Hyder Consulting

DESIGN GUIDE - Bahrain

VOLUME -1 PART 1
AIRCONDITIONING &
VENTILATION
November’2009

Document No: xxxx92000-RPT-002-A

Hyder Consulting Middle East Ltd – Bahrain Office

VENTILATION &
AIRCONDITIONING
DESIGN GUIDE-VOLUME 1
PART 1 Subtitle

Author: Rico Bachar

Checker: Paul Winfindale

Approver: Martin Webb

Document No: Date: 20 November 2009

Copy Right Statement here Design Standard: General Chilled Water Pipework Distribution Hyder Consulting Middle
East Ltd (31444) cannot accept any responsibility for any use of or reliance on the contents of this report by any third
party.

Hyder Consulting Middle East Ltd

9tth Floor, Tower 2, The Enterprise Centre

6766 Ayala Avenue corner Paseo de Roxas
Makati City, Philippines
Tel:+63(0) 2792224 Fax: +63(0) 27295988

Contents
1 Summary......................................................................................................................1

2 Cooling Load Calculations............................................................................................2

3 Pipework Distribution........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.1 General.............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.2 Primary Chilled Water Circuit.......................................................................................3
3.3 Secondary Chilled Water Circuit...................................................................................4
3.4 Secondary Chilled Water Circuit System Control.........................................................5
3.5 Secondary Chilled Water Pipe and Pump Sizing..............Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.6 Tall Buildings Intermediate Level Plate Heat Exchangers.Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.7 Chilled Water Flow and Return Temperatures...........................................................37
3.8 Flushing Out Provisions.............................................................................................37
3.9 Miscellaneous............................................................................................................. 19
3.10 Condenser Water Pipework........................................................................................39
Appendix 1 : Hyder Consulting Pipework System Schedule................................................69

Appendix 2 : Pipe Sizing Calculation Sheet...............................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Appendix 3 : Pump Sizing Calculation Sheet.............................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Appendix 4 : Standard Detail No.002 Fan Coil Unit Valve Arrangement DetailError! Bookmark not
defined.

Appendix 5 : Standard Detail No. 010 Air Handling Unit Valve Arrangement DetailError! Bookmark
not defined.
1 Introduction
This Design Guide is intended to provide design guidelines and reference
information for the design of the Air conditioning and Ventilation systems for
projects in Bahrain.

The content is meant to be prescriptive and is aimed at the type of projects

normally undertaken by Hyder Bahrain and Manila, namely large high rise
buildings.

Whilst these guidelines should be applied to the majority of projects, no

single set of principles can be regarded as the only solution for all
situations. This may be the result of unusual project technical requirements
or individual client specifications. It is the design engineer’s responsibility to
determine if the project would be better served by alternative solutions or
that these guidance notes deviate from the project brief or client
specification. Any deviations from this design guide should first be agreed
with the Lead Office Project Design Manager.
2 Scope
The design guide covers the following services:

Volume 1 - Air conditioning and Ventilation

This guide addresses the specific design criteria and issues that need
attention, at the various design stages, to ensure that the Client’s, Local
Authorities, Service Providers and internal technical requirements are
addressed and incorporated in the designs.

Prescriptive guidelines supported by example calculations and schematics

will assist the designer to complete the design to the required technical
specifications of the project in a cost effective and timely manner.

The guide is in two parts. Part A contains the technical write up and Part B
contains the Standard Details Drawings.

This volume of the Design Guide covers the following:

- Cooling Load Calculations

- System Psychrometrics
- Space and Volume Planning
- Chillers
- Heat Exchangers
- Cooling Towers
- Pumps
- Piping and Valves
- Fan Coil Units
- Air Handling Units (including Heat Recovery)
- Fans
- Filters
- Ductwork
- Grilles and Diffusers
- Automatic Controls
- Building Management System (BMS)
- Water Treatment
- Testing and Commissioning
2.1 Standards

Insert all relevant standards here by discipline.

2.2 Local Authority & Service Providers
2.3 Building Cooling Load Calculation
For all Bahrain projects, mechanical design consultants are required to be
licensed by the Committee for Organizing Engineering Professional Practice.
Load calculations should be prepared on softwares and submitted in a format
approved by Bahrain Municipality. The Bahrain Municipality have minimum
construction requirements and fabric ‘U’ values (table below) which should
be used in the absence of any detailed construction specifications and/or
methods provided by the Architect.

Hyder To utilize any of the three “Carrier E-20 / HAP, Elite software
programme for preliminary cooling load calculations and analysis. The
detailed cooling load calculations are to be carried out by the Manila Office
using the same software approved by the client or his representatives

When carrying out cooling load calculations, full account should be made of
building zoning and occupancy profiles to determine the peak coincidental
load. For example, in the case of a mixed use retail, offices and residential
development, the occupancy profile for the three types of building will be
quite different. The retail and residential peak occupancy will occur at
evenings whilst the offices peak occupancy will be through the day.
Occupancy densities and times of occupation should be agreed with the
Client by the Lead Office and included in the calculations. This may
significantly reduce the required central cooling plant capacities.

Some clients, will not accept manufacturer’s software programmes, such as

Carrier E20, to be used on their projects. Appropriate software such as
Hevacomp should be agreed with the Client before any work is commenced.
This will be determined by the Lead Office Project Design Manager.

2.4 Information required for heat load calculation

 Architectural drawings
 Drawing scale
 Building orientation
 Weather data –use 42°Cdb and 34°Cwb for summer and 11°Cdb for
winter
 Building elevations and room heights
 Glazing information and window heights
 Skylight thermal characteristic
 Exposed wall profile
 Roof profile
 Slab profile
 Slab on grade profile
 Partition profile
  Occupancy rates*
 Ventilation rates*
 Lighting load*
 Electrical rates*
 Room temperature regulation*
*Shall be available from projects Room Data Sheet (RDS)-Refer to Appendix
xxx for a typical Room Data Sheet.

2.5 Bahrain Municipality -Minimum Building Envelope

Requirements
Requirements below indicated on
 Wall U-value shall not exceed 0.567 W/m².°C
 Roof U-value shall not exceed 0.44226 W/m².°C
 Slab on ground U-value shall not exceed 0.567 W/m².°C
 External beam U-value shall not exceed 0.567 W/m².°C
 External columns U-value shall not exceed 0.567 W/m².°C
 Glazing with a glass to wall ratio of not more that 0.1, the U-value shall
not exceed 6.4071 W/m².°C, shading co-efficient shall not exceed 0.56
 Glazing with a glass to wall ratio less that 0.4 but more 0.1, the U-value
shall not exceed 3.2886 W/m².°C, shading co-efficient shall not exceed
0.40
 Glazing with a glass to wall ratio more that 0.4, the U-value shall not
exceed 2.0979 W/m².°C, shading co-efficient shall not exceed 0.37
 Glazing for showrooms, the U-value shall not exceed 2.4948 W/m².°C,
shading co-efficient shall not exceed 0.76

2.6 Software available for heat load calculation

 E20 heat load calculation – required for Bahraini Municipality approval
 HAP software
 Hevacomp – available at Manila office only

2.7 Software available for Solar and CFD Simulation

 IES software
2.8 Typical Design Check Values-Bahrain
Tabulation below provided basic design check values for various application
bases on previous projects

Air Flow Electrical Input

Application Cooling (W/m²)
(lps/m²) (W/m²)

Office 130 5.9 37

Office
110 5.0 5
Corridor

IT Room 185 17.80 160

Retail 220 6.40 78

Restaurant 470 1.05 14

Residential 120 5.2 20

Tabulation includes fresh air loads

2.9 Space Planning

Space planning for mechanical plant/equipment, ductwork risers, pipework
risers, plant rooms and access requires very careful planning at the
beginning of a project. Adequate space must be identified and agreed with
the Architect/Structural Engineer at a very early stage.

Check and be aware of restrictions based on:

1. Slab design – most buildings in Bahrain have post tensioned slabs

except for the raft (on grade) slab. Penetrations, if not included by the
structural engineer, will be difficult to be incorporated later.

2. Slab to slab height on typical floors –to ensure ductwork, pipe work,
electrical cabling and lights all can be accommodated in the ceiling void.

3. Clear head heights in car parks – generally 2400mm clear height is

required for vehicle access as required by Bahrain Municipality.

4. Clear heights in plant rooms and particular HV, substations, LV, and
Electrical rooms.
 Typical Example

On floor riser and space requirements for a medium sized (i.e. below 25
storey) with low and high level plant room
 Fire hose reel + fire pipe riser 1000 x 650
 Domestic cold water meter room + water riser 1800 x 600
 FA/TE/KE per apartment 1600 x 900
 Staircase pressurization 1.2 m²
 Chilled water riser 1000 x 600
 Garbage chute vestibule extract riser 600 x 500
 IDF room 2000 x 2000
 EE room 2500 x 2000
 Essential power riser 2000 x 750

Typical mechanical equipment dimensions and weights are given in

Appendix xxxxxxx.

3 Systems
4.1 SELECTING SYSTEMS
The Concept Designer is responsible for considering various systems and
recommending one or two that will perform as desired. It is imperative that the designer
and the owner collaborate on identifying and rating the goals of the design. Some of the
criteria that may be considered are:

1. Performance requirements

2. Capacity requirements

3. Spatial requirements

4. First cost

5. Operating cost

6. Reliability

7. Flexibility

8. Maintainability

9. Standardization
Because these factors are interrelated, the owner and building designer must consider
how each factor affects the others. The relative importance of the first five factors differs
with different owners and often changes from one project to another for the same owner.

4.2 Commonly Used Systems in Bahrain Gulf region:

1. AHU / FCU (Air-and-Water) Systems:

In these systems constant volume fresh air AHUs provide treated fresh air for
ventilation and FCUs are used for individual space cooling. Usually a 100% fresh
air AHU is used for this purpose with means of energy recovery, by taking back
clean exhaust air from the served zone to the AHU for that purpose. Usually a
double-deck AHU is used with the lower section (deck) being the supply part, and
the above section being the return/exhaust part. Energy recovery is achieved by
enthalpy wheels, plate heat exchangers, or run-around coils.

Due to its flexibility, this type of systems is used in most applications such as
residential buildings, office buildings, hotels, hospitals, retail shops, etc.

4.2.1Constant Volume All-Air systems:

In these systems constant volume AHUs are used for both ventilation and space
cooling. Air is supplied directly to the served zones by grilles, diffusers, nozzles,
etc. Fresh air is mixed with recirculated air inside the AHU for ventilation. Fresh
air to supply air percentage is usually 10-30%. For high fresh air percentages, it
is strongly recommended to implement energy recovery in the AHU.

This type of systems is usually used in large spaces with uniform load conditions,
such as atriums, theaters, cinemas, sport stadiums & natatoriums, hypermarkets
and open mall areas, exhibition halls, museums, open office areas, etc.
2. VAV All-Air systems:

In these systems ventilation and space cooling are handled by variable air flow
AHUs, while terminal VAV boxes are used for individual space temperature
control by varying the amount of supply air to each zone. These systems are
mostly used in office areas, where individual office controls are required, and the
disadvantages of FCUs are avoided (such as fan noise, chw piping and valves
requiring frequent servicing, drainage piping from FCU drain pans, periodic filters
cleaning, etc.).

NB. In the above systems, chilled water is either supplied by district cooling or by
local chillers plant.

The return ducting to AHUs may serve a double function by using it as smoke
extract ducting during a fire.

These systems will be discussed in more detail in the coming sections.

3. Refrigerant DX systems:
 In these systems roof-top package units are used for ventilation and/or direct
space cooling and ducted split units for individual space cooling. This is similar to
the AHU / FCU system but with the difference of using refrigerants as the cooling
medium instead of chilled water.

DX systems are limited in capacity and have less EER than chw systems, which
makes them less efficient and less flexible than their chw counterparts, but have
lower initial cost.

Split units are mostly used in private villas and residential buildings, where
tenants can pay easily for their A/C power consumption; an option that is not as
easy in chw systems. Package units are mostly used in small to medium
buildings and in small industrial facilities.

In cheaper buildings, window air conditioners are usually used for cooling and
ventilation, by installing them in each externally exposed room.

3.5.2 SYSTEM OPTION CONSTRAINTS

The first step in selecting a system is to determine and document constraints dictated by
performance, capacity, available space, and any other factors important to the project.
Few projects allow detailed quantitative evaluation of all alternatives. Common sense
and subjective experience can be used to narrow choices to one or two potential
systems.

3.5.2.1 Cooling Load

Establishing the cooling load often narrows the choice to systems that will fit within the
available space and are compatible with the building architecture. By establishing the
capacity requirement, the equipment size can be estimated. Then, the choice may be
narrowed to those systems that work well on projects within a size range.
3.5.2.2 Zoning Requirements

Loads vary over time due to changes in the weather, occupancy, activities, and solar
exposure. Each space with a different exposure requires a different control zone to
maintain constant temperature. Some areas with special requirements may need
individual control or individual systems, independent of the rest of the building. Variations
in indoor conditions, which are acceptable in one space, may be unacceptable in other
areas of the same building. The extent of zoning, the degree of control required in each
zone, and the space required for individual zones also narrow the system choices.

