Hope Slide
Hope Slide
Hope Slide
newly detached segments of the bedrock sliding on bedding, joint, or fault surfaces or any
other plane of separation” (Sharpe, 1960, pp 76). On January 9th 1965, in the early hours
of the morning, Canada’s largest rockslide (landslide) occurred (Clague, 2005). The slide
east of the city of Hope, on the northern side along highway 3 (see figure 1) in southern
British Columbia.
Figure 1 (Brideau et al, 2005)
There is much debate as to what triggered the slide, with most academics insisting
on tectonic activity, while dissenters insisting on something else. What is certain is that
the slide killed 4 people as 3 cars were buried (Couture and Evans, 2000), the highway
required re-routing, and the eyes of Canadians were opened to the possible dangers of
driving alongside and in between mountains. No amount of planning will be able predict
all possible slide hazards in such a mountainous region and timing contributed to this
hazard becoming an disaster; if the slide occurred earlier in the day, it is possible that no
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one would have been injured; if it would have happened later, more people could have
The Hope slide is the largest recorded rockslide to have ever occurred in Canada.
The south-western slope of Johnson Peak collapsed (figure 2) resulting in the spread of
“…47 million cubic metres of debris, 85 metres thick, over a 3 kilometre stretch of the
hours and resulted in four deaths” (GSB, 1993, pp 1). Clague estimated a shallower
depth of debris, measured to be 79m in his study (2005), either way, it can be agreed
upon that 79-85m of debris is a massive amount. After running down the slope and
spreading laterally, the slide crossed over the road “…ploughed through a lake formed by
debris of a previous landslide...Up valley, the splashed material formed a thin extensive
sheet. Down valley it was channeled into a stream forming a distinct mud flow for
several kilometers” (CGS, 1984, pp 5). Brideau et al. made some general observations
Block shape and size were observed to vary as a function of distance from tectonic
structures. The central portion of the Hope Slide (away from the tectonic structures) was
composed dominantly of large blocks (1–3 joints/m3) with tabular shape….The shape of
the 1965 failure event is generally shown as fanning outward at the toe; this morphology is
typically associated with rock slides and rock and debris avalanches…The thickest slide
deposits are also found at the northern portion of the debris pile. Evidence suggests that the
main mass of failed material traveled in a westerly direction as opposed to a southwest
direction… The distribution of discontinuity sets suggests that the presence of rock-mass
damage related to tectonic activity may have been significant in facilitating release surfaces
for the rock-slope failures at the Hope Slide (Brideau et al, 2005, pp245).
From this study we can see that the slide spread laterally as it moved downhill (as
expected with rock avalanches) with large blocks in the central portion of the slide, while
smaller, more damaged blocks on the outer-edges related to tectonic activity. Whether or
not this tectonic activity occurred on the day of the slide is a point of contention.
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Figure 2 (Brideau et al, 2005)
There are many possible triggers that cause landslides. Seismic and tectonic
activity and ground saturation by water are the two most common. The trigger for the
Hope slide and the reasons for its massive volumetric size are topics of much
controversy. Kent suggested that the slide was fluidized by an upward escape of air after
the slide started, but all other reports, and the evidence from the slide does not support
Most research indicates that the main triggers for the slide were two earthquakes
that occurred earlier on the 9th of January (Evans and Wetmiller, 1989, Evans et al 1989).
There is research, however, that concludes that there were no earthquakes and the seismic
activity recorded was that of the slide itself: “Seismograms associated with the 1965
Hope slide in British Columbia were re-examined, and it is concluded that these
seismograms were the signatures of two rock-slides, and not of hypothetical tectonic
earthquake triggers as previously suggested” (Evans et al., 1995, pp 208). Couture and
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no seismic or hydrometeorological trigger is discernible for the 1965 events. It is suggested
that progressive long-term deformation of the slopes of the southwest flanks of Johnson
Peak caused the stability of the slope to deteriorate to a point where the 1965 events
occurred. Thus we conclude that the Hope Slide was a catastrophic termination of very long
term non-episodic mountain slope deformation. (Couture and Evans, 2002, pp 1)
It is interesting to note that Evans has reports published arguing both sides of the
earthquake debate. Another dissenter from the status quo: Clague found that “Failure
occurred, without an obvious triggering event, along felsite sheets and joint planes within
metavolcanic rocks of the Hozameen Group” (Clague, 2005, pp1). Strong evidence for a
seismic trigger comes from Havenith et al. who “reveal a morphological dependency of
the seismic slope failure occurrence. They show that seismically triggered slope failures
tend to occur in the upper parts of slopes and close to ridge-crests” (Havenith et al, 2003,
pp 250). As the slide started near the ridgeline on Johnson Peak this information seems
very prevalent. Most evidence leads to the conclusion that earthquakes were the main
trigger, and this paper concludes the same. There were, however, numerous secondary
In the study by Brideau et al. it is proposed that the cold temperature could have
raised the pore-water pressure due to closure of normal seepage points by the formation
of an impermeable frozen zone at the ground surface (Brideau et al., 2005). Hydrothermal
heating of the rock is also considered to have weakened the rock by up to half its original
strength (Ibid). Pore water pressure is also recognized by Evans et al. as a secondary
trigger as they found seepage on the rupture surface which would suggest water pressure
may have existed prior to the slide (Evans et al., 1989). In addition to pore water
pressure, Evans et al. note that weakness planes exist near or at the margins of felsite
sheets, also that the landslide occurred over part of a scar created by a prehistoric rock
avalanche of similar size (Ibid). Evans and Wetmiller conclude that the final trigger to the
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landslide was the earthquake, but the major contributing factor was the incipient
instability of the slide mass due to previous earthquakes (Evans and Wetmiller, 1989).
