Flow Alarm LI: Level Indicator
LIC: Level Indicating Controller
PC: Pressure Controller TC: Temperature Controller
PI: Pressure Indicator TI: Temperature Indicator
PIC: Pressure Indicating Controller TIC: Temperature Indicating Controller
PR: Pressure Recorder TR: Temperature Recorder
PRC: Pressure Recording Controller TRC: Temperature Recording Controller
PSV: Pressure Safety Valve TT: Temperature Transmitter
PT: Pressure Transmitter TW: Thermo Well
RV: Relief Valve TY: Temperature Transducer / Relay
PSH: Pressure Switch High
USD: Unit Shut Down ZI: Position / Limit Indicator
SDV: Shut Down Valve ZSC: Position / Unit Switch Closed
SDY: Shut Down Valve Relay ZSO: Position / Unit Switch Open
Figure 5.1
Typical instrument symbols used in P&IDs.
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Sample piping and instrumentation diagram
Figure 5.2 represents a P&ID typically used in the design and engineering of process plants. The level of
detail in this diagram is quite obvious and the P&ID contains design and engineering information that is used
by different disciplines involved in the project. The following observations can be made about the P&ID
shown in Figure 5.2.
• The three major equipments are: V – 230A Third Stage Suction Scrubber, C – 235 Third Stage
Compressor, E – 236A Third Stage Discharge Cooler. The equipment table on the P&ID gives the
details for each of this equipment. This includes the equipment dimensions, design pressure and
temperature, and material of construction.
• Information on all the lines is given. Each line is labeled with the line specification. For example,
the line leaving the compressor is labeled 6” – PG – 117 – GE – 2. The nominal pipe size is 6”;
PG is the service abbreviation and denotes “Process Gas”. 117 is the line sequence number. GE
– 2 is the piping material specification. Information on all the valves and valve specifications can
also be seen on the P&ID.
• Information on all the instrumentation is also presented. For example, the instrument PI / C235A-1
is the Pressure Indicator for C – 235A and is a board mounted instrument in the control room.
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Figure 5.3
Sample Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)
Layout and components of control valve manifolds
The function of a control valve is to control the flow rate of a fluid through a piping system. In addition to an
automatic control valve, other components such as valves, fittings and piping are used as part of the
system, which is known as a “Control Valve Manifold”. Figure 5.3 depicts a typical control valve manifold
arrangement.
Figure 5.4
Typical Control Valve Manifold Arrangement
The main component in the system is the control valve, FRC 201, which is typically a globe valve with a
hydraulic or pneumatic actuator that automatically controls the flow. Valves are discussed in greater detail in
Chapter 8. On either side of the control valve are reducers. The reducers connect to a pair of block valves.
When the block valves are open, the flow occurs through the control valve. When the block valves are
closed, the flow occurs through the bypass valve shown on top of the control valve. The bypass valve is
used in manually controlling the flow when the control valve is being serviced. There is a small drain valve
that is opened after the block valves have been closed to drain the fluid accumulated in the system, thus
avoiding spills. The following factors must be considered while designing a layout for a control valve
manifold.
• Sufficient space must be provided for hand wheels. The hand wheels must be oriented away from
piping, equipment, access ways, and other structures.
• Adequate spacing for locating the actuator on top of the control valve must be provided.
• The components of a control valve manifold have significant weight and must be adequately
supported with suitable pipe supports.
Layout and components of flow meters
An orifice meter is typically used in measuring the flow rates of fluids. The orifice meter consists of an orifice
plate and an orifice flange assembly as shown in Figure 5.4.
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Figure 5.5
Typical Orifice Flange Assembly
An orifice plate is shown in Figure 5.6
Figure 5.6
Orifice Plate
The orifice flanges have valve taps that are connected to pressure sensing instruments to measure the
pressure difference. The pressure difference correlates with the flow rate. The following factors must be
considered while designing a layout for orifice meters.
• The flow pattern through the orifice must be smooth with minimal turbulence. Turbulence is
usually created by the presence of obstructions such as fittings and valves. Having sufficient
length of straight pipe upstream and downstream of the orifice ensures a smooth flow pattern near
the orifice. These lengths of straight pipe are known as “meter runs”.
• Piping layout for flow meters must include meter runs of at least 30 pipe diameters upstream of
the orifice and 6 pipe diameters downstream of the orifice.
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This chapter describes the documentation used in the design, procurement and construction of process
plants and piping systems. Examples of documents used include Line Lists and Piping Specifications. This
chapter also discusses the tools used in the design of process plants such as piping isometrics and 3D
models.
Learning objectives
• Equipment Arrangement Drawings.