No matter how efficiently a particular system operates, or how economical it may be to

install, it cannot be considered if it (1) does not maintain the desired interior environment
within an acceptable tolerance under all conditions and occupant activities and (2) does
not physically fit into the building without being objectionable.

3.5.2.3 Ventilation Requirements

Cooling and humidity control are often the basis of sizing air-conditioning components
and subsystems, but the system may also provide other functions, such as ventilation.
For example, if the system provides large quantities of outside air for ventilation or to
replace air exhausted from the building, only systems that transport large air volumes
need to be considered. In this situation, the ventilation system requires a large air-
handling and duct distribution system, which may eliminate some systems.

3.5.2.3.1 Ventilation Rates and Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

ASHRAE Standard 62 specifies the minimum acceptable fresh air rates to maintain
proper IAQ inside building premises. The following table summarizes some of these
rates:

Building / Occupancy Ventilation Rate

Application
(persons / 100 m2) Unit Flow (L/s)

3.5.2.3.2 Air Balancing in Buildings

To keep air balanced inside any air conditioned zone and to maintain a positive,
negative, or neutral pressure within that zone, amounts of fresh air supplied to the zone
and air extracted from that zone must be taken into consideration.

Common rates of air extract from residential bathrooms and kitchens are listed below.

Space Extract Air Fresh Air

Compensation
L/s
L/s

Bathroom 35 38

Kitchen 50 55
NB. The designer should always try to minimize amounts of fresh air introduced to any
space by reducing the combined extracted air from that space. For example, in a
residential building, by using individual exhaust fans for each bathroom and connecting
their exhaust ducts to the building’s central exhaust system, intermittent exhaust is
achieved which requires less F.A. than continuous exhaust. For example, in a 5
bathroom apartment, it can be assumed that 2 bathroom fans and the kitchen fan are
working simultaneously, thus reducing the total F.A. needed to be supplied to the
apartment. If central exhaust system is used without individual fans, then the summation
of all bathrooms and kitchen exhaust rates must be compensated by fresh air.

3.5.2.4 Architectural Constraints

Air-conditioning systems and the associated distribution systems often occupy a

significant amount of space. Major components may also require special support from
the structure. The size and appearance of terminal devices (whether they are diffusers,
fan-coil units, or radiant panels) have an effect on the architectural design because they
are visible from the occupied space.

Other factors that limit the selection of a system include (1) acceptable noise levels, (2)
the space available to house equipment and its location relative to the occupied space,
(3) the space available for distribution pipes and ducts, and (4) the acceptability of
components obtruding into the occupied space, both physically and visually.

For more information on space requirements and planning, refer to “Space & Volume
Planning” section of the Design Guide.

3.5.3 AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM TYPES:

Air conditioning systems are broadly categorized into four major groups, which are:
1) All-Air Systems
2) Air and Water Systems
3) All-Water Systems
4) Unitary Refrigerant-Based Systems
5)
These system categories are based on the cooling medium (air, water, air and water, or
refrigerant) that enters the served zone for cooling / heating purposes. In the following
sections, the main systems with common use in Bahrain and the Gulf countries today will
be described and their processes represented on psychrometric charts.

3.5.4 ALL-AIR SYSTEMS:

All-air systems may be adapted to many applications for comfort or process work. They
are used in buildings that require individual control of multiple zones, such as office
buildings; schools and universities; laboratories; hospitals; stores; hotels; and even
ships. All-air systems are also used virtually exclusively in special applications for close
control of temperature and humidity, including clean rooms, computer rooms, hospital
operating rooms, research and development facilities, as well as many
industrial/manufacturing facilities.
3.5.4.1 Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages

• The location of the central mechanical room for major equipment allows operation and
maintenance to be performed in unoccupied areas. In addition, it allows the maximum
range of choices of filtration equipment, vibration and noise control, and the selection of
high quality and durable equipment.

• Keeping piping, electrical equipment, wiring, filters, and vibration and noise-producing
equipment away from the conditioned area minimizes service needs and reduces
potential harm to occupants, furnishings, and processes.

• Seasonal changeover is simple and adapts readily to automatic control.

• A wide choice of zoning, flexibility, and humidity control under all operating conditions
is possible, with the availability of simultaneous heating and cooling even during off-
season periods.

• Air-to-air and other heat recovery may be readily incorporated.

• They permit good design flexibility for optimum air distribution, draft control, and
adaptability to varying local requirements.

• The systems are well suited to applications requiring unusual exhaust or makeup air
quantities (negative or positive pressurization, etc.).

• All-air systems adapt well to winter humidification.

• By increasing the air change rate and using high-quality controls, it is possible for these
systems to maintain the closest operating condition of ±0.25°F (0.14°C) dry bulb and
±0.5% RH. Today some systems can maintain essentially constant space conditions.

Disadvantages

• They require additional duct clearance, which reduces usable floor space and
increases the height of the building.

• Depending on layout, larger floor plans are necessary to allow enough space for the
vertical shafts required for air distribution.

• Ensuring accessible terminal devices requires close cooperation between architectural,

mechanical, and structural designers.

• Air balancing, particularly on large systems, can be more difficult.

3.5.4.2 CONSTANT AIR VOLUME SYSTEMS

While maintaining constant airflow, single-duct constant volume systems change the
supply air temperature in response to the space load. The simplest all-air system is a
supply unit serving a single-temperature control zone. The unit can be installed either
within or remote from the space it serves and may operate with or without distribution
ductwork. Ideally, this system responds completely to the space needs, and well-
designed control systems maintain temperature and humidity closely and efficiently.
Single-zone systems can be shut down when not required without affecting the operation
of adjacent areas.

A return or relief fan may be needed, depending on the capacity of the system and
whether 100% outdoor air is used at some time during the year. Relief fans can be
eliminated if provisions are made to relieve over-pressurization by other means, such as
gravity dampers.

3.5.4.3 VARIABLE AIR VOLUME SYSTEMS

A VAV system, as shown in Figure 9, controls temperature in a space by varying the

quantity of supply air rather than varying the supply air temperature. A VAV terminal
device at the zone varies the quantity of supply air to the space. The supply air
temperature is held relatively constant, depending on the season.

Variable air volume systems can be applied to interior or perimeter zones, with common
or separate fans, with common or separate air temperature control, and with or without
auxiliary heating devices. The greatest energy saving associated with VAV occurs at the
perimeter zones, where variations in solar load and outside temperature allow the supply
air quantity to be reduced.

Humidity control is a potential problem with VAV. If humidity is critical, as in certain

research and development laboratories, process work, etc., systems may have to be
limited to constant volume airflow. Particular care should be taken in areas where the
sensible heat ratio (ratio of sensible heat to sensible plus latent heat to be removed) is
low, such as in conference rooms. In these situations, the VAV box minimum set point is
usually limited to about 50%, and reheat is added as necessary to keep humidity low
during part loads.

3.5.4.3.1 VAV Terminal Devices

VAV units are classified into two main types, which are:
Pressure-dependent unit: Has no inlet velocity sensor and is dependent on the duct
system pressure to control flows purely on the basis of damper response to a thermostat
signal. (i.e. inlet air pressure affects the flow and VAV box doesn’t necessarily supply the
amount of air needed by the thermostat).

Due to its limitations, very few VAV systems today employ pressure-dependent
operation.

Pressure-independent unit: Is independent of duct pressure, employing an inlet sensor

to read flow and compare that to a thermostat (or room sensor) input to vary the damper
position. (i.e. attains full airflow required by the thermostat regardless of inlet pressure).
Example: A room thermostat at 50% part load requires 50% of the maximum flow of 500
cfm (i.e. 250 cfm). Assuming the system inlet pressure is .05 in. at which the supplied air
flow by the system is 400 cfm. Now, a pressure-dependant unit would open its damper to
50% position, thus allowing 200 cfm supply flow; less than the required 250 cfm. A
pressure-independent unit will sense the inlet pressure, and modulate its damper open
to 62.5% to obtain the 250 cfm needed by the thermostat.

In addition to the above, VAV terminal devices are available in many configurations,
including the following:

Reheat VAV Units:

This simple VAV system integrates heating at the terminal unit. It is applied to systems
requiring full heating and cooling flexibility in interior and exterior zones. The terminal
units are set to maintain a predetermined minimum throttling ratio, which is established
as the lowest air quantity necessary to (1) offset the heating load, (2) limit the maximum
humidity, (3) provide reasonable air movement within the space, and (4) provide required
ventilation air.

Variable air volume with reheat permits airflow to be reduced as the first step in control;
heat is then initiated as the second step. Compared to constant volume reheat, this
procedure reduces operating cost appreciably because the amount of primary air to be
cooled and secondary air to be heated is reduced.

A feature can be provided to isolate the availability of reheat during the summer, except
in situations where low airflow should be avoided or where an increase in humidity
causes discomfort (e.g., in conference rooms when the lights are turned off).

Induction VAV Units:

The VAV induction system uses a terminal unit to reduce cooling capacity by
simultaneously reducing primary air and inducing room or ceiling air (replaces the reheat
coil) to maintain a relatively constant room supply volume. This operation is the reverse
of the bypass box described earlier. The primary air quantity decreases with load,
retaining the savings of VAV, while the air supplied to the space is kept relatively
constant to avoid the effect of stagnant air or low air movement.

The terminal device is usually located in the ceiling cavity to recover heat from lights.
This allows the induction box to be used without reheat coils in internal spaces.
Provisions must be made for morning warm-up and night heating. Also, interior spaces
with a roof load must have heat supplied either separately in the ceiling or at the
terminal.
Fan-Powered VAV Units:

Fan-powered systems are available in either parallel or series airflow. In parallel flow
units, the fan is located outside the primary air stream to allow intermittent fan operation.
In series units, the fan is located within the primary air stream and runs continuously
when the zone is occupied. Fan-powered systems, both series and parallel, are often
selected because they maintain higher air circulation through a room at low loads while
still retaining the advantages of VAV systems.

As the cold primary air valve modulates from maximum to minimum (or closed), the unit
recirculates more plenum air. In a perimeter zone, a hot water heating coil, electric
heater, baseboard heater, or remote radiant heater can be sequenced with the cooling to
offset external heat losses. Between heating and cooling operations, a dead band in
which the fan recirculates ceiling air only is provided. This operation permits heat from
lights to be used for space heating for maximum energy saving. During unoccupied
periods, the main supply air-handling unit remains off and individual fan-powered heating
zone terminals are cycled to maintain required space temperature, thereby reducing
operating cost.

Both parallel and series systems use the heat from lights in the ceiling plenum, and both
may be provided with filters. The constant (series) fan VAV terminal can accommodate
minimum (down to zero) flow at the primary air inlet while maintaining constant airflow to
the space.

Variable Diffuser

The discharge aperture of this diffuser is reduced to keep the discharge velocity
relatively constant while reducing the conditioned supply airflow. Under these conditions,
the induction effect of the diffuser is kept high, and cold air mixes in the space. These
devices are of two basic types—one has a flexible bladder that expands to reduce the
aperture, and the other has a diffuser plate that physically moves. Both devices are
pressure-dependent, which must be considered in the design of the duct distribution
system. They are either powered by the system or pneumatically or electrically driven

3.5.5 AIR-AND-WATER AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEMS:

AIR-AND-WATER systems condition spaces by distributing air and water sources to

terminal units installed in habitable spaces throughout a building. The air and water are
cooled or heated in central mechanical equipment rooms. The air supplied is called
primary air; the water supplied is called secondary water. The room terminal may be an
induction unit, a fan-coil unit, or a conventional supply air outlet combined with a radiant
panel. The only type used in the Gulf region is the AHU + fan coil units system.
 3.5.5.1 THE AIR SIDE (AIR HANDLING UNITS)

Figure (7) below shows an example of a 100% fresh air AHU with a combination of
enthalpy wheel and heat pipe run-around coils, for maximum energy recovery and to
supply treated F.A. at room conditions to the individual zone FCUs.

Fig. (7) Example of Constant Volume AHU with Enthalpy Wheel & Run-Around Coils

1, ON RN/AR COIL PRE- 2, ON ENTHALPY WHEEL 3, ON - COIL

COOL ( Fresh Air ) ( Off RN / AR Coil Pre-Cool ) ( Off Wheel Condition )
FAHU
DESCRIPTION
WBT,
L/s DBT, C WBT, C L/s DBT, C L/s DBT, C WBT, C
C

FAHU-1 2242 46.0 30.0 2135 35.1 27.6 2135 27.7 20.5

4, ON RN/AR RE-HEAT 5, SUPPLY AIR 6, ON ENTHALPY WHEEL

COIL (Off - Coil Condition ) ( Off RN/AR Re-Heat Coil ) ( Extract from the Area )

L/s DBT, C WBT, C L/s DBT, C WBT, C L/s DBT, C WBT, C

2135 13.0 13.0 2135 24.0 17.1 2000 25.0 17.0

3.5.5.2 THE WATER SIDE (FAN COIL UNITS)

3.5.6 ALL-WATER AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEMS:

All-Water systems for cooling and heating use either chilled or hot water for space
conditioning, with the air in the space heated or cooled by conduction, convection, or
radiation. The following are the principal types of all-water systems:

• Baseboard radiation

• Freestanding radiators and convectors

• Wall, floor, or ceiling panels

• Bare pipe (racked on wall)

• Chilled Beams or Slabs

3.5.7 UNITARY REFRIGERANT-BASED SYSTEMS:

MULTIPLE-packaged unit systems are applied to almost all classes of buildings. They
are especially suitable where less demanding performance requirements, low initial cost,
and simplified installation are important. These systems have been applied to office
buildings, shopping centers, manufacturing plants, hotels, motels, schools, medical
facilities, nursing homes, and other multiple occupancy dwellings. They are also suited to
air conditioning existing buildings with limited life or income potential. Applications also
include specialized facilities requiring high performance levels, such as computer rooms
and research laboratories.