• Equipment Lists.
• Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs).
• Piping Line Lists.
• Piping Specifications.
• Piping Codes.
• Piping Isometrics.
• Bill of Materials.
• 3D Models
Importance of documentation in plant layout and piping design
Proper and accurate documentation is essential for the design and construction of process plants in a timely
and cost-effective manner. Process plants and associated piping systems involve equipment, piping, fittings
and instruments, which need to be accurately specified for procurement purposes. These specifications
involve extensive amounts of dimensional, material and other data. The integrity of this data must be
maintained through the different phases of the project needs to be accurate at the time of procurement of
materials. The data is represented in different documents such as P&IDs, Equipment Lists, Line Lists, Valve
Lists and Instrument Lists. Inappropriate and inconsistent documentation and data can lead to costly project
delays, field re-work and even difficulties during plant operation and maintenance. Personnel involved in
plant layout and piping design should be able understand and interpret these documents in an effective
manner.
Equipment arrangement drawings
The equipment required for processing is obtained from the Process Flow Diagram (PFD, discussed in
Chapter 2). With additional input, the precise location of equipment is determined and represented in the
form of an “Equipment Arrangement Diagram”. The equipment arrangement drawing is a plan view of
equipment locations. Figure 6.1 is an equipment arrangement drawing for a deck of an offshore platform.
The location coordinates are provided in the “Equipment List” (discussed in the next section).
Figure 6.1
Equipment Arrangement Drawing
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Equipment lists
Table 6.1 is the equipment list for the deck shown in Figure 6.1. The equipment list consists of the
equipment tag and equipment description. The equipment location is provided by means of the coordinates
in terms of North, East and Elevation. The coordinates in Table 6.1 are given in millimeters (mm). The
equipment arrangement drawing and the equipment list should be used in conjunction with each other. It is
quite common to place the equipment list on the equipment arrangement drawing.
Table 6.1
Equipment List
Tag Description North East Elev.
FA-3101A Backup 1st/2nd Stage Compressor 487200 435248 45000
FA-3102A 2nd Stage Production Separator 480550 432200 45000
FA-3102B 2nd Stage Production Separator 474600 432200 45000
PA-3901A Stand-by Generator Package 439447 433725 40513
PA-3902A Main Power Generator Package 462554 432063 40665
PA-3902B Main Power Generator Package 457054 432063 40665
PA-3902C Main Power Generator Package 451554 432063 40665
PA-3902D Main Power Generator Package 446054 432063 40665
SK-3451A1 TEG Regenerator Skid 495200 423588 40513
SK-3451B1 TEG Regenerator Skid 495200 437610 40513
R-1 Generator Building 437996 428631 40513
Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs)
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs) are very important working documents in the design and
engineering of process plants and piping systems. P&IDs have been discussed in detail in Chapter 5. The
engineering details and specifications of all piping and associated components are represented on the
P&ID. P&IDs are used in generating Piping Line Lists and also in material take-offs for valves and specialty
items. Figure 5.2 represents a sample P&ID.
Piping line lists
Piping Line Lists are tables containing data associated with each pipe segment. In this sense, Piping Line
Lists are databases that contain all information associated with a pipe segment.
Piping line number
Each pipe segment is assigned a unique “Line Identification Number”, also known as “Line Number”. The
pipe segments are referenced using this line number. The line number consists of information on the line
size, the fluid being serviced and the piping specification. The contents of a piping line number are
explained using the following example: 10” – P – C – 0006 – EA21. In the preceding example:
• The line size is 10”.

• “P” denotes the fluid being serviced which in this case is a “Process” fluid. Instrument Air is
designated as “IA”.
• The letter “C” refers to the area of the plant in which the line segment is located.
• “0006” is the unique sequencing number assigned to that pipe segment.
• “EA21” is the piping specification or piping material class that is explained in a later section.
Line numbers play a very important role in keeping track of work on that line. Piping designers and
engineers communicate by referencing line numbers.
Typical data associated with a pipe segment can be classified into “Process Data” and “Mechanical Data”.
There are many items that are common for process data as well as mechanical data.
Process data
Process data is data related to the process aspects of the line segment and includes the following items.
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•
o Line Number.
o Service (From Unit X To Unit Y, that is From Origin To Destination.).
o P&ID Number, which is the drawing number of the P&ID in which the pipe segment is
located.
o Operating Pressure.
o Operating Temperature.
o Design Pressure.
o Design Temperature.
o Phase (Liquid, Vapor or a 2-phase mixture).
o Flow Rate (lbs/hr, kg/s, gpm, SCFM, SCMS).
o Molecular Weight.
o Density (lbm/ft3, kg/m3).
o Viscosity (cP, lbf-sec/ft2, N.s/m2)
o Velocity (ft/sec, m/s).
o Equivalent Length (ft, m).
o Pressure Drop (psi, kPa).
o Process Remarks.
o Revision.
Mechanical data
Mechanical data is data related to the mechanical aspects of the line segment and includes the following
items.
• Line Number.
• Service (From Unit X To Unit Y, that is From Origin To Destination.).
• P&ID Number, that is, the drawing number of the P&ID in which the pipe segment is located.
• Pipe Material.
• Operating Pressure.
• Operating Temperature.
• Design Pressure.
• Design Temperature.
• Insulation (Thickness, Purpose, Specification, Trace Type).
• Painting Code.
• Pressure Testing (method and test pressure used).
• Stress Relief.
• Cleaning Specifications.
• Mechanical Remarks.
• Revision.
Piping codes
Piping codes are a broad set of guidelines for the design and engineering of piping facilities. The main
objective of codes is to ensure the use of safe design practices and consequently the safe operation and
maintenance of such facilities. Codes are developed by committees, which have a broad range of
experience and expertise. Codes are influenced by government regulations for operator and worker safety
in process plants. They are also constantly updated using feedback from various sources. The codes that
govern design of piping systems are known as “B31 Code for Pressure Piping” and have been developed by
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). ASME B31 was earlier known as ANSI B31. ANSI
represents American National Standards Institute. The different ASME B31 codes are listed here.
• ASME B31.1: Power Piping

• ASME B31.2: Fuel Gas Piping
• ASME B31.3: Process Piping
• ASME B31.4: Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids
• ASME B31.5: Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer Components
• ASME B31.8: Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems
• ASME B31.8S: Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines
• ASME B31.9: Building Services Piping
• ASME B31.11: Slurry Transportation Piping Systems
• ASME B31G: Manual for Determining Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipelines
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Among the codes listed here, the code that is most relevant to the design of process plants is ASME B31.3.
A summary of ASME B31.3 Process Piping code is provided here.
ASME B31.3 Process Piping Code: Used in the design of chemical and petroleum plants and refineries
processing chemicals and hydrocarbons, water and steam.
This code prescribes requirements for materials and components, design, fabrication, assembly, erection,
examination, inspection and testing of piping. This code applies to piping for all fluids including: (1) raw,
intermediate, and finished chemicals; (2) petroleum products; (3) gas, steam, air and water; (4) fluidized
solids; (5) refrigerants; and (6) cryogenic fluids. Also included is piping which interconnects pieces or stages
within a packaged equipment assembly.
Piping specification
Piping Specifications, also known as “pipe specs” are detailed guidelines for the design, fabrication and
construction of the components of piping systems. Pipe specs are relevant to a particular project and are
written to maintain uniformity and consistency through the different phases of the project. Pipe specs are
also known as “Piping Specification Classes”. The fluid flowing in the pipe, the material properties, the
design temperature and the design pressure are considered in developing specification classes.
A sample pipe spec is shown in Figure 6.2.
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Figure 6.2
Sample Piping Specification
Pipe specs use service conditions to establish many parameters as is evident from the sample shown in
Figure 6.2. Piping engineers and designers use pipe specs to establish sizes, pound ratings, and
dimensions of pipe, fittings, valves and associated equipment. Pipe specs are also used in pipe stress
analysis to ensure that the stresses in the pipe material are within the limits specified by the code. The
procurement department uses pipe specs to ensure the purchase of appropriate pipe, fittings, valves and
other components of piping systems. Welders and fabricators use pipe specs to ensure the use of proper
materials and joining methods.
Some of the parameters established by pipe specs include the following.
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• Material specification and grade.