Advantages

• Individual room control is simple and inexpensive.

• Each room has individual air distribution with simple adjustment by the occupant.

• Heating and cooling capability can be provided at all times, independent of the mode
of operation of other spaces in the building.

• Individual ventilation air may be provided whenever the conditioner operates.

• Manufacturer matched components have certified ratings and performance data.

• Manufacturer assembly allows improved quality control and reliability.

•Manufacturer instructions and multiple-unit arrangements simplify the installation

through repetition of tasks.

• Only one unit conditioner and one zone of temperature control are affected if
equipment malfunctions.

• System is readily available.

• One manufacturer is responsible for the final equipment package.

 • For improved energy control, equipment serving vacant spaces can be turned off
locally or from a central point, without affecting occupied spaces.

• System operation is simple. Trained operators are not required.

• Less mechanical and electrical room space is required than with central systems.

• Initial cost is usually low.

• Equipment can be installed to condition one space at a time as a building is

completed, remodelled, or as individual areas are occupied, with favourable initial
investment.

• Energy can be metered directly to each tenant.

Disadvantages

• Limited performance options are available because airflow, cooling coil size, and
condenser size are fixed.

• Not generally suited for close humidity control, except when using special purpose
equipment such as packaged units for computer rooms.

• Energy use may be greater than for central systems, if efficiency of the unitary
equipment is less than that of the combined central system components.

• Low cost cooling by outdoor air economizers is not always available.

• Air distribution control may be limited.

• Operating sound levels can be high.

• Ventilation capabilities are fixed by equipment design.

• Overall appearance can be unappealing.

• Air filtration options are limited.

• Maintenance may be difficult because of the many pieces of equipment and their
location.

3.1 Water Side Design

3.1.1 District Cooling

In the UAE region, district cooling (DC) has become the norm for providing piped chilled
water for the various developments and buildings for air conditioning. This is especially
so in Bahrain.
District cooling eliminates the need for water chillers in each building and also the
associated electrical power required for these chillers and pumps. It has proven to have
contributed to the reduction in Greenhouses Gases.

Design Conditions

Chilled Water Temperatures:

The temperature for the chilled water supplied by the DCP (reffered to as the Cold Side)
is:

Chilled Water Flow: 4.5 DegC

Chilled Water Return: 13.5 DegC

Range: 9.0 DegC

The Hot Side (Building Side) shall be designed for the following:

Chilled Water Flow: 5.5 DegC

Chilled Water Return: 14.5 DegC

Range: 9.0 DegC

Pressure Drop Across Heat Exchangers:

The pressure drop across the DCP Heat Exchanger shall not exceed 0.5 Bar (kPa)
Space and Structural Load Planning

The number of Plate Heat Exchangers (PHEs) is to be determined very early and
straight after the building cooling load has been calculated.

The planning and allocation of space for the Energy Transfer Station (ETS) Room has to
be done very early in conjunction with the Architect and the Structural Engineer. The
structural engineer needs to design the floor slab and roof slab to take the loads of the
Heat Exchangers, Pumps (floor slab) and Pipe supports (roof slab).

Caution: Different DCPs have different requirements and scope. For example, for
Tabreed projects, the PHEs are not provided by them. They are to be provided by the
Client/Building owner. In case of Empower, they provide the PHEs including all valves
and controls on the Cold Side.

Refer to xxxx in Appendix xxx for the specific requirements.

For Example, for an Empower ETS Room, the following critical areas have to be
addressed and complied with:

Area Compliance Criteria Comments

Plant Room Size ( W/L 0.08 m2/TR Excludes building pumps

Ratio) and Electrical Room

Clear Height 3800 mm

Clear Door Height 3100 mm

Structural Floor Load 4.00kg/TRm2

Roof Slab Load To support pipes

Heat Exchanger Plinth 300mm

Height

Access and Routes Adequate width corridors Work out the routes
to bring the Plate Heat
Exchangers in to the
ETS

Incoming CHW Pipes Allow for puddle GI HD Allow for insulated pipe
sleeves for penetrations OD.
at Basement Level of the
appropriate size

Design NOC

The design NOC has to be lodged with the DCP once the building/s cooling loads have
been finalized.

Refer to the NOC Flow Chart in Appendix xxxxx

3.1.2 Chillers
Chillers are available in a wide variety to provide chilled water throughout the
building for air-conditioning applications. Figure 4.6.2.1 shows the schematic
of a water-cooled chiller operating in conjunction with a cooling tower.
Chillers are primarily classified based on the condenser cooling medium (air
or water). Water-cooled chillers commonly operate in conjunction with
cooling towers. Cooling towers provide condenser water to absorb the heat
rejected by the condenser side of the chiller. Air-cooled chillers reject heat to
ambient air. There are different types of water-cooled chillers available in the
market that are classified on the basis of compressor configuration. Some of
these are:

a.) Single-Compressor Centrifugal Chiller

b.) Dual-Compressor Centrifugal Chiller

c.) Scroll-Compressor Chiller

d.) Screw Compressor Chiller

e.) Frictionless Compressor Chiller

f.) Reciprocating Compressor Chiller

Fig. 4.6.2.1 Schematic of a basic chilled water system

Reciprocating Compressor Chillers: These chillers use a positive

displacement machine (reciprocating compressor) that maintains a fairly
constant volume flow rate over a wide range of pressure ratios. Available
capacities range from about 7kW to 1600kW.

Centrifugal Chillers: These chillers offer a wide range of capacities

continuously modulated over a limited range of pressure ratios. Its ability to
vary capacity continuously to match a wide range of load conditions with
nearly proportional changes in power consumption makes it desirable for
both close temperature control and energy conservation. Centrifugal
packages are available from about 300kW to 8500kW. Field assembled
machines extend to 35 MW.
 Screw Compressor Chillers: These chillers use a positive displacement
machine (screw compressor) with nearly constant flow performance. Screw
compressor chillers are available as factory-packaged units from 100kW to
4400kW.
1.1.1.1 Acceptable Manufactures

The following is a list of acceptable manufacturers for water-cooled chillers

1.) AAT – McQuay LLC
2.) UTS Carrier LLC
3.) Waboco Standard Trane LLC
4.) York International
5.) Sulzer

The following is a list of acceptable manufacturers for air-cooled chillers

1.) Carrier
2.) Hitachi
3.) Lennox
4.) Trane
5.) York

1.1.1.2 Design Operating Conditions

The following are the design operating conditions for water-cooled chillers

Chilled Water Supply Temperature = 6oC

Chilled Water Flow Rate = 0.0398 lps/kW
Entering Condenser Water Temperature = 33oC
Condenser Water Flow Rate = 0.043 lps/kW
Evaporator field fouling allowance = 0.018 m2-oC/kW
Condenser field fouling allowance = 0.044 m2-oC/kW

The following are the design operating conditions for air-cooled chillers

Chilled Water Supply Temperature = 6oC

Chilled Water Flow Rate = 0.0398 lps/kW
Entering Air Dry-Bulb Temperature = 35.0oC
Evaporator field fouling allowance = 0.018 m2-oC/kW

1.1.1.3 Application Rating Conditions

Application ratings should include the following range of rating conditions or

be within the operating limits of the equipment:

All Condenser Types:

Leaving Chilled Water Temperature: 4.4 to 8.9oC in increments of 1oC or

less.

Water-Cooled Condensers:
 Entering Condenser Water Temperature: 18.3 to 40.6oC in increments of 3
o
C or less

Air-Cooled Condensers:

Entering Condenser air Dry-Bulb Temperature: 12.8 to 51.7oC in increments

of 6 oC or less

Evaporatively-Cooled Condensers:

Entering Condenser air Wet-Bulb Temperature: 10.0 to 26.7oC in increments

of 1.4 oC or less

1.1.1.4 Part Load Rating

The energy efficiency of a chiller is expressed in one of the three ratios:

a. Coefficient of Performance (COP)

b. Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER)
c. Total Power Input per capacity (kW/kW or kW/ton)

These three ratios are related as follows:

COP = 0.293 EER

kW/ton = 12/EER
kW/ton = 3.516/COP

Water Chilling packages which are capable of capacity reduction shall be

rated at 100% and at each step of capacity reduction provided by the
refrigeration system(s) as published by the manufacturer. Part-load rating
points shall be presented in one or more of the following three ways:

d. IPLV (Integrated Part-Load Value) – Based on the conditions defined in

Table 4.1.
e. NPLV (Non-Standard Part Load Value) – Based on the conditions defined
in Table 4.6.2.1.
f. Separate part-load data point(s) suitable for calculating IPLV or NPLV. In
addition, other part-load points may also be represented.

The IPLV or NPLV shall be calculated as follows:

a. Determine the part-load energy-efficiency at 100%, 75%, 50% and 25%

load points at the conditions specified in Table 4.1.
b. Use the following equation to calculate the IPLV or NPLV.

IPLV or NPLV = 0.01A + 0.42B + 0.45C + 0.12D

For COP and EER:

where: A = COP or EER @100%

 B = COP or EER @75%
C = COP or EER @50%
D = COP or EER @25%

(OR)

IPLV or NPLV = 1 / (0.01/A + 0.42/B + 0.45/C + 0.12/D)

where A = kW/ton @100%

B = kW/ton @75%
C = kW/ton @50%
D = kW/ton @25%

The IPLV or NPLV rating requires that the unit efficiency be determined at
100%, 75%, 50% and 25% at the conditions specified in table 4.1. If the unit,
due its capacity control logic cannot be operated at 75%, 50% or 25% capacity
then the unit shall be operated at other load points and the 75%, 50% and
25% capacity efficiencies shall be determined by plotting the efficiency versus
the % load using straight line segments to connect the actual performance
points.
Table 4.6.2.1 Chiller Part-Load Conditions for Rating
3.1.3 Cooling Towers
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that extracts waste heat to the
atmosphere by cooling a stream of hot water in the tower. This type of heat
rejection is termed ‘evaporative’ because it allows a small portion of the
water being cooled to evaporate into a moving air stream and thereby
provides significant cooling to the rest of the water stream. The heat that is
transferred from the water stream to the air stream raises the air’s
temperature and its relative humidity (near saturation) and this air is
discharged to the atmosphere.

Ignoring any negligible amount of sensible heat exchange that may occur
through the walls (casing) of the tower, the heat gained by the air must equal
the heat lost by the water.
Cooling towers may be broadly classified into two main categories:

a. Open-Circuit
b. Closed-Circuit

Direct contact or Open circuit cooling tower is an evaporative piece of

equipment that exposes water directly to the atmosphere, thereby transferring
the source heat load directly to the air.

Indirect contact or Closed circuit cooling tower is an evaporative piece of

equipment that contains two separate fluid circuits. The first is an external
circuit where water is exposed to the atmosphere as it cascades over the
tubes of a coil bundle. The second is an internal circuit in which the fluid to be
cooled circulates inside the tubes of a coil bundle.

Of the direct-contact devices, the most basic is a spray-filled tower that

exposes water to the air without any heat transfer medium or fill. In this device,
the amount of water surface exposed to the air depends on the efficiency of
the sprays, and the time of contact depends on the elevation and pressure of
the water distribution system. To increase contact surfaces, as well as time of
exposure, a heat transfer medium, or fill, is installed below the water
distribution system, in the path of the air. Splash-type fill maximizes contact
area and time by forcing the water to cascade through successive elevations
of splash bars arranged in staggered rows. Film-type fill achieves the same
effect by causing water to flow in a thin layer over closely spaced sheets
(PVC) that are arranged vertically.

Cooling towers may further be classified into:

Forced Draft: Type of mechanical draft cooling tower in which one or more
fans are located at the air inlet to force air into the cooling tower.

Induced Draft: Type of mechanical draft cooling tower in which one or more
fans are located in the air outlet to induce air flow through the air inlets.

Counter flow: In a counter flow cooling tower, the air enters at the base of the
tower, flows upward and interfaces counter currently with the falling hot water.
 Cross flow: In a cross flow cooling tower, air flows horizontally through the
cooling tower and interfaces perpendicularly with the falling hot water.

Figure 4.6.3.1 Counter-flow and Cross-flow cooling towers

1.1.1.5 Cooling Tower Design and Operating Considerations

The required tower size will be a function of:

a. Cooling range
b. Approach to Outdoor air wet bulb temperature
c. Mass flow rate of water
d. Wet Bulb Temperature
e. Air Velocity through tower or individual tower cell
f. Tower height

Other design parameters to consider are fan kW, pump kW, make-up water
source, fogging abatement and drift eliminators.

Cooling Range is defined as the difference between the entering condenser

water temperature and leaving condenser water temperature.

Approach is defined as the difference between the leaving condenser water

temperature and the entering air wet bulb temperature.

Range = ECWT – LCWT

Approach = LCWT – Entering Air Wet Bulb Temperature

where ECWT – is the Entering Condenser Water Temperature (OC)

LCWT – is the Leaving Condenser Water Temperature (OC)
Approach is a function of cooling tower capability, and a larger cooling tower
produces a closer approach (colder leaving water) for a given heat load, flow
rate and entering air condition.

Water Make-up

Fig. 4.6.3.2 illustrates loss of water due to evaporation in a cooling tower,

bleed off and windage.

As the finely dispersed droplets cascade over the fill, the warmer water
molecules evaporate and go off to the atmosphere leaving behind a cooled
liquid that collects in the coldwell from which it can be recycled to cool the
process again. Fresh water is added only to make up for the evaporation
and system losses. Typically, make-up requirements are only a few percent
of the flow rate and the water may reside in the system for several hours.

Fig. 4.6.3.2 Cooling Tower Losses

a. The water that leaves as evaporation is pure water. The solids remain
behind and the water in the system will become more and more
concentrated as evaporation continues. To compensate for this
 concentrating effect, a small controlled bleedoff must be established to
drain some of the solids-laden water from the system. Fresh make-up
must be brought in to replace the water lost through bleedoff.

c. Drift or windage is droplets of treated water carried by the wind and lost
from the system. The quantity lost is dependent upon wind conditions and
tower design. Some typical values are shown below.

Type of Cooling Tower Windage Range

Spray Pond 1-5%
Natural-Draft Tower 0.2-1.0%
Induced-Draft Tower 0.02-0.3%
Forced-Draft Tower 0.02-0.3%

As a rough approximation, the rate of evaporation is 1% of the recirculation

rate for each 5.5oC of rise between the outlet and inlet across the tower.

%E = (0.85 * ΔT)/5.55

The total water make-up is given by:

%M = %E + %B + %W

where %E – Evaporation loss

%B – Bleedoff rate
%W – Drift loss

Cooling Tower Capacity Control

Most cooling towers encounter substantial changes in ambient wet-bulb

temperature and load during the normal operating season. Accordingly,
some form of capacity control may be required to maintain prescribed
condensing temperatures.

Fan-cycling is the simplest method of capacity control on cooling towers and

is often used on multiple-unit or multiple-cell installations. In non-freezing
climates, where close control of the exit water temperature is not essential,
fan-cycling is an adequate and inexpensive method of capacity control. Two-
speed fan motors are commonly used on cooling towers as the primary
method of capacity control, and they provide the added advantage of
reduced energy consumption at reduced load. Variable frequency fan drives
(VFD) are economical and can save considerable energy as well as extend
the life of the fan and drive assembly compared to fan cycling with two-speed
control.

Cooling Tower Piping

 All piping should be sized to allow expansion and contraction. If the tower
has more than one inlet connection, balancing valves should be installed to
balance the flow to each cell properly. Positive shutoff valves should be used
to isolate the towers for servicing.

When two or more towers are operated in parallel, an equaliser line between
the tower sumps handles imbalances in the piping to and from the units and
changing flow rates that arise from such obstructions as clogged orifices and
strainers. All heat exchangers and as much tower piping should be installed
below the operating water level in the cooling tower to ensure satisfactory
pump operation during start-up. Tower basins must carry the proper amount
of water during operation to prevent air entrainment into the water suction
line.

1.1.1.6 Cooling Tower Construction

Cooling Towers expose materials to uniquely different environments that

pose exceptional challenges. Cooling towers must endure the combined
corrosive effects of uncertain water chemistry, high temperatures, constant
saturation and continuous natural aeration. Many towers must also contend
with potentially harmful agents in their circulating water as well as a variety
of airborne pollutants such as sulphur oxides and acid rain. Hence, careful
selection of materials can mitigate or eliminate the detrimental effects of
corrosion. Effective maintenance and water treatment can also enhance the
longevity of a cooling tower.

A cooling tower is considered to have three distinct zones, each with a

unique operating environment and with its own applied loads. These three
areas are the structure, fill (the heat transfer medium), and other
components such as water distribution and mechanical components.

Structural materials commonly used on towers for HVAC applications include

galvanized steel, stainless steel, fibreglass and wood. Galvanized towers
with stainless steel collection basins are the most common type. All towers
are bolted together with hardware which may be galvanized or plated carbon
steel in a variety of alloys.

In selecting the appropriate materials, the designer should consider the

imposed loads, the type of exposure to corrosive agents, cost and
manufacturability. Sections of the tower with high water flow velocities, such
as fill region receive a nearly constant warm water bath which tends to
discourage accumulation of corrosion products. Cold water collection basins,
on the other hand, act as reservoirs where flow velocities are extremely low
and corrosive agents have ample opportunity to react with the basin
material.

Galvanized steel towers enjoy an inherent cost advantage because they lend
themselves to the manufacture of factory-assembled units. Towers with
fibreglass structure are more expensive than galvanized steel, while
stainless steel is even more expensive. Wood is a practical material, but field
labour can be expensive. Hardware selections are usually consistent with
structural material selections. Coated carbon steel is least expensive and
suitable for most conditions, assuming that the coating has been properly
chosen and applied. Series 300 and series 400 stainless steel offer higher
corrosion resistance albeit at a higher price. 316 stainless steel offers even
greater resistance at a still higher price. Fibreglass structures can withstand
all but the most corrosive conditions but may fail to meet certain fire codes.

Heat transfer in most modern HVAC cooling towers takes place on film-type
fill surfaces which induce the falling water to form a thin film, providing
maximum heat transfer surface area. Properly formulated PVC provides
excellent manufacturability, outstanding erosion resistance, and stable
material properties over a wide range of chemical environments. For most
applications, even those involving very corrosive water, PVC is the material
of choice. If the circulating water contains solids that are fibrous, greasy,
fatty, or tarry, then film-type fills should completely avoided. These types of
foreign substances tend to clog the narrow passages between film fill
sheets, preventing the proper mixing of air and water on the fill sheet
surfaces.

Other components make use of specific materials having properties well-

suited to their application. For example, water distribution nozzles may be
polypropylene or fibreglass-filled nylon. These materials serve well in this
application because of their inherent resistance to chemical attack and
because of their exceptional resistance to erosion.

Fan blades, which must withstand extremely high operating loads in a

saturated environment, are typically aluminium alloy, fibreglass-reinforced
polyester, or fibreglass-reinforced epoxy.

For all situations, follow the guidelines specified below and select a cooling
tower accordingly which provides long corrosion-resistant service at a
reasonable price:

 Specify a tower appropriate to the site conditions. If conditions

are ‘normal’ (based on water chemistry), a standard tower will serve
well. If conditions are more severe, choose materials appropriately.
When a cooling tower can be located in an open space with free air
motion and unimpeded air supply, siting is not a concern in order to
obtain a satisfactory installation. However, towers are often situated
indoors, against walls, or in enclosures. In such cases, the following
factors must be considered:

1. Sufficient free and unobstructed space should be provided

around the unit to ensure an adequate air supply to the fans and
to allow proper servicing.
2. Tower discharge air should not be deflected in any way that
might promote recirculation (a portion of the warm, moist air that
re-enters the tower). Recirculation raises the entering wet-bulb
temperature, causing increased hot water and cold water
temperatures, and during cold weather, can promote the icing of
air intake areas. The possibility of air recirculation is particularly
important on multiple-tower installations.
  Specify realistic design conditions. In general, prepare the
specification for the most likely case as opposed to the worst possible
case.
 Define any applicable local fire or building codes. Some codes
virtually exclude fibreglass structures; others impose maximum flame
spread ratings. Wood tower design also depends extensively on local
code requirements.
 Specify completely. Typical specification requirements should
define structural material requirements, structural hardware material
requirements, fill material requirements and any other specific
requirements suggested by the equipment manufacturer.
 For unusual conditions, request selections based on the
conditions. Rather than arbitrarily specifying materials when the best
choices are unclear, provide potential suppliers with an enumeration
of the site conditions. Include a make-up water analysis, the type of
water treatment to be used, design hot and cold water temperatures,
and as complete a description as possible of the atmosphere
surrounding the tower. Review the material recommendations
carefully, keeping in mind the often opposing goals of economy and
service life.
 Stand by the specification. Once the appropriate materials have
been defined, demand that the final product selection meet those
requirements.

Cavitation at the Pump

It is bad practice to put a strainer on the suction side of the condenser water
pump(s). The purpose of the strainer is to collect dirt and debris. As time
passes, the pressure drop across a strainer increases. This increase in
pressure drop across the strainer will result in a low pressure at the pump
suction. The pressure gets too low, that for a particular water temperature,
the water within the pump starts to boil. This is termed as cavitation and the
performance of the pump diminishes significantly and eventually the impeller
of the pump is destroyed. The purpose of the strainer is to protect the tubes
of the condenser and the strainer must always be installed on the discharge
side of the pump. The screen in the pond of the tower protects the pump.

To ensure that cavitation does not occur the pump should be located so that
it is sufficiently below the static water level in the tank. The pump
manufacturer will quote the value of the net positive suction head (NPSH)
required, but the available NPSH should always be in excess of the required
NPSH.
3.1.4 Piping Systems and Pumps
3.2 General
Chilled water systems are to be supplied by a decoupled primary and
secondary chilled water distribution system. The primary distribution relates
to the chiller or district cooling plate heat exchanger pipework distribution.
The secondary pipework distribution relates to the chilled water pipework
distribution from the primary circuit to the terminal cooling devices. The
primary and secondary circuits are connected to each other by a low loss
decoupling header.

All primary, secondary and condenser water pipework distribution systems

shall be sized using the limiting pressure drops or velocities as given in the
enclosed ‘Hyder Consulting Pipework System’ schedule.

Manila has capability of CHW system flow analysis using “Pipeflo” a software
calculation programme to determine pipe sizes or system pressure drops.
Manual calculation spreadsheets are to be prepared as a preliminary
assessment of flow. Standard pipe and pump sizing calculation sheets shall
be completed for each project, copies attached. These should be submitted
to the Lead Office Project Design Manager before the document issue date
for review and comment.

3.3 Primary Chilled Water Circuit

Multiple chillers or district cooling plate heat exchangers shall be piped by
means of a reverse return or ‘Tickleman’ pipework configuration. To maintain
secondary water circuit flow temperatures the primary water flow rate must
exceed the summation of the secondary water flow rates, typically by 2%.
Primary circuit pumps shall be constant speed, each pump matched to the
duty of a single chiller or district cooling plate heat exchanger. Where
practical, subject to plantroom space and layout, the primary pumps should
be coupled together with the number of pumps equal to the number of
chillers/heat exchangers plus one common standby pump.

Where plantroom layouts prevent this arrangement individual chiller primary

pumps can be connected in series with their respective chiller. This
arrangement is to be followed only where group coupling of primary pumps is
impractical as it does not provided any standby pump provision unless
individual chiller standby pumps are provided. This is an expensive solution
which should be avoided if possible.

Chiller operation and isolation will be controlled to maintain constant flow

water temperature under part load.
3.4 Secondary Chilled Water Circuit
The secondary chilled water circuit or circuits will utilise variable flow
constant temperature chilled water. Two port modulating control valves will
be provided at the terminal cooling units, allowing variable flow chilled water
to supplied by inverter speed controlled secondary circulating pumps. Two
port on/off control valves can be used in none critical areas such as
plantrooms, stores, hotel ‘back of house’ areas and similar room type
applications.

Most secondary pipework distribution systems will be radial to minimise the

length and therefore cost of pipework used. In theory all secondary chilled
water circuits should be piped full reverse return, without the use of
balancing double regulating valves. Double regulating valves become
redundant, except for their use as isolating devices, under part load.

Where the building layout lends itself to a reverse return layout without
significant increases in pipework the principle should be adopted. A simple
example of this is illustrated on the enclosed sketch drawing 92000-RPT-M-
0003. This will result in a distribution system which is a mixture of radial and
reverse return. This is perfectly acceptable and will provide improved control
and operating conditions compared to a purely radial distribution network. An
example of where this mixed system can be applied in the types of buildings
we design is a regular floor plate tower block where each floor may be able
to be piped up in reverse return with radial riser distribution.

3.5 Secondary Chilled Water Circuit System Control

A differential pressure switch shall be provided across the flow and return
connection to the final terminal cooling unit on the pipework index circuit.
This will maintain a constant differential pressure by regulation the speed
and therefore water flow rate supplied by the secondary chilled water
circulating pumps under part load. Where more than one index circuit may
exist in that their system pressure drop is similar, additional differential
pressure switches shall be provided for each circuit. The pumps will be
controlled to satisfy the greatest demand.