• Services for which the specification class can be used.
• Range of the nominal pipe size (NPS).
• Corrosion allowance.
• Pipe wall thickness.
• Flange Pound Ratings.
• Pressure and Temperature Limits.
• Type of connections to be used (threaded, socket weld, butt weld).
• Specifications of fittings (elbows, reducers, tees, unions, caps etc.)
• Specifications for orifice flanges, bolts and gaskets.
• Specifications for valves.
Piping isometrics
Piping isometrics are pictorial representations of piping systems. They help in the visualization of piping
systems and are used in the design, procurement, fabrication and construction phases of the project. The
pictorial representation is obtained by drawing along the isometric axes. One of the isometric axes is vertical
while the other two are at an angle of 30° to the horizontal axis.
Figure 6.3 depicts the translation of a regular orthographic representation of a piping system into a piping
isometric drawing. The most important step in generating a piping isometric drawing is to establish the North
direction along one of the isometric axes. Consequently, the other directions are automatically established
as shown in Figure 6.3. The point at which the pipe changes direction is called as “Turning Point (TP)”. The
turning point signifies the use of elbows to effect the change in direction. Several turning points can be
observed in Figure 6.3. Piping isometrics are also commonly known as “piping isos” or simply as “isos”. Isos
are schematic single line drawings and are not drawn to scale. However, they are dimensioned and are
drawn by maintaining proper proportions. The details of the components of the piping system such as
materials and pound ratings are given by using callouts or notes.
Figure 6.3 a,b,c,d

Piping Isometric Drawing Generated From a Corresponding Piping Orthographic Drawing).
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Figure 6.4 shows how a piping iso is generated for one of the lines (with line specification 01 – 2 – C30 –
10”), which connects nozzle N1 from vessel V – 101 with nozzle C of exchanger E – 101.
Figure 6.4 a,b,c,d (Facing page)

Piping Iso For a Sample Line
Fabrication isos and bill of materials
One of the most important uses of isos is to generate the “Bill of Materials (BOM)” for each line in the
process plant. The BOM is generated by using a process known as “material take-off”. Using this process,
all the components of a line are tabulated for purchase or procurement. The typical components of a line
include the following items.
• Straight Pipe
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• Elbows
• Flanges
• Tees
• Valves
• Instrument Items
• Gaskets
• Nuts
• Bolts
• Specialty Items
Properly dimensioned isos along with the BOM are provided to the fabricators who build the components of
the line. Further, the isos serve as an aid to the construction and erection of the facility by providing
construction personnel information on pipe routing and the locations of tie-ins and connections.
Figure 6.5 depicts a piping iso with the associated BOM.
Figure 6.5
Isometric Drawing with bill of materials
Three dimensional (3D) models
The advances in computer technology and the availability of modeling software has made 3D modeling of
piping systems an integral part of the design and engineering of process plants. The features and
advantages 3D models of piping systems are listed here.
• 3D models are real-size representations of the processing facility including equipment, pipe,
fittings, valves, instruments, support structures and foundations. Every single detail of the facility
is captured in the 3D model.
• The engineering data associated with each component is also integrated into the model. This data
forms the “engineering database” for the project and is updated as needed as the project
progresses through different phases.
• 3D models are great visualization tools for designers, engineers and construction personnel.
• Most 3D modeling software are capable of performing “interference checking” and produce “clash
reports” that alert designers about potential clashes between components of the process plants.
The components can be relocated during the design phase thus saving expensive field rework
and avoiding project delays.
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• 3D models can be imported into animation software to create “walkthroughs”. Client walkthroughs
are very useful in expediting the project and in improving the communication between the client
and the engineering and design personnel.
• 3D models and animations are also used in producing training videos for the safe operation and
maintenance of the plant.
Figure 6.6
3D Model of a Processing Facility Generated Using Intergraph PDS Software
Figure 6.7
3D Model of a Floating Production Storage and Off-loading (FPSO) Facility Generated Using Intergraph
PDS Software
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This chapter describes the fundamentals of a pipe.
Learning objectives
• Piping Materials, manufacturing methods, pipe size and dimensions.
Fundamentals of piping
• Piping Materials: Steel – Carbon Steel and Alloy Steels (SS), Cast Iron, Copper, Concrete,
Brass, Aluminum, Composite (FRP).
Piping Materials are described by “Piping Specifications” – a document that describes the material
composition and processing methods (discussed in Chapter 6)
The material to be used is dictated by service conditions, namely, fluid being transported, temperature and
pressure
• Pipe Manufacturing Methods: Seamless Pipe, Butt Welded Pipe, Spiral Welded pipe.
• Pipe Size and Dimensions: OD/ID, Nominal Pipe Size (NPS)
Wall thickness = (OD – ID)/2
Wall thickness (weight): Standard (S), Extra strong (X), Double Extra strong (XX)
Also described in terms of pipe schedules. Schedule 40, 80, 120 etc.
For NPS 1/8” to 12” NPS, OD > NPS
For NPS 14” and above, OD = NPS
Commercial steel pipe data (Given in Appendix)
• Methods of joining pipe: Butt-Welded (BW), Screwed (SCRD) or Threaded (THRD) and Socket-
Weld (SW).
End preparations: BE – Beveled Ends, TE – Threaded End, and PE – Plain End
Figure 7.1
Pipe Joining Methods
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Table 7.1
American Standard and API Thread Engagement
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Courtesy of Crane Co.Commercial Wrought Steel Pipe
Data
Note 1: The letters s,x, and xx in the column of Note 2: The values shown in square feet for the
Schedule Numbers indicate Standard, Extra Strong, Transverse Internal Area also represent the volume
and Double Extra Strong Pipe, respectively. in cubic feet per foot of pipe length.
Courtesy of Crane Co.
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This chapter describes fittings, flanges and valves. It describes their different types and sizes of fittings. It
also describes flange types, ratings and different facings. Types of valves, their parts and valve operators
are also described.
Learning objectives
• Fittings, its types and sizes