The motorised two port control valves shall be selected to give a suitable
valve authority. In theory this would be 100% of the secondary system
pressure drop. In practice the pressure drop through the fully open valve
shall be equally to between 30% and 50% of the total secondary system
index circuit pressure drop, inclusive of terminal cooler coil pressure drop.
This is a significant pressure drop and should be taken at the 50% value in
preliminary pump selections. Final pump selections will be determined after
control valve selection by the contractor and recalculation of pump
requirements by the same.
3.6 Secondary Chilled Water Pipe and Pump Sizing
All secondary chilled water pipework distribution systems shall be sized
using the limiting pressure drops or velocities as given in the enclosed ‘Hyder
Consulting Pipework System’ schedule.

Large chilled water pipework systems shall be sized using the proportional
method of calculation. Typically 2 to 3% of a systems’ cooling capacity is lost
through the pipework insulation and pump generated heat gains. For
example to get 100kW cooling at a terminal AHU requires some 103kW to be
generated at the chillers. This additional flow must be included within the
pipework calculations. A 3% additional flow is unlikely to make any difference
in the preliminary pipe sizes selected but will be more significant in the
system pressure drop and therefore the pump selection. A 3% increase in
flow will result in a 6% increase in system pressure drop. The percentage
figures stated are typical and will be determined on the individual project pipe
lengths and system components.

Secondary chilled water pump head duties should include the following
components;

 Pipe and fitting losses as determined using the CIBSE method of pipe
sizing and component pressure loss factors. Flow rates and associated
pressure drops to be based on the proportional method described
above.

 Terminal cooling coil pressure loss.

 Strainers should have a pressure drop allowance equal to twice their

clean condition pressure drop to allow for fouling. For example a typical
strainer will have a pressure drop of 6kPa. Allow 12kPa in the pressure
drop calculation. Strainers shall be provided before all two or three port
control valves and before either the primary or secondary circulating
pumps but not both.

 Two port motorised control valves, pressure drop allowance of 50% of

the summation of the above three components.

 Pumps to be specified with no margin on design pressure or flow.

Standard pump specification section 15309 stipulates 25% margin on
design pressure. The term ‘Design Pressure’ should be included in the
pump schedule. This should be added by the contractor. Material
submittals should be reviewed in light of this requirement and not
based on the design pressure specified in the equipment schedules.
Full hydraulic calculations shall be carried out in Manila to determine
pump duties.
3.7 Tall Buildings Intermediate Level Plate Heat Exchangers
To minimise static pressures within chilled water systems in tall buildings,
intermediate level plate heat exchangers shall be provided. The absolute
maximum height difference between the chillers and intermediate level plate
heat exchangers, or plate heat exchanger to plate heat exchanger shall be
128m, typically 32 floor levels. This complies with the standard pipework and
fittings specification 1 5301 which stipulates a minimum working pressure
1600 kPa or 157m head, allowing 300kPa or 29m for secondary pump head
and system pressurisation.

All materials and equipment shall be suitable for the working pressure.

Intermediate level plate heat exchangers shall be piped as the chiller

arrangement described above, namely a decoupled primary and secondary
pipework arrangement.

Fixtures and fittings shall be as the latest revision standard detail.

3.8 Chilled Water Flow and Return Temperatures

There is no hard and fast rule to determine the most suitable economic
chilled water temperatures for all projects. However, for the types of projects
typically undertaken by Bahrain/Manila the following guidelines shall be
used.

Small projects (total cooling less than 2.0MW) 6°C flow, 12°C return, 6°C
delta ‘T’.

All others 5.5°C flow, 14.5°C return, 9°C delta ‘T’.

Tall buildings first stage intermediate level plate heat exchanger circuit 6°C
flow, 14°C return, 8°C delta ‘T’.

Tall buildings second stage intermediate level plate heat exchanger circuit
6.5°C flow, 13.5°C return, 7°C delta ‘T’.

Refer to enclosed sketch drawing 92000-RPT-M-0004.

Associated plant and equipment shall be selected based on the above chilled
water temperatures.

3.9 Flushing Out Provisions

Flushing out provisions shall be made for mild steel pipe systems, in
accordance with BSRIA recommendations contained within guide
‘Precommissioning Cleaning of Pipework Systems’. These provisions will be
met by making the following allowances.

 Provide line size flushing by-pass leg and isolation valve to all AHUs.
  Provide decoupling flexible connections with handed male/female
connections to all fan coil units. See standard detail 002.

 Provide flushing fill and drain points as shown on attached sketch

drawing 92000-RPT-M-001. Note, the locations of these valves as
shown are indicative. Drain valves should be located preferably at low
points local to suitably sized (200mm diameter for systems with water
content of 10,000 litre and above) drain connections or manholes, Fill
points shall be located next to a suitable water source either permanent
or temporary tanked. Flushing fill and drain valves shall be;

 50mm diameter for systems with water content of 10,000 litre and
above.

 40mm diameter for systems with water content of 2,000 litre to 10,000
litre.

 25mm diameter for systems with water content less than 2,000.

3.10 Miscellaneous

3.10.1 Glycol
Glycol antifreeze additive will not be required in the vast majority of middle
east projects. It will be required for any non trace heated, external chilled
water pipework, in certain geographical locations such as areas of Lebanon
and Jordan. Here the external design temperature may be 4°C or below.
Glycol has a significant effect on the performance of cooling plant and a
separate study of the consequences will be required outside the remit of this
report.

3.10.2 Chilled Water Dead Legs

Where a cooling coil is remote from the main distribution, typically by a
distance of l00m or more, a bypass connection shall be provided local to the
cooler coil to maintain the design chilled water temperature at the cooler coil.
A double regulating valve shall be installed within the bypass, sized to
provide sufficient flow to compensate from the heat gained through the dead
leg insulation under no flow conditions through the cooler coil. This
arrangement minimises the waiting time for design temperature chilled water
to reach the coil. The flow rate is included as part of the proportional sizing
described in 2.5 above.

3.10.3 Balancing Valves

Double regulating balancing valves become obsolete except as a means of
isolation under part load conditions. This is the benefit provided by a self
 balancing or reverse return system. To verify flow rates at the commissioning
stage on a radial pipe network DRVs shall be provided at the following
locations.

 Chilled water return from each AHU.

 Grouped fan coil unit circuits or floors served. The number of fan coil units
served from a single DRV shall be assessed on a project by project basis.

 Secondary returns to primary/secondary decoupling header.

 Flow from each chiller and or plate heat exchanger and cooling tower or
alternative heat rejection appliance.

Variable orifice, fixed flow rate regulating valves shall not be used on variable
flow systems.

3.11 Condenser Water Pipework

There are a number of methods of heat rejection from water cooled chiller
plant. These include open cooling towers, closed cooling towers, dry coolers
and adiabatic dry coolers. Due to plant space limitations and capital cost
constraints, the majority of heat rejection installations in the Middle East will
employ open cooling towers. These are the subject of this design note.

Open cooling towers themselves come in various arrangements each with

their own merits and disadvantages. These include induced draught, forced
draught, counter flow and cross flow. It is important to ensure that
manufacturer’s recommendations are followed with respect to the free area
around the cooling towers.

Multiple chillers and associated cooling towers shall be piped by means of a

reverse return or ‘Tickleman’ pipe work configuration. Refer to attached
sketch drawing 92000-RPT-M-0002.

Condenser water pumps shall be constant speed, each pump matched to the
duty of a single chiller. Where practical, subject to plantroom space and
layout, the condenser water pumps should be coupled together with the
number of pumps equal to the number of chillers plus one common standby
pump.

Where plant room layouts prevent this arrangement individual chiller

condenser water pumps can be connected in series with their respective
chiller. This arrangement is to be followed only where group coupling of
primary pumps is impractical as it does not provided any standby pump
provision.
With an open water system the cooling towers must be located above the
chillers. It is important to ensure that the cooling towers are located high
enough above the condenser water pumps to exceed the NPSH (nett
positive suction head) requirements of the pumps.
 Open cooling tower systems require their water reservoirs to be purged of
condensed solids which build up in the water as a result of evaporation and
the deposition of solids contained within the evaporated water. The amount
of purged water or ‘blow down’ is a function of the supplied water quality and
can vary significantly throughout the middle east. In Bahrain it is
recommended that 25% of the evaporated water volume is bled from the
water reservoirs and discharged to drain.

The evaporated water and associated blow down must be made up from the
mains water municipality supply in Bahrain. Cooling tower water storage
should be agreed with the client to minimise the risk of interruption of service.
This will be advised by the Lead Office and is a function of the reliability of
municipality water supply. Typically Bahrain has a low level of interruption of
water service, here one days peak storage is common practice. In less
reliable areas such as parts of Jordan they may require one weeks storage,
which can be a significant volume of water and therefore tank storage
requirement.

The nature of an open cooling tower system means that even with blow
down the water is still prone to contamination. Filters shall be provided on the
condenser water inlet to each chiller. System de-aerators shall be installed
within the condenser water system.

Cooling tower operation may be controlled by means of two port bypass

valves to maintain constant flow water temperature, notionally 34°C flow, 6°C
delta ‘T. These temperatures may vary to best suit the chiller selection.

The environmental conditions within Bahrain are suitable for the propagation
of legionella bacteria within the cooling tower water system. Whilst the
treatment of the water is within the facility maintenance remit, fresh air
intakes to air handling plant should be located away from any cooling towers
including those of any adjacent buildings.

3.11.1 Water Treatment

1. Design Considerations

3.1 General
This volume of the Design Guide covers the following:

- The correct design of chilled water system to facilitate water treatment.

- The correct design of condensing water systems to facilitate water treatment.
It is vital that the designer should address the requirements for systems cleaning at an
early stage in the design of the system. The designer should aim to assess the
following.

 Which methods of cleaning are most appropriate for the type of system.
 Whether chemical cleaning is important to the successful operation of the
system.
 What design features need to be incorporated to facilitate the cleaning process.

The design will benefit from the involvement of a cleaning specialist at the design stage.
This person should be a suitably qualified and experienced person with a proven track
record in system flushing and chemical cleaning. If the relevant pre-requisites for the
required level of water treatment are addressed at the design stage, this makes the pre-
commissioning cleaning stage of the project run smoothly and negates the often
common delay and stutter to the commissioning programme. It is therefore prudent to
follow the advice suggested in this guide to enable the site team to manage the water
treatment by a specialist subcontractor of any chilled water or condensed water systems
in a timely manner.

3.2 - Standards
The minimum acceptable standard applicable to the pre-commission cleaning and
associated water treatment of chilled water and condensed water systems is detailed in
the following document and represents one of the minimum standards applicable to
pipework design.

BSRIA AG 1/2001.1 – Pre-commission Cleaning of Pipework Systems – 2004.

It is essential important that the flushing and chemical cleaning procedures are planned
so that the whole operation is carried out as a continuous process, i.e. there are no
delays during the flushing stages, or between the flushing and chemical cleaning stages.
This guide aims to provide the necessary information to the designer to ensure that this
happens.

3.3 - When to chemically clean

It may not always be necessary to undertake the chemical cleaning of a pipework
system, nevertheless, system cleaning will certainly entail thorough flushing with clean
water and may also involve the use of cleaning chemicals.

In some instances the system pumps can be utilised to facilitate the raw water flush and
maximisation of the water flushing velocity in the pipework system. However it is not
always possible or practical to utilise system pumps. The reasons for this can be that
there is no power available to system pumps or maybe that due to the chemical cleaning
agents required, the system pumps cannot be used to protect their seals or the
manufacturers warranty.

Notwithstanding the aforementioned the designer should always implement the facility in
the system pipework to allow the cleaning of the pipework to be carried out to the
required standard, as stipulated in this design guide.

To provide an insight into the factors that determine the type of clean that will be
required, the following factors should be considered:

1. The size of the system – what is the amount of debris which could potentially be
released into a system? This increases with the size of the system.

2. Whether the system is open or closed. Closed systems will be less prone to,
(although not immune from) the build-up of corrosion products.

3. System materials – systems using stainless steel, copper or plastic are less likely
to contain corrosion debris. However the common material utilised in Bahrain for
chilled water and condensed water systems is mild steel; therefore this type of
system will require chemically cleaning to ensure cleanliness of the system water
and the promotion of the commissioning processes.

4. Complexity of the system and sensitivity of the plant items – equipment such as
chillers, small-bore control and regulating valves, low water content heat
exchangers, and flow rate monitoring equipment, will be prone to blockage if dirt
is allowed to accumulate in the system. Systems which use glycol-based anti-
freeze are particularly sensitive. These types of systems are not common in
Bahrain, although they do exist in some specialist pipework applications.

5. The length of the construction period – if the system is to be left exposed and
damp for a prolonged period during the installation process, then this will
increase the time for corrosion or biofilms to develop and will therefore increase
the need for chemical cleaning.