• Flanges, its types, ratings and facings
• Valves, its types and valve operators
Fittings
The elements of a piping system used in connecting and capping pipes are described here. Fittings
accomplish change in pipe direction, create branch lines and facilitate change in pipe size.
Figure 8.1 illustrates the applications of fittings. Fitting connections could be:
BW (NPS > 3.0 in)
SW or SCRD (NPS ≤ 3.0 in)
Figure 8.1
Pipe Fittings
Figure 8.2
Welding Clearances for Stub-in fittings
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Examples of fittings are as follows:
• Elbows: Also known as “ell”. They facilitate change in pipe direction. Most commonly used elbows
are 90° and 45° elbows. Based on the turn radius, ells are classified as Long Radius (LR) and
Short Radius (SR). For welded fittings and LR ell, the center to end distance is (1.5)(NPS) and for
SR ell, it is (1.0)(NPS). (Refer to Appendix 3 for dimensions). Unless otherwise specified, LR ell is
assumed. In AC ductwork, “mitered elbows” are used.
• Tees: Tees are used in providing branch connections. Tees are of two types – “straight tee” and
“reducing tee”. The main pipe off which the branches are created is known as the “header”.
• Stub-ins: Here, holes are cut into the header and branch pipes are welded on. Reinforcing pads
are used to strengthen the area around the hole. igure 8.2 illustrates welding clearances required
for stub-ins.
• Reducers: Reducers are used in connecting pipes of different sizes. The two types of reducers
are “concentric” and “eccentric”. In concentric reducers, the pipe center lines up while in eccentric
reducers there is an “offset” in pipe center lines and it is equal to one half the difference between
the diameters. The configurations for eccentric reducers are “Flat On Bottom (FOB)” and “Flat On
Top (FOT)”. The FOB configuration can be supported on a pipe rack.
• Weld Cap: Used in sealing an open end of pipe.
• Pipe Nipples: Small lengths (usually 3 in) of pipe used between SCRD and SW fittings.
• Screwed (Threaded) and Socket Weld (SW) Fittings: Normally used for pipes with NPS 3 in and
smaller. Forged Steel (FS) threaded and socket weld fittings are available in pressure classes of
3000 lbs and 6000 lbs.
Table 8.1 provides the dimensions for threaded and socket weld fittings.
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Table 8.1
Dimensions for Socket Weld and Thread Fittings
• Swages: Reducers for screwed and socket weld piping.
Note: When fittings are welded to each other, it is termed as “Fitting Make-up”. Fitting make-up
dimensioning exercises are given in Practical Exercises (PE) 8A and 8B and 8C. All fitting dimensions are
given in Appendix 3.
Abbreviations:
BBE: Beveled Both Ends
TBE: Threaded Both Ends
PBE: Plain Both Ends
BLE / TSE: Beveled Large End / Threaded Small End
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Facing Page
Fitting Dimensions Chart (Source: Courtesy of Taylor Forge)
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Flanges
Flanges are devices used in connecting pipes to equipment nozzles (Figures 8.3 and 8.4) and to devices
such as valves. Flanged connections are an effective alternative to welded or threaded connections and
provide an advantage of easy dismantling for maintenance and inspection.
Figure 8.3
Flange connecting pipe to a vessel Nozzle
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Figure 8.4
Reducing flange connecting pipe to vessel nozzle
Flange Ratings: Flanges are often identified by their ratings as in “150 pound flange” also represented as
150 # or 150 lb. Flange ratings are also known as “pressure ratings” and represent the maximum pressure
allowed by the codes at a given temperature. Forged Steel (FS) flanges are available in the following
ratings: 150 #, 300 #, 400 #, 600 #, 900 #, 1500 #, and 2500 #. A flange rating of 150 # means that it can be
used up to a maximum pressure of 150 psig at a system temperature of 500°F. If the temperature increases
to 750°F, the next higher rated flange (300 #) should be used. At a system temperature of 750°F, the
maximum pressure allowed is 100 psig and therefore a 150 # flange will not suffice. Both the flange
diameter and thickness increase with pressure ratings.
Flange dimensions are given in Appendices 4, 5, 6 and 7 for different ratings and different types of flanges.
Flange Facings:
• Flat Face (FF): The mating surfaces are flat. (Figure 8.5)
• Raised Face (RF): The mating surfaces have a raised face of 1/16” for 150 # and 300 # flanges
and 1/4” for higher ratings. In the flange dimensions charts, the 1/4” raised face is nor included
and must be added. However, the 1/16” dimension is included. (Figure 8.6)
• Ring Type Joint (RTJ): The mating surfaces have a groove which houses a metallic ring that
provides the sealing mechanism when tightened. No gaskets are used. (Figure 8.7)
Figure 8.5
Flat Face Weld Neck Flange
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Figure 8.6
Raised Face Weld Neck Flange
Figure 8.7
Ring Type Joint Weld Neck Flange
Types of Flanges:
• Weld Neck (WN)

• Slip-on (SO)
• Threaded (THRD)
• Socket Weld (SW)
• Lap Joint (LJ)
• Reducing (RED)
• Blind (BLD)
Flange Accessories:
• Bolts
• Gaskets
Abbreviations:
RFWN – Raised Face Weld Neck Flange.
Flange dimensioning problems are given in Practical Exercise 8D.
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Valves
A valve is a device that controls and regulates the flow of fluids. The different functions that can be
performed by a valve are:
• Turning flow on or off (flow switch)

• Increase/decrease flow rate
• Regulate pressure, temperature
• Isolate a unit
• Reverse the flow direction
Typical parts of a valve:
• Body
• Regulator or valve element
• Valve Seat
• Hand wheel
• Stem
• Valve ends (threaded, flanged, socket welded)
Types of valves (Figures 8.8 and 8.9):
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• Gate Valve: Consists of a gate as the regulator. Used primarily for on/off applications, that is fully
open or fully closed.
• Globe Valve: Consists of a globe as the valve element. Used in throttling (gradually increasing or
decreasing the flow) applications. Flow resistance and pressure drop are substantially higher than
gate valves. Flow resistance coefficients are given in Table 8.2.
• Angle Valve: Used in throttling and in changing flow direction.
• Check Valve: Used in preventing back flow or flow in the reverse direction. Usually used in
conjunction with gate or globe valves. The types are “Swing Check Valve” and “Lift Check Valve”.
• Ball Valves: Uses a hollow metal ball as the regulator. Provides tight closure and simple
open/close operation.
• Plug Valve: Uses a hollow, tapered wedge as the valve element. Provides a tight closure but
requires constant lubrication.
• Butterfly Valve: Has a very simple valve body (a ring), which houses a wafer as the valve element.
Has lower turbulence and pressure drop and is useful for larger flow rates.
• Relief Valves: Pressure Safety Valve (PSV) is used in maintaining system pressure at safe levels.
PSV opens when the system pressure exceeds safety limits and closes when the system returns
to normal level.
• Control Valves: Usually automated globe valves used in monitoring and regulating process
variables. Control Valve Manifolds are described in Chapter 5.
Valve Operators: Devices used in opening and closing valves. There are two types of operators – manual
and automatic.
• Manual Operators: Hand wheels, Levers, Gears, Chains.

• Automatic Operators: They are also known as “actuators”. Actuators use external power to open
and close valves. The power sources for actuators could be hydraulic, pneumatic, or electric
motors.
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(a)
(b)Figure 8.8 a & b
Types of Valves
Note: Valve dimensions for 300 # valves are given in Appendix 8.
Table 8.2
Friction Loss Coefficients for Fittings and Valves Source: “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook”, Perry,
5th edition, McGraw-Hill.
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Practical exercises in Metric
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This chapter provides an overview of materials commonly used in piping systems. It describes classification
and specification of materials. It also describes factors used in selection of materials.
Learning objectives
• Introduction.
• Material classification systems and specifications.
• Common ASTM piping materials.
• Selection criteria for materials.
• Piping specifications (piping classes).
• Material testing and certificates.
Introduction
Selection of appropriate piping materials plays an important role in ensuring the safety and integrity of piping
systems. The service conditions, namely, pressure, temperature and the nature of the fluid flowing in the
pipe dictate the choice of materials. Cost is also an important factor. Evaluation of expected material
behavior under given process conditions generally requires input from a material specialist. However, piping
engineers and designers need to have a basic knowledge of material classifications, material specifications
and material properties. Knowledge of material properties and designations is essential for performing pipe
stress analysis.
Material classification system and specifications
Materials can be identified by the following methods:
• Generic descriptions
• Trade names
• Standardized alphanumeric designations
Generic descriptions: Generic descriptions group materials into broad categories based on composition
and properties. Generic descriptions can range from broad descriptions to specific, detailed descriptions.
Examples of generic descriptions are:
• Metals and non-metals

• Ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals
• Carbon steel (or low carbon steel)
• Low alloy steel (or Cr-Mo steel, or 2 1/4 Cr – 1 Mo Steel)
• Stainless steel (or Austenitic SS or 300 series Austenitic SS)
Trade Names: Manufactures use trade names to provide unique identification to their products. Examples
of trade names are:
• Inconel 625
• Incoloy 825
• Hastelloy C-276
• Carlson Alloy 2205 Duplex SS
• Allegheny Ludlum AL 2205 Duplex SS
• UR52+ Duplex SS
Alphanumeric Description: Alphanumeric descriptions for materials originate from professional and
standards organizations such as American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM) and American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI). The overwhelming number of such descriptions has created a need for a common,
widely accepted and used numbering system. The result has been the emergence of Unified Numbering
System (UNS). However, the reality is that the use of prevailing designations from ASTM, AISI will continue
despite the presence of UNS descriptors.
The alphanumeric designations of AISI and UNS are briefly described here.
AISI Numbering System: The AISI designation for carbon steels and low alloy steels consists of a four-digit
number. The first and the second digits indicate the primary and secondary alloy classes to which the steel
belongs. The third and fourth digits, xx, indicate the carbon content in 0.xx %. Examples of AISI material
designations are:
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• 1030: Plain carbon steel with 0.30% carbon