3.4 - Specifying for system cleaning

It is the role of the Bahrain based design engineer to clearly define and brief the Manila
design office with adequate information to enable them to design the system pipework
configuration to enable the system to be successfully cleaned. This is best undertaken
by consultation with an appropriately qualified and experienced water treatment
specialist to assist the design engineer to ensure the best and most efficient design
solution.
The layout of the system in relation to the building form, to be shown on the design
drawings, together with the coordination with other services needs to be considered.
The anticipated method by which the required flushing velocities will be achieved must
be considered. This involves the pumping requirements, motor ratings for any
temporary pump(s) that may be required.
Schematic diagrams and data sheets should be produced illustrating the design intent
which includes the design information required to flush / chemically clean the system.

3.5 - Pipework System Design

The manila design engineer must ensure that the pipework system is designed such
that, under operating conditions, a positive pressure must exist at all times in all parts of
the system.
To facilitate the flushing and cleaning the designer must also ensure that the pipework
system includes basic fittings and items of equipment to facilitate the process. The
manila designer must therefore have a basic understanding of the objectives of system
cleaning and of the intended cleaning procedure. This should be conveyed during the
briefing provided by the visiting Bahrain design engineer.

3.5.1 - Sizing of mains water supply

The flushing water supply pipe should, in the absence of any other priorities, be sized
such that the minimum flushing flow rates in the system can be achieved without the
need to interrupt the process while break tanks re-fill. Appropriate mains-water pipe
sizes can be related to system volumes. Table 3.5.1 below details the recommended
sizes. A minimum pressure of 3 bar should be provided at the top of the building to
ensure that flushing volumes are achievable.

System volume (litres) Minimum mains size in

mm

< 2000 25

2000 - 10000 40

>10000 50

Table 3.5.1 – Recommended incoming water main sizes.

3.5.2 – Regulating Valves
Regulating valves must be sized in accordance with CIBSE Commissioning Code W,
such that at the design flow rate, the valve is not less than 25% open. If valves are
closed beyond this point, they may be prone to blockage.
Achieving the recommended flushing velocities through some high resistance valves
(typically 15mm diameter low-flow valves) may be impractical. This problem can be
resolved at the design stage by incorporating a line size by-pass of such valves.
3.5.3 – Dead Legs
It is essential that the system is designed to eliminate dead legs. In the few situations
where this may be unavoidable, suitably sized line size valved connections should be
incorporated into the design to facilitate draining and flushing. It is important that dead
legs that have a length of more than three pipe diameters have the facility to be looped
out to allow effective cleaning in full bore, up to and including 50mm diameter pipework,
and 50% bore above 50 mm diameter. These loops should incorporate a valve so that
they can be shut off to allow increased flushing velocities (maximisation) in other parts of
the system
3.5.4 – Pressurisation Units
The Manila design engineer should bear in mind that pockets of stagnant water trapped
in expansion vessels of pressurisation units have been found to provide potentially ideal
conditions for bacterial growth. Therefore consideration should be given to the use of
units with re-circulating circuits, so that stationary pockets of water are avoided by good
design.
3.5.5 – Strainers
It is important that the strainers designed and selected for the system have a basket
which is capable of withstanding the maximum pump head without distortion. Pressure
test points should be provided on both sides of all strainers so that the pressure drop
can be monitored. Drain valves are recommended on the flanges and / or end caps of Y
type strainers to facilitate local draining of the strainer body and adjacent pipework prior
to the basket removal and back-flushing of the strainer. The mesh size of the strainer
basket should be selected with regard to the particular application and with reference to
the manufacturers’ recommendations.

3.5.6 – Air Vents

Air left trapped or circulating in pipe systems may causes problems with commissioning
and can lead to elevated iron levels, increased rate of corrosion and deterioration of the
system water.

The system design should therefore incorporate features to facilitate the removal of air.
In general, air vents should be provided on flow and return pipework at the end of
horizontal runs, and at the tops of each self-draining section. By implementing the
appropriate design pipework configurations i.e. staggered flow and return legs, this can
help to minimise trapped air pockets in terminal units, and other raised sections.

The rate at which water will enter a pipework system and drain away from it is also
influenced by the venting provision. Air vents should be suitably sized and installed at
the tops of large flow risers to ensure that the system will fill or drain in reasonable time.

3.5.7 – De-aerators

Water in closed-circuit systems may contain significant amounts of dissolved air. This
can be a major contributing factor to on-going system corrosion, and may also
encourage biological growth.

De-aerators remove dissolved gases when they temporarily come out of solution due to
temperature or pressure variations. The higher the temperature of the water, or the
lower the pressure, the less dissolved gas it can support.
Temperature differential-based de-aerators are, therefore, typically located at the hottest
parts of the system, i.e. the inlets to chillers

Pressure differential de-aerators are more versatile and can be positioned at any point in
the system.

3.5.8 - Plant and equipment isolation and bypassing

The system should be designed to enable the isolation and bypassing of all sensitive
plant and equipment such as chillers, cooling coils, terminal units, control valves, low-
flow and regulating valves, during the course of the flushing and chemical cleaning
processes.

It is vital that fixed, full bore bypasses are provided as close as possible to the plant
items they are protecting. Bypasses should incorporate isolating valves to prevent short
circuiting during subsequent normal plant operation.

3.5.9 – Pumps

The pipework immediately upstream of the pumps should be easily removable so that
the inlet and impeller can be inspected prior to pump start-up. The actual pump
connections should be via flanges or mechanical couplings.

It is common for the water treatment specialist to require suitable sized valved
connections on the intake and discharge side of the pumps to facilitate flushing and
chemical cleaning. Strainers should also be incorporated into the design to protect the
pumps from any large particles in the system because water containing high quantities of
fine particulate matter can sometimes cause the erosion of the pump seals and the
subsequent failure of the pumps.

3.5.10 – Drainage

The Manila design engineer should ensure that there are adequate foul drains within
close proximity to the flushing connections on the system. These drains must be
suitable for the discharge of the effluent produced during the water treatment processes.
Standard 100 mm drains are suitable up to pipework of less than 200 mm. Above 200
mm the drains need to be larger.

If the plantroom is located below the main drainage system the discharge effluent will
need to be pumped. The volume of water will be the flushing supply water volume
imposed by the flushing supply rate.

3.5.11 – Chemical Injection

The Manila design engineer should take into consideration the requirement to inject a
relatively large quantity of chemicals into the system. This is typically 1% of the system
volume for each stage of the water treatment process, i.e. biocide wash (if required),
chemical clean and final dosing. Therefore for a typical size chilled or condensed water
system in Bahrain, this would be approximately 1500 litres of chemical each time.
In most cases it will be necessary to introduce chemicals, via a temporary tank on the
suction side of the circulating pumps. If a side stream filtration system is incorporated, it
may be possible to introduce chemicals from this unit.

3.5.12 – Large bore pipework

It is common in Bahrain that the pipework is in excess of 100 mm diameter. It may be

difficult to obtain the required minimum flushing velocities for pipework this size. There
may also be limitations imposed by the capacity of the incoming mains water supply and
the available drainage outlets. In these circumstances it is prudent to design alternative
measures to remove system debris. In particular the following should be considered:

 The incorporation of easily demountable, mechanical grooved joints on all

pipework and equipment, so that sections can be easily dismantled and
physically cleaned.

 The incorporation of strainers or full-flow filters on inlets to plant items.

 The incorporation of dirt pockets along the length of flow headers to act as a trap
for dirt and debris.

3.5.13 – System facilities

Dosing systems

In order to maintain the cleaned system in the same condition after handover to the
client, an on-going programme of water treatment will be essential. The introduction of
water treatment chemicals such as corrosion inhibitors and biocide will be required to
protect the system pipework from corrosion and also mitigate the proliferation of harmful
bacteria, such as pseudomonas. The introduction of chemicals into a system is
undertaken via one of the following methods:

 A dosing pot that is periodically filled with chemical quantities as necessary.

Dosing pots must be pressure rated at a level compatible with the operating
pressure of the system.

 Automatic chemical dosing systems are commonly utilised in Bahrain. They act
to pump chemicals into the system when the equipment sense a chemical
deficiency in the water, or as a proportion of the make-up water.

4 Ductwork Design

4.1 Standards
For all Hyder Bahrain projects, HVCA-DW 144, 1998 shall be used. Ductwork systems
for ventilation and air conditioning applications are divided into low, medium and high
pressure systems. Table 3.2.1 below sets out the classification of ductwork systems
adopted using the static pressure of the system, or part of the system. The classification
follows that used in the following document and represents one of the minimum
standards applicable to ductwork ventilation design.

HVCA - DW 144, 1998 – The Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork – Low, medium
and high pressure / velocity air systems.

System Classification Design Static Pressure / Max Air Velocity in Air Leakage limit (per m2 of
Pa m/s duct surface area) / litre per
m2
Max + Max
-

Low Pressure (Class A) 500 500 10 0.027 x p ^ 0.65

Medium Pressure (Class B) 1000 750 20 0.009 x p ^ 0.65

High Pressure (Class C) 2000 750 40 0.003 x p ^ 0.65

NOTE: Where p is the static pressure in the duct (Pa)

Table 3.2.1 – Maximum positive and negative pressures and velocities for low,
medium and high pressure ductwork.

The other pertinent minimum standard applicable to ductwork design is detailed in the
following document.
USA – SMACNA – HVAC Systems, 2006 - Duct Design.

4.2 Ductwork Design Velocities

The velocity of air flowing through a duct can be critical, particularly where it is necessary
to limit noise levels.

The table below details recommended velocities for particular applications. These are
only a general guide and assume reasonable distance betweens between the fittings
(e.g. four times the duct hydraulic diameter). Higher velocities may be used if additional
acoustic attenuation is employed.
 Velocity in m/s

Typical Application Typical Noise Rating Main ducts Branch Runouts

(NR)

Bedrooms (non – domestic) 20 – 30 5.0 4.5 2.5

Private Offices, Libraries 30 – 35 6.0 5.5 3.0

General Offices, Restaurants, Banks 35 – 40 7.5 6.0 3.5

Department Stores, Supermarkets, 40 – 45 9.0 7.0 4.5

Shops and Cafes

Industrial Buildings 45 - 55 10.0 8.0 5.0

Table 3.3.1 – Recommended maximum duct velocities for low pressure ductwork
systems where noise generation is the controlling factor.

The recommended maximum duct velocities for medium and high pressure ductwork
systems are detailed in the table below.

Velocity in m / s

Volume flow in duct in metres 3 / Medium Pressure High

s Pressure
Systems Systems

< 0.1 8.0 9.0

0.1 – 0.5 9.0 11.0

0.5 – 1.5 11.0 15.0

> 1.5 15.0 20.0

Table 3.3.2 – Recommended maximum duct velocities for medium and high
pressure systems.
The recommended maximum guide for duct velocities in risers and ceilings are detailed
in the table below.

Maximum Air Velocity in m/s

Ductwork Location Ductwork Critical Normal Non-critical

Type

Risers or above plasterboard ceiling Rectangular 5.0 7.5 10.0

Circular 7.0 10.0 15.0

 Above suspended ceiling Rectangular 3.0 5.0 6.0

Circular 5.0 7.0 10.0

Table 3.3.3 – Guide to maximum duct velocities in risers and ceilings.

Permitted Air Velocity in m/s

Supply or Return Air Critical Normal Non-critical

Supply 1.5 2.5 3.0

Return 2.0 3.0 4.0

Table 3.3.4 – Maximum velocity for supply and return air openings (grilles and
terminals)

4.3 Ductwork Design Pressures

The relevant design pressures ratings are detailed in the table below:

System Classification Design Static Pressure / Pa

Max + Max -

Low Pressure (Class A) 500 500

Medium Pressure (Class B) 1000 750

High Pressure (Class C) 2000 750

4.4 Ductwork Systems and Fire Hazards

Fire and smoke containment / hazards are factors which influence the design and
installation of ductwork systems.

Information concerning fire protection systems and the fire rating of ductwork are
detailed in the following documents which contain the relevant applicable design
standards.

 BS 5588 – Fire Precautions in the design and construction of

Building – Part 9 – 1989.
 Code of Practice for Ventilation and Air Conditioning Ductwork
and tested in accordance with BS 476 Part 20 (1987).
 Code of Practice for Ventilation and Air Conditioning Ductwork
and tested in accordance with BS 476 Part 22 (1987) for Fire and Smoke
Dampers.
 BS 476 Part 24 (1987).
 ISO 6944 – (1985) – For Fire Rated Ductwork.
 A.S.F.P – Association for Specialist Fire Protection – Fire Rated
and Smoke Outlet Ductwork: An industry Guide to Design and Installation.

In simplistic terms there are three methods of fire protection related to ductwork
systems. The methods are detailed below.
 Protection using fire dampers.
 Protection using fire resistant enclosures.
 Protection using fire resistant ductwork.