• 1320: Manganese Steels with 1.60-1.90% Mn and 0.20%C
• 25xx: 5% Nickel steels with 0.xx % C
• 33xx: Ni (3.25 – 3.75%), Cr (1.40 – 1.75%) Steels
• 41xx: Cr (about 1%), Mo (about 0.2%) Steels
• 51xx: Cr (about 1%) Steels
• 61xx: Cr (~1%), Vandium (~0.15%) Steels
Unified Numbering System (UNS): The Unified Numbering System avoids the confusion of multiple
designations (from different organizations) for the same material by providing a unique and consistent
identification number. UNS is not a specification; it does not specify requirements of quality, composition
and mechanical properties. It provides the uniformity required for efficient indexing, record keeping and
cross-referencing. The use of UNS is rapidly increasing and many codes such as B31.3 are beginning to
use UNS designations.
The UNS designation has six alphanumeric characters – a letter prefix followed by five digits. Usually, the
letter prefix indicates the family of metals (A for aluminum, S for Stainless Steels). Group examples of UNS
designations are described here.
• G00001 – G99999: AISI and SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) carbon and alloy steels
• S00001 – S99999: Heat and corrosion resistant stainless steels.
• A 00001 – A99999: Aluminum and aluminum alloys
• C00001 – C99999: Copper and copper alloys.
Specific examples of UNS designations are:
• UNS No. N04400 (Nickel alloy, equivalent ASTM designation: B165)

• UNS No. C71500 (copper alloy, equivalent ASTM designation: B467)
• UNS No. G10200 (AISI 1020 Carbon steel with 0.20% carbon)
Designations and Descriptions of Common Piping Materials: Most components of piping systems are
constructed from carbon steels and alloy steels such as stainless steels. Common ASTM designations and
descriptions of pipe materials are given here.
• ASTM A106 Gr.B: Carbon steel seamless pipe (most commonly used material for pipe)
• ASTM A53 Gr.B: Carbon steel seamless or Electric Resistance Welded (ERW) pipe.
• ASTM A333 Gr.6: Low and Intermediate Alloy Steel pipe
• ASTM A312 TP304: Seamless Stainless Steel pipe.
• ASTM B42: Copper alloy pipe
• ASTM B161: Nickel alloy pipe
• ASTM B210, Tempers O and H112: Aluminum alloy pipe (“O” indicates annealed material “H112”
indicates strain-hardened material)
Common API (American Petroleum Institute) pipe materials are:
• API 5L, Seamless: Carbon Steel Seamless pipe

• API 5LX 46 Seamless: Carbon steel seamless pipe with specified Minimum Yield Strength of
46,000 psi (316.5 MPa)
In addition to pipe, piping systems consist of fittings (elbows, tees etc.), flanges and valves. Material
designations of piping system components (other than pipe) are presented here.
Common ASTM Designations of Flanges, Pipe Fittings and valves:
• ASTM A 105: Carbon steel flanges and forged fittings

• ASTM A 182: Alloy Steel (for example, stainless steel) flanges, fittings and valves for high
temperature service
• ASTM A 126: Gray Cast Iron Castings for Valves, Flanges and Pipe Fittings
• ASTM A 351: Austenitic Steel Casting for High Temperature Service
• ASTM A 350 Gr. LF 2: Carbon Steel/Low Alloy Steel forgings for piping components.
• ASTM A 182 Gr.F304: 18cr-8Ni stainless forgings for high temperature service
Piping specifications
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Piping Specifications (also known as “Piping Materials Specifications” or “Piping Class”) provides detailed
information on materials to be used for components of a piping system under certain conditions of
temperature, pressure and fluid being serviced. An example of Piping Specification is shown in Figure 6.2.
Piping specifications also contains information on required wall thickness, corrosion allowance, and Post
Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) and Radiographic Examinations. Piping Specifications are designated by
alphanumeric representation such as A1, A2. These designations form part of the “Piping Line Number” on
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs), Piping Isometrics and other documents. A typical piping line
number is 10” – PG – 0008 – A1. 10” is the Nominal Pipe Size (NPS), PG is the service designation, which,
in this case, is Process Gas, 0008 is the line sequence number and A1 is the piping specification.
Material selection
The selection of appropriate material for a given application involves the consideration of the following
aspects:
Process Requirements: Process requirements include pressure, temperature and the corrosion
characteristics of the fluid being handled. Corrosion characteristics of the fluid being serviced play a major
role. Carbon Steel piping should be adequate for non-corrosive substances as long as the temperature is
not very high (less than 300°C or 572°F). For corrosive substances at normal temperature a lined pipe can
provide satisfactory service. Stainless steel pipe is the preferred choice for corrosive substances and also
for high temperature service. For pipes handling corrosive fluids, adequate corrosion allowance must be
indicated in the piping specifications. It is very important to note that codes usually do no provide guidelines
on how to select materials for specific service conditions. For example, the following statements are found in
ASME B31.3 concerning material selection: “Compatibility of materials with the service and hazards from
instability of contained fluids are not within the scope of this code”. “Selection of materials to resist
deterioration in service in not within the scope of this code”.
Mechanical Design: Mechanical design involves ensuring the mechanical integrity and safety of piping
systems and pressure vessels. Mechanical design considers the following parameters:
• Allowable Stress (of the selected material at design temperature)

• Design Pressure
• Corrosion Allowance
• Requirements for Weld Procedure Qualification
• Forming and Bending Practices
• Post-Weld Procedures and Examinations
The codes usually have guidelines and formulas related to mechanical design since codes are primarily
concerned with mechanical integrity and safety aspects. Some of the important aspects of mechanical
design are the calculation of minimum required wall thickness for pressure piping and specifying appropriate
class of flanges. The “Piping Specifications” or “Piping Class” discussed earlier is an outcome of mechanical
design.
Economics and Availability: Cost is a very important factor in material selection. Different material options
must be evaluated on the basis of “life-cycle” costs. For example, it may be cheaper to replace corroded
tubes in a heat exchanger as compared to specifying a very expensive tube material. Procurement of
expensive, high alloy steels may be difficult and can cause delays in the project. Sometimes, materials may
not be available exactly in the form required which can force the specification to be revised.
Quality control and material certification
The materials being procured for a project have to meet the engineering and design requirements. Material
vendors usually provide this confirmation through documents such as:
• Test Certificates
• Material Test Reports (MTRs)
• Certificates of Compliance
The materials procurement department should have quality checks in place to assure the quality of incoming
material. Quality Assurance (QA) activities can range from visual inspection, verifying data stamped on
commodities to random testing in detail.
This chapter provides an overview of materials commonly used in piping systems. It describes classification
and specification of materials. It also describes factors used in selection of materials.
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Learning objectives
• Introduction.
• Material classification systems and specifications.
• Common ASTM piping materials.
• Selection criteria for materials.
• Piping specifications (piping classes).
• Material testing and certificates.
Introduction
Selection of appropriate piping materials plays an important role in ensuring the safety and integrity of piping
systems. The service conditions, namely, pressure, temperature and the nature of the fluid flowing in the
pipe dictate the choice of materials. Cost is also an important factor. Evaluation of expected material
behavior under given process conditions generally requires input from a material specialist. However, piping
engineers and designers need to have a basic knowledge of material classifications, material specifications
and material properties. Knowledge of material properties and designations is essential for performing pipe
stress analysis.
Material classification system and specifications
Materials can be identified by the following methods:
• Generic descriptions
• Trade names
• Standardized alphanumeric designations
Generic descriptions: Generic descriptions group materials into broad categories based on composition
and properties. Generic descriptions can range from broad descriptions to specific, detailed descriptions.
Examples of generic descriptions are:
• Metals and non-metals

• Ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals
• Carbon steel (or low carbon steel)
• Low alloy steel (or Cr-Mo steel, or 2 1/4 Cr – 1 Mo Steel)
• Stainless steel (or Austenitic SS or 300 series Austenitic SS)
Trade Names: Manufactures use trade names to provide unique identification to their products. Examples
of trade names are:
• Inconel 625
• Incoloy 825
• Hastelloy C-276
• Carlson Alloy 2205 Duplex SS
• Allegheny Ludlum AL 2205 Duplex SS
• UR52+ Duplex SS
Alphanumeric Description: Alphanumeric descriptions for materials originate from professional and
standards organizations such as American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM) and American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI). The overwhelming number of such descriptions has created a need for a common,
widely accepted and used numbering system. The result has been the emergence of Unified Numbering
System (UNS). However, the reality is that the use of prevailing designations from ASTM, AISI will continue
despite the presence of UNS descriptors.
The alphanumeric designations of AISI and UNS are briefly described here.
AISI Numbering System: The AISI designation for carbon steels and low alloy steels consists of a four-digit
number. The first and the second digits indicate the primary and secondary alloy classes to which the steel
belongs. The third and fourth digits, xx, indicate the carbon content in 0.xx %. Examples of AISI material
designations are:
• 1030: Plain carbon steel with 0.30% carbon

• 1320: Manganese Steels with 1.60-1.90% Mn and 0.20%C
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• 25xx: 5% Nickel steels with 0.xx % C

• 33xx: Ni (3.25 – 3.75%), Cr (1.40 – 1.75%) Steels
• 41xx: Cr (about 1%), Mo (about 0.2%) Steels
• 51xx: Cr (about 1%) Steels
• 61xx: Cr (~1%), Vandium (~0.15%) Steels
Unified Numbering System (UNS): The Unified Numbering System avoids the confusion of multiple
designations (from different organizations) for the same material by providing a unique and consistent
identification number. UNS is not a specification; it does not specify requirements of quality, composition
and mechanical properties. It provides the uniformity required for efficient indexing, record keeping and
cross-referencing. The use of UNS is rapidly increasing and many codes such as B31.3 are beginning to
use UNS designations.
The UNS designation has six alphanumeric characters – a letter prefix followed by five digits. Usually, the
letter prefix indicates the family of metals (A for aluminum, S for Stainless Steels). Group examples of UNS
designations are described here.
• G00001 – G99999: AISI and SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) carbon and alloy steels
• S00001 – S99999: Heat and corrosion resistant stainless steels.
• A 00001 – A99999: Aluminum and aluminum alloys
• C00001 – C99999: Copper and copper alloys.
Specific examples of UNS designations are:
• UNS No. N04400 (Nickel alloy, equivalent ASTM designation: B165)

• UNS No. C71500 (copper alloy, equivalent ASTM designation: B467)
• UNS No. G10200 (AISI 1020 Carbon steel with 0.20% carbon)
Designations and Descriptions of Common Piping Materials: Most components of piping systems are
constructed from carbon steels and alloy steels such as stainless steels. Common ASTM designations and
descriptions of pipe materials are given here.
• ASTM A106 Gr.B: Carbon steel seamless pipe (most commonly used material for pipe)
• ASTM A53 Gr.B: Carbon steel seamless or Electric Resistance Welded (ERW) pipe.
• ASTM A333 Gr.6: Low and Intermediate Alloy Steel pipe
• ASTM A312 TP304: Seamless Stainless Steel pipe.
• ASTM B42: Copper alloy pipe
• ASTM B161: Nickel alloy pipe
• ASTM B210, Tempers O and H112: Aluminum alloy pipe (“O” indicates annealed material “H112”
indicates strain-hardened material)
Common API (American Petroleum Institute) pipe materials are:
• API 5L, Seamless: Carbon Steel Seamless pipe

• API 5LX 46 Seamless: Carbon steel seamless pipe with specified Minimum Yield Strength of
46,000 psi (316.5 MPa)
In addition to pipe, piping systems consist of fittings (elbows, tees etc.), flanges and valves. Material
designations of piping system components (other than pipe) are presented here.
Common ASTM Designations of Flanges, Pipe Fittings and valves:
• ASTM A 105: Carbon steel flanges and forged fittings