The main areas of the building where ductwork should be fire protected are detailed
below.
 moke extract systems.
 Escape routes covering stairways, lobbies and corridors.
 Non domestic kitchen extract systems. For further information with
respect to kitchen extract systems refer to HVCA publication DW/171 –
Specification for Kitchen Ventilation Systems.
 Enclosed car parks which are mechanically ventilated.
 Basements. Ductwork for basements must be fire rated.
 Pressurisation systems.
 Hazardous areas.

A cautionary note to all ductwork ventilation designers:

Ductwork constructed to DW/144 standard has no tested fire resistance. General
purpose ventilation and air conditioning ductwork and ancillary items do not have a fire
rating and cannot be either utilised as or converted into fire rated ductwork systems
unless the construction materials of the whole system including the supports and
penetration seals are proven by test and assessment in accordance with BS 476 Part
24.
In the case where galvanised sheet steel ductwork is clad by the application of a
protective material , the ductwork construction must be as type tested and comply with
the protective material manufacturers recommendations, e.g. gauge of ductwork,
frequency of stiffeners and non-use of low melting point fasteners or rivets. Sealants,
gaskets and flexible joints should be as tested and certified in accordance with BS 476
Part 24 and the manufacturer’s recommendations should always be followed.
4.5 Methods of Ductwork Sizing
Duct sizing and pressure loss calculations are normally carried out as a combined
exercise to quantify the ductwork dimensions and provide data for specifying the fan
duty. The purpose of duct sizing is to determine the cross-sectional dimensions of the
various parts of the duct system.

Before commencing duct sizing, a schematic of the air distribution system must be
prepared. This should indicate the airflow directions and contain the following
information:
 System identification for each section.
 Air volume flow rates in each section.
 The length of all the straight sections.
 A description of the fittings, dampers, plant items and terminals.
The first two items above are not specifically needed for sizing purposes, although they
are needed to determine the system pressure loss and hence allow the fan duty to be
specified.
There are two simple design methods utilised to size ductwork:
 Constant Pressure Drop Method
 Static Regain Method

3.6.1 - Constant Pressure Drop Method

The basis for this method is to select a constant pressure loss per unit length for the duct
runs and then to size the ducts at this rate, using the Figure in Appendix 1.1. This
method is used for the sizing of very simple low pressure supply and extract systems,
some medium pressure systems and also variable air volume (VAV) systems.
For low pressure systems, typical values used for the constant pressure loss rate are in
the range of 0.8–1.2 Pa / m with duct velocities not exceeding 10 m / s. At large volume
rates in low pressure systems the 10 m / s duct velocity limit should override the
constant pressure loss rate chosen, leading to somewhat lower pressure loss rates in
the large ducts.
The sizing process involves the following steps:
(a) The selection and use of a vertical constant pressure loss line on the Figure in
Appendix 1.1, appropriate to the design requirement.
(b) Reading-off the circular duct diameter for the actual volume flow rate.
(c) If a rectangular or flat oval duct is required, the equivalent circular diameter must
be obtained from the tables in Appendix 1.2.
The constant pressure drop / equal friction method gives a reducing velocity from the fan
to the terminals but does not ensure that the branch flow rates are inherently balanced.
Provision for site regulation needs to be included in the design.
3.6.2 - Static Regain Method
When the velocity in a duct is reduced without excessive losses occurring, the static
pressure increases. In high pressure systems, this increase can be significant and is the
basis for the static regain method duct-sizing method. The principle is to size the ducts
between branch take-offs so that the recovery in static pressure after one branch take-
off due to the reduction in velocity is equal to the static pressure loss due to friction and
fittings in the subsequent duct run. The method seeks to equalise the static pressures at
the branch take-offs, and where these take-offs serve high pressure terminals an
inherently balanced system can be achieved.
The static regain method is used primarily for those parts of high pressure system where
the initial duct velocity pressure is sufficient to give static pressure regain without
unnecessarily low duct velocities at the end of the run. Practically, only the duct mains
serving multiple terminal branches are sized by this method, while the smaller branches
are conventionally sized using the Constant Pressure Drop Method, as detailed in 3.6.1.
The static regain method uses duct static pressure losses rather than total pressure
losses in the sizing procedure. For the application of the method it also needs these
static pressure losses to be expressed in terms of lengths of straight duct which have the
same loss.
The static regain is due to the drop in velocity pressure. However it must be emphasised
that there is still a drop in total pressure, ∆ P t, due to friction.
For the branch shown in Figure 3.6.2.1 below, subscript ‘c’ denotes ‘combined’ flow,
subscript ‘b’ denotes ‘branch’ flow and subscript ‘c’ denotes ‘straight’ flow.
Pressure drop across the branch is given by:

∆ P t = P ts – P ts = β c – s ½ ρ C C 2
Figure 3.6.2.1 – Formula for calculating the pressure drop across the branch.

Figure 3.6.2.2 – Schematic drawing of the duct branch.

 ∆ P t is the loss of total pressure across the branch in (Pa).
 P tc is the total pressure on the upstream side of the branch in (Pa).
 P ts is the total pressure on the downstream side of the branch in (Pa).
 β c – s is the pressure loss factor for the branch.
 ρ is the density of the air in kg / m 3.
 C C is the air velocity on the upstream side of the branch in m / s.

The static regain is given by the following formula:

P s - P c = ½ ρ (C C 2 – Cs 2)
The air velocities are given by:

CC = q c / A c

Cs=qs/As

 q c & q s are the flow rates on the upstream and downstream sides of the branches
in kg / s.
 A c & A s are the cross-sectional areas of the inlet to and outlet (straight flow) from
branch in m2.

In general A c = A s, but the cross-sectional area could increase between inlet and outlet
if required.
It must be emphasised that the fan must produce a rise in total pressure equal to the
drop in total pressure of the ductwork system. The deliberate use of ‘static regain’ does
not directly influence this, except that the downstream duct sizes are larger than might
otherwise have been the case.
The value of air pressure in the duct (‘static pressure’, p) is only of consequence in duct
air leakage calculations, and for ensuring approximately equal pressures behind any air
outlets immediately on the duct itself. Sizing ductwork by the static regain method is
normally carried out using a computer programme.

3.6.3 – Choice of Duct Sizing Method

Use of the static regain method on low and medium pressure systems is limited, and it’s
worth depends on the equivalent length of the index run; the shorter the index run, the
more favourable the case for the static regain method. This is because in a low pressure
system, the loss of velocity pressure is small and in large installation its recovery is not
significant in comparison with the friction loss in the system.
The constant pressure drop method is easier to use in design and results in smaller duct
sizes. Ducts sized using this method can cost up to 8% less than those sized by the
static regain method. However bear in mind, that the savings will be at least partly offset
by higher commissioning costs, especially where the index run is relatively short but with
numerous branches and outlets.
Similar considerations apply for high pressure systems but, because of the higher
potential loss of velocity pressure and the greater need to equalise static pressures at
terminals (to avoid the generation of noise at terminal dampers), there will be more
occasions when the static regain method is worthwhile. The additional cost of ductwork
will probably be less than 1%.

4.6 Acoustic Design

A specialist Acoustic Consultant shall be engaged to analyse and recommend acoustic
solutions for all mechanical equipment to meet the design room/area noise levels. The
Lead Office Project Manager shall arrange for this and forward the Acoustic Report to
the Manila design office.
4.6.1 Attenuation

Provided care is taken in the design and construction of low pressure systems to avoid
significant noise generation in the ductwork, attenuation should only be needed to
absorb fan noise. Exceptions to this guideline are special installations, such as those for
broadcasting studios.

In high pressure systems, in addition to the attenuation of fan noise, it may be necessary
to provide attenuation control boxes sited at the ends of the high pressure runs. Special
attenuation should be paid to avoid noise outbreak from high pressure ductwork, control
boxes and flexible connections, as this could produce problems in adjacent areas.

Noise break-out can be limited by increasing the rigidity of the duct walls and their mass,
i.e. by fixing high density acoustic insulation to the duct. Sound barrier material is
effective for this purpose. Where acoustic insulation of the duct is not possible, a
separate perforated enclosure may be needed for the ductwork.

Cross-talk attenuators may be necessary where noise intrusion between adjacent

spaces can arise and where individual room confidentiality is required.

4.6.2 Passive Silencers

A passive silencer contains localised sound absorbent, normally associated with

narrowed air passages. Both rectangular and circular silencers are used. The
attenuation of two silencers placed close together in series. Silencers must be included
when an analysis of the system has shown that the room criteria will not be met.
Figure 3.7.1 – Examples of (a) rectangular, (b) circular and (c) rectangular elbow
attenuators

Because attenuators are an obstruction in the flow, they also generate turbulence noise.
This noise is dependant on the air velocity. The net sound attenuation, with air flowing
through, is referred to as the “dynamic insertion loss”. This is the performance criterion
which matters.

The location of a silencer should be between the major noise source and the occupied
space, preferably located between straight duct runs in order to give good flow
conditions at the entrance and exit to the silencer. Often the major noise source is the
plant room fan, but fan coil units, for example, introduce noise sources closer to the
occupied space. For a ceiling space fan coil unit, internal lining of the duct between the
unit and the duct termination may adequately reduce fan coil noise.

Appendix 1.1: Pressure drop for air in galvanised steel

ducts
Appendix 1.2: Recommended Sizes For Ductwork
4.6.1 Car Park Ventilation
1.1.1.7 Purpose of Car Park Ventilation.

Car park ventilation is necessary to remove the hazard of carbon monoxide from vehicle
exhaust emissions and prevent the build up of vapours from any fuel leaks which may
occur.

1.1.1.8 Applicable Standards.

We will use the guidance given in CIBSE Guide B clause 2.3.23.3 as a basis for car park
ventilation design. ASHREA guidance is similar but their most recent study has lead to a
general reduction in the requirements. The lead office design manager will instruct if this
standard is to be followed instead of the following guidance should a project need to be
designed to a minimum for cost or other reasons.

1.1.1.9 Local Authority Requirements.

Bahrain Municipality and Civil Defence in the case of car park smoke venting will accept
either of the two codes described in 3.7.5.2.

DM specify a clear height within car parks of 2.4m. Services layouts shall accommodate
this requirement.

1.1.1.10 Car Park Ventilation Systems.

4.6.1.1 Above Ground Car Park Ventilation.

Where a car park is above ground, it can be naturally ventilated if two opposite sides
each have 2.5% of the gross car park floor area open to atmosphere and free ventilation.
Should louvers be employed on these openings then the area of louver required will
increase in proportion to the louver free area.

Where an above ground car park does not have access to this open free area it will be
mechanically ventilated as described below.

4.6.1.2 Below Ground Car Park Ventilation.

Ventilation of underground car parks will be derived from dedicated supply and extract
systems providing 6 air changes per hour normal ventilation and 10 AC/Hr for smoke /
CO clearance. Supply air will be delivered by either or both induced ingress via vehicle
entrance ramps and fan assisted supply shafts.

Where the basement or above ground car parking is within two levels above or below
ground, vehicle ramp ingress will be deemed suitable as the sole source of supply air.
Levels plus or minus three and above from the ground floor entrance/exits will require
fan assisted supply air. Air transferred through three levels of car parking is deemed too
contaminated to qualify as fresh air.

Extract air will be exhausted to the atmosphere, minimum 10.0m away from any air
intakes.
The main extract points from the car park will extract 50% high level, 50% low level. This
may be achieved by a single full room height extract point or points.

The car park ventilation system will be designed to limit horizontal ductwork distribution
by the use of impulse or induction jet fans to distribute air across the car park. The final
design of these systems will be carried out by the manufacturer and only an indicative
layout is required on our drawings. To this end shows these transfer fans at the following
maximum spacings;

Impulse fans: 1 per 400m2 car park floor area.

Induction fans: 1 per 1,000m2 car park floor area.

CFD analysis of the impulse/induction system fan performance will be written into the
project specification by the Lead Design Office discipline engineer. This shall be carried
out by the successful manufacturer to guarantee the system performance and optimise
the fan layouts.

A smoke extraction protocol and control strategy will be devised by the impulse/induction
fan manufacture. This again will be written into the project specification by the Lead
Design Office discipline engineer. The 10 air changes described above will be achieved
by isolating the none fire floors supply and extract systems by means of motorised
dampers fitted to all floors main supply and extract points. Manila to confirm that the
main system car park exhaust fans can achieve 10 air changes per hour using the
normal main supply and extract fans when serving the fire floor only.

Car park extract fans and ductwork will be fire rated suitable for smoke extract to operate
for 2 hours at 300oC. Guaranteed electrical supply will be provided to the associated
fans. Fans will be hard wired with no inverter speed control.

The car park ventilation systems will be controlled by a CO monitoring system to

optimise efficiency. The CO monitoring will comprise dedicated rack cards with remote
CO monitoring devices. Output switching of the supply and extract fans will be via the
landlord BMS system. Fan sequencing and operation will be sequenced to control at two
levels of operation;

CO concentration equal or greater than 30ppm: low speed operation.

CO concentration equal or greater than 100ppm: high speed operation.

It is a practice in Bahrain to sometimes use air conditioned waste exhaust air from, for
example an office or residential building, to provide an element of free cooling to the car
park. Even after coolth reclaim from the exhaust air, it can be a benefit to supply air to
the car park at the exhaust temperature of say 36 oC rather than the ambient condition of
46oC. It is unlikely all of the car park’s supply air requirement can be met by the building
exhaust air and the costs involved in extended duct routes may make this an
uneconomical solution. A decision will be taken by the Lead Office Project Manager as to
the merits of this option within a particular project and Manila will be instructed
accordingly.
Where multiple supply and exhaust fans are necessary in the case of large car parks,
they shall each be fitted with back draught dampers to prevent recirculation under single
fan failure.

Where the fans are to be used for smoke extract, consideration shall be given to
providing a standby unit, for example 5No fans each rated at 25% of the total system
duty. This decision will be taken by the Lead Office Project Manager.

Refer to sketch schematic SKM141007PMC01 for an illustration of the above principals

applied to a typical sample multi-story car park.

5 Stair & Lift Pressurization Systems

Bahrain Civil Defence will accept a number of internationally recognised
standards for the design of stair and lift pressurisation systems. This report is
based on NFPA and ASHRAE guidelines, in particular NFPA 92A
‘Recommended Practice for Smoke Control Systems’, 2000 edition. Sample
calculations show that the resultant values exceed those of the equivalent
BS EN 12101-6:2005 ‘Smoke and Heat Control Systems’.

Smoke control systems, of which escape stair pressurisation is a part, are

designed to inhibit the spread of smoke into the means of egress by
maintaining a positive air pressure differential relative to the smoke zone.
They shall be coordinated with other life safety systems to provide a
complimentary solution.

The function of a smoke control system is five fold as described in NFPA

92A;
 To inhibit smoke from entering stairwells, means of escape, areas of
refuge, elevator shafts or similar areas.
 Maintain a tenable environment in areas of refuge and means of
egress during the time required for evacuation.
 Inhibit the migration of smoke from the smoke zone.
 Provide conditions outside of the fire zone that enable emergency
response personnel to conduct search and rescue operations and to
locate and control the fire.
 Contribute to the protection of life and to the reduction of property loss.
The stair pressurisation design must be approved by the ‘Authority Having
Jurisdiction’ (AHJ). This is the responsibility of the Lead Design Office.
6 Stair Well Pressurisation

6.1 Dedicated Means of Escape Stairs

The architect, or where appointed Fire Safety Consultant, will identify which
stairs are dedicated means of escape and/or intended for fire fighting
purposes. The Lead Design Office will advise Manila accordingly. This will be
a minimum of two, no more than 60m apart with dead end corridor links
limited to no more than 15m in length.

Stair well pressurisation is not required where the well height to the point of
egress is 23.0m or less. This dimension is to the roof of the stair well.

6.2 Dedicated or Non Dedicated Systems

The stair well pressurisation system will be a ‘dedicated’ system.

6.3 Stair Well Differential Design Pressure

It is assumed that the building being high rise will be fully sprinkler protected
in accordance with NFPA standards. Should the building not be sprinkler
protected the Lead Design Office will advise the stair well design pressure
based on NFPA 92A table 2.2.1.

The stair well will maintain a positive pressure of 12.5Pa under design
conditions relative to the smoke zone. Intermittent deviations of up to 50% of
the design pressure are considered acceptable in operation though this
should not be considered during the design stage. This minimum positive
pressure is well below the limits stipulated in NFPA 101 for maximum
allowable pressure differences across doors, nominally between 75Pa and
112.5Pa for a 800mm wide door. For other door widths refer to NFPA 92A
table 2.2.2.

6.4 System Design

The stair pressurisation system shall be a compensated system/s with
pressure and air volume flow controlled by variable speed drive fans. Various
methods of compensation control exist however the standard design shall
employ variable speed fans unless directed otherwise by the Lead Design
Office.

Supply air intakes should be separate from all building exhausts independent
of the fact that all none life safety systems should be shut down during fire
mode. Minimum separation distance shall be 10.0m, or 6.0m when located
on a different aspect of the building. Intakes should be below any openings
to the building to prevent possible entrainment of smoke to the stair well
supply air.
6.5 Stack Effect
The stair well should be physically compartmented notionally at every 30
stories, based on a typical 4.0m floor to floor level to limit stack effect. The
associated building and architectural implications will be undertaken by the
Lead Design Office. Refer to sketch DR92000RPT002-M-0001 for a typical
example of how this can be achieved.

It may be prudent due to repeat architectural floor plans to locate the

compartment floors at intermediate plantroom floor levels instead of adhering
rigorously to the 30 floor criteria.

The stair pressurisation shaft should also be compartmented at these levels.

This will mean that independent stair pressurisations systems will be
required in each instance. For example a 90 story tower will have 3 sub-
divisions of each stair well, each with its own independent stair
pressurisation system.

6.6 Supply Air Fans

6.6.1 Supply Air Fans Description and System Components

In-line axial or centrifugal supply fans shall be used, the selection of which
shall be determined to best suit the system requirements. For the normal
system pressures involved in-line axial fans will be most suitable.

There is no requirement for duty and standby fans. (subject to location)

There is no requirement for the fans to be fire rated.

The fans can be located at any level.

No air side attenuation is required to the fans however flexible duct

connections and fan mountings shall be provided to limit vibration and
potential damage and leakage to the duct system during periods of
fan/system testing.

The fans shall by supplied by an essential service electrical supply from the
generator back-up service or equivalent. Power and control cables shall be
fire rated to suit. All electrical installations shall meet the requirements of
NFPA 70.

6.6.2 Supply Air Fan Design Air Flow rate

The supply air fan design air flow rate comprises of three components.

1.1.1.11 Air Flow Through Open Doors

The number of doors open depends heavily on the occupancy density of the building
and the evacuation plan. Guidance on this issue should be sought from the fire
consultant by the Lead Design Office where applicable. (Add)

1.1.1.12 Airflow Through Closed Door Leakage

The air flow through a closed door is a function of the number of closed doors, the gap
around the doors and differential air pressure.

The number of closed doors is easily established, namely total number of doors – open
doors described in 2.6.2.1.

The gap around the doors is more difficult to determine accurately as it depends to a
degree on the construction and workmanship. In the absence of any direction from the
architect as to the specified quality of door to be provided, the following provision shall
be used as described in NFPA 92A, equation 9. An average air leakage of 4.5mm shall
be taken around the perimeter of the door. This appears high but includes for the
proportionately higher open area at the bottom of the door. For a single leaf 2.0m high x
0.8m wide door with the 12.5Pa pressure differential described in 2.3 above;

Air leakage through each single closed door;

Q (m3/s) = 0.839 x ‘A’ m2 x √12.5 {equation 1.0}

For this scenario: Q = 0.075m3/s or 75 litre/s

1.1.1.13 Air Flow Through Shaft Leakage

The shaft leakage is a function of construction and quality of workmanship of the

building. The following ‘average’ assessment of shaft leakage shall be used unless
otherwise advised. This assessment is based on NFPA 92A table 4.5 ‘Typical Leakage
Areas for Walls and Floors of Commercial Buildings’.

External building leakage area where applicable (m2) = (shaft wall + floor area) x 0.17 x
10-3 {equation 2.0}
Internal building leakage area (m2) = (shaft wall + floor area) x 0.11 x 10-3 {equation 3.0}

By calculating the leakage area for the stair well shaft by use of equations 2.0 or 3.0, or
a combination of both, the leakage area ‘A’ may be determined. This value shall be
substituted in equation 1.0 to determine the air leakage from this element of the shaft.

See ‘Appendix A’ for example calculation of supply air fan design air flow rate.
6.6.3 Supply Air Fan Design External Pressure Drop
The design supply air fan design external pressure drop shall be calculated in the
standard ASHRAE or CIBSE method using the design criteria described in 2.7 below.
The 12.5Pa stairwell static pressure shall be added to the ductwork system static
pressure loss. Each fan external static shall be ‘rounded up’ to the next 50Pa + 50Pa.

For example;
 Calculated system static pressure loss = 213Pa. Schedule fan static
pressure 250 + 50 = 300Pa.
 Calculated system static pressure loss = 294Pa. Schedule fan static
pressure 300 + 50 = 350Pa.

Each fan system pressure loss shall be calculated and copies of the calculation retained
on the calculation file.

6.7 Supply Air Ducts

Vertical supply air ducts shall generally be a buiderswork construction,
usually concrete, and forming a continuous uniform cross section shaft for
the height of the stair well. The shaft does not need to be of uniform cross
sectional area, however from the buildability aspect it is usually easier to
maintain this arrangement. As the shaft is open to the stair well the
construction of the shaft should be of the same fire compartment rating as
the stair well, usually two hours.

The shaft cross sectional area shall be based on an air flow velocity of
7.5m/s at the point of maximum air flow.

Supply grilles shall be located at three story intervals. There is no

requirement for these to be of steel fabrication. Grill sizes shall be based on
the air volume supplied and the pressure associated with the fan selection.
There is no requirement for any acoustical criteria when sizing the grilles but
the pressure drop should generally be kept below 50Pa.

There is no requirement for balancing dampers within the system or as part

of the grilles.

From a structural point of view it is usually preferable to have narrow tall

supply grilles.

Sand trap louvers selected at 1.0m/s gross face velocity shall be provided on
the system air intakes to limit the amount of sand entrained during periods of
testing. No other filtration or treatment of the incoming air shall be provided.

A motorised isolation damper shall be provided in the ‘normally closed’

position, between the intake louvre and the supply fan, to prevent sand
ingress during periods of system non use. The damper shall be interlinked
with the fan to prevent fan operation until the damper is in the open position.
 No other services shall be located within the stair pressurisation shaft.

In addition to the shaft compartmentation required to eliminate stack effect

described in 2.5, it is common to have a physical separation between above
ground and basement stair wells. This requirement will be determined by the
architect. The vertical stair pressurisation duct and fan configuration shall
complement this arrangement if implemented.

3.0 Fire Fighting Lift Pressurisation

4.0 Systems Controls

6.7.1 Air Handling Units and Fan Coil Units

District Cooling Applications (most common)

For district cooling applications, the chilled water entering and leaving
conditions shall be agreed with the relevant District Cooling Provider (DCP)
by the Design Manager.

Typically the conditions are as follows:

Entering Chilled Water Temperature (EWT) - 5.5 DegC

Leaving Chilled Water Temperature (LWT) - 14.5 DegC

Building Chiller Applications

Where chillers are located in the building, the chilled water entering and
leaving conditions shall be:.

Entering Chilled Water Temperature (EWT) - 6.0 DegC

Leaving Chilled Water Temperature (LWT) - 12.0 DegC

Cooling Coils

Coils shall be constructed of copper tubes mechanically bonded to

aluminium fins, ARI rated and suitable for a working pressure of 1725 kPa @
92 DegC and a test pressure of 2068 kPa.

Coil velocities should not exceed 2.5 m/s

Coil Depth –minimum of 3 rows.

Anti- corrosion coatings – specify such coatings in a corrosive environment

i.e typical close to the sea. Allow for a lower performance in such
applications. Check coil selections and derating factors with the FCU
manufacturers.

Drain Pans –specify a minimum depth of 25mm clear. It shall be fully

insulated with non-flammable and closed cell insulation (density). The drain
pan shall extend beyond the coil to serve the chilled water connections.
Provide a 20mm male connection.
6.7.2 Automatic Controls

6.7.3 Air Handling Units & Heat Recovery

6.7.4 Fan Coil Units

All Fan coil units shall be pre-wired to provide 3 speed fan control (Low,
Medium and High).

Fan coil units shall always be selected at the medium speed for design
purposes.

Coil face velocities shall not exceed 3.00 m/s. For design purposes use
velocities of not more than 2.5 m/s.

Fan shall be direct driven, forward curved centrifugal type with double width
and double inlet.

The motor shall be a TEFC type with IP54(???? Not needed IP20 is standard
offer ), Class F and thermally protected. The thermal overload protection
shall be UL listed.

6.7.5 Toilet & Kitchen Exhaust System

6.7.6 Restaurant Kitchen Ventilation/Exhaust System

6.7.7 Car Park Ventilation

6.7.8 Smoke Extraction & Staircase Pressurization Systems

6.7.9 Automatic Controls

Appendix 1.1: Pipe work System Schedule

Size Chilled Water

(mm)
Velocity (m/s) Pressure Loss ( Pa/m)
15Φ 250-400
20Φ 250-400
25Φ 250-400
32Φ 250-400
40Φ 250-400
50Φ 250-400
65Φ 250-400
80Φ 250-400
100Φ 250-400
125Φ 250-400
150Φ 250-400
200Φ 250-400
250Φ 3.00 N/A
300Φ 3.00 N/A
350Φ 3.00 N/A
400Φ 3.00 N/A
450Φ 3.00 N/A
500Φ 3.00 N/A
550Φ 3.00 N/A
600Φ 3.00 N/A
700Φ 3.00 N/A
800Φ 3.00 N/A
900Φ 3.00 N/A
1000Φ 3.00 N/A
1100Φ 3.00 N/A
Appendix 1.2: Weather Data for Bahrain