• ASTM A 182: Alloy Steel (for example, stainless steel) flanges, fittings and valves for high
temperature service
• ASTM A 126: Gray Cast Iron Castings for Valves, Flanges and Pipe Fittings
• ASTM A 351: Austenitic Steel Casting for High Temperature Service
• ASTM A 350 Gr. LF 2: Carbon Steel/Low Alloy Steel forgings for piping components.
• ASTM A 182 Gr.F304: 18cr-8Ni stainless forgings for high temperature service
Piping specifications
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Piping Specifications (also known as “Piping Materials Specifications” or “Piping Class”) provides detailed
information on materials to be used for components of a piping system under certain conditions of
temperature, pressure and fluid being serviced. An example of Piping Specification is shown in Figure 6.2.
Piping specifications also contains information on required wall thickness, corrosion allowance, and Post
Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) and Radiographic Examinations. Piping Specifications are designated by
alphanumeric representation such as A1, A2. These designations form part of the “Piping Line Number” on
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs), Piping Isometrics and other documents. A typical piping line
number is 10” – PG – 0008 – A1. 10” is the Nominal Pipe Size (NPS), PG is the service designation, which,
in this case, is Process Gas, 0008 is the line sequence number and A1 is the piping specification.
Material selection
The selection of appropriate material for a given application involves the consideration of the following
aspects:
Process Requirements: Process requirements include pressure, temperature and the corrosion
characteristics of the fluid being handled. Corrosion characteristics of the fluid being serviced play a major
role. Carbon Steel piping should be adequate for non-corrosive substances as long as the temperature is
not very high (less than 300°C or 572°F). For corrosive substances at normal temperature a lined pipe can
provide satisfactory service. Stainless steel pipe is the preferred choice for corrosive substances and also
for high temperature service. For pipes handling corrosive fluids, adequate corrosion allowance must be
indicated in the piping specifications. It is very important to note that codes usually do no provide guidelines
on how to select materials for specific service conditions. For example, the following statements are found in
ASME B31.3 concerning material selection: “Compatibility of materials with the service and hazards from
instability of contained fluids are not within the scope of this code”. “Selection of materials to resist
deterioration in service in not within the scope of this code”.
Mechanical Design: Mechanical design involves ensuring the mechanical integrity and safety of piping
systems and pressure vessels. Mechanical design considers the following parameters:
• Allowable Stress (of the selected material at design temperature)

• Design Pressure
• Corrosion Allowance
• Requirements for Weld Procedure Qualification
• Forming and Bending Practices
• Post-Weld Procedures and Examinations
The codes usually have guidelines and formulas related to mechanical design since codes are primarily
concerned with mechanical integrity and safety aspects. Some of the important aspects of mechanical
design are the calculation of minimum required wall thickness for pressure piping and specifying appropriate
class of flanges. The “Piping Specifications” or “Piping Class” discussed earlier is an outcome of mechanical
design.
Economics and Availability: Cost is a very important factor in material selection. Different material options
must be evaluated on the basis of “life-cycle” costs. For example, it may be cheaper to replace corroded
tubes in a heat exchanger as compared to specifying a very expensive tube material. Procurement of
expensive, high alloy steels may be difficult and can cause delays in the project. Sometimes, materials may
not be available exactly in the form required which can force the specification to be revised.
Quality control and material certification
The materials being procured for a project have to meet the engineering and design requirements. Material
vendors usually provide this confirmation through documents such as:
• Test Certificates
• Material Test Reports (MTRs)
• Certificates of Compliance
The materials procurement department should have quality checks in place to assure the quality of incoming
material. Quality Assurance (QA) activities can range from visual inspection, verifying data stamped on
commodities to random testing in detail.
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Pipe Data and Fitting Dimensions

LINEAR CONVERSION
Inches to Millimeters
(1 inch = 25.4 millimeters)
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Source: “Piping Guide: Second Edition”, Sherwood, David R Whistance, Dennis J, Syentek Book Co. 1991.
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Source: “Pipe Drafting and Design”. Parisher, Roy A and Rhea, Robert H, gulf Publishing, 2002.
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02-1a Fundamentals of Plant Process Layout & Piping Design

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What are some examples of processing facilities?

What are some examples of processing facilities?

What are the main tasks involved in plant layout and piping design?

What are the main tasks involved in plant layout and piping design?

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANT PROCESS LAYOUT & PIPING

ME 462: INDUSTRIAL PLANT ENGINEERING

Plant layout fundamentals

Tasks involved in plant layout and piping design

Data used in plant layout and piping design

Rules of thumb for plant layout and piping design

• Knowledge and understanding of project requirements and project documents.

Common abbreviations used in plant layout and piping design

• N,S,E,W: North, South, East and West

• OSBL: Outside Battery Limits

Physical quantities and units in plant layout and piping design

• Process equipment: reactors, towers, exchangers and vessels.

Layout and design considerations for towers

Platforms and ladders:

Layout and design considerations for reactors

Figure 3.4 shows the details for a typical reactor.

Heat exchanger applications:

Layout and piping design for heat exchangers:

Figure 3.9 illustrates typical layout for heat exchangers

Vessels and other process equipment

• Pressure, temperature of the fluid being pumped.

Terminology associated with pumps

Layout and design considerations for pumps and pump piping

Configuration of pump piping

• Plant layout specifications.

Plant layout specifications

Some examples of plant layout specifications are listed here.

• Piping: Layout of interconnecting piping systems (pipes and associated fittings).

Development of plot plans

Documents used in the development of plot plans

Types of equipment arrangements

• Structure-mounted vertical arrangement: In this arrangement, equipment is located in multi-

Factors to be considered while developing plot plans

• Distances between equipment to meet safety and code requirements.

Figure 4.1 shows a typical pipe rack configuration.

Figure 4.4 Typical Pipe Rack Configuration Hall

• Understand the fundamental aspects of Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs).

P&ID symbols and terminologies

Process instrumentation and control components

FC: Flow Controller LC: Level Controller

Sample piping and instrumentation diagram

Layout and components of control valve manifolds

Layout and components of flow meters

An orifice plate is shown in Figure 5.6

• Equipment Arrangement Drawings.

Importance of documentation in plant layout and piping design

Equipment arrangement drawings

Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs)

Piping line lists

Piping line number

• The line size is 10”.

• ASME B31.1: Power Piping

A sample pipe spec is shown in Figure 6.2.

Some of the parameters established by pipe specs include the following.

• Material specification and grade.

Figure 6.3 a,b,c,d