Couture and Evans conclude that the event was the culmination of years of deformation
(2002). Here the dominant factors contributing to the landslide are years removed from
the actual event. The areas’ seismic history must be considered when looking for
triggers.
It can be seen that there is much debate as to the triggers of the event, but the two
earthquakes (3:56am magnitude 3.2, and 6:58am, magnitude 3.1, Evans and Wetmiller,
1989) will be considered here as the primary trigger. Pore-pressure from frozen and
swelled pores, weakened rock due to hydrothermal heating, and slope instability due to
location (on prehistoric slide scar) and weathering will all be considered as secondary
factors. There is no indication that the construction of the road negatively impacted the
slope.
Social Impacts
Recognition that Canadian roads and motorists are not impervious to the effects of
a landslide was created after the Hope slide. Highway 3 was re-routed further away from
the base of Johnson Peak when it was rebuilt. And, with increased research, better road
and slide diversion and prevention techniques were researched. The death toll for the
slide was 4 people buried in 3 cars; the families of the victims must have been devastated
and those driving on the highway at the time that just missed the slide may have taken a
new outlook on life. When the highway was re-routed, a pull-off from the highway was
created taking people to the location of the buried vehicles. Here a memorial was set up
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A common unreported social impact is the prolonged physical and psychological
pain that victims (and their families) and those close to the disaster face (Crozier, 1986).
The victims of the slide may have been on their way to make a change in the world or
simply the area in which they resided. The loss of the victims are not measurable, they
merely become statistics, used for directing research in preventing such hazards from
Economic Impacts
The emergency response and re-routing of the highway are the two direct
economic impacts associated with the Hope slide. Indirect costs related to the Hope slide
are the Clean-up efforts at the site of the Hope slide and down valley, the life insurance
pay-outs to the victims families (if applicable), and the income generating potential of the
victims. Companies may miss the expertise that the victims may have afforded them, and
may suffer for some time due to the loss. The creation of the highway pull-off also cost
Environmental Impacts
Direct environmental impacts linked to the Hope slide are as follows: vegetation
and animals on the slope and in the path of the landslide were obliterated; the lake at the
base of the slide was consumed by the debris, and the ensuing down valley mudslide
destroyed much vegetation; large amounts of fine sediments were transported down-
valley in streams; the mountain on the other side of the valley also had vegetation
environmental impact is that the road had to be re-routed around the debris which led to
further environmental degradation. A long term impact of the slide is that the lake that
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was consumed was habitat for countless animals. They were either destroyed in the slide
or had to find a new home (or perish in the effort). The slope has still not been re-
vegetated as the soil that had been present before the slide was mainly removed. New
soil has not been deposited, nor has it developed, thus vegetation re-growth is at a
minimum.
recognizes that areas of B.C. are very susceptible to landslides. They have created a
[B.C.’s] steep, mountainous terrain, its complex geology, its high precipitation, both as rain
and snow, its abundance of unconsolidated glacial sediments, and its geographic position
astride the earthquake zone that surrounds the Pacific Ocean, all combine to make our
province particularly susceptible to landslide activity. In fact, in British Columbia the loss
of life and damage to property caused by landslides is greater than losses caused by other
natural hazards such as earthquakes and flooding… As our cities, towns, roads and
highways steadily encroach onto steeper slopes and mountainsides, landslide hazards
become an increasingly serious threat to life and property (GSB, 1993, pp 1).
The government recognizes that development increases the risk of disastrous landslides,
yet continues to push forward with building and road construction. After the Hope slide
event, a large amount of research was done on the site to determine what caused the event
(primarily earthquakes), whether it was an isolated event (no) and where else was
The location of the Hope Slide was not due to the presence of any single abnormal tectonic
feature, but to a concentration of the regional tectonic features that reduced the rock-mass
quality by increasing jointing intensity and controlling the attitude of discontinuities and
hydrothermal alteration (Brideau et al., 2005, pp 257).
Obviously, much of the area around the Hope slide could fail at any point, depending on
a sufficient trigger.
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Since the Hope slide, progress has been made in determining the triggers that will
cause a slope to fail. Geological mapping technology has increased, which has led to
better detection of possible slope hazards and better estimations of the likelihood of
landslide occurrence. Using this technology, project planners and developers can better
others have been developed to assist in avoiding landslides when original development
had not considered them. Warning systems linked to seismographs and slope stability
monitors have also been developed. These systems allow for warning to be given to
those in the possible path of a landslide. If these systems had been better developed prior
to 1965, it is possible that the disaster could have been avoided. Finally, educating the
public about the disaster potential involving landslides is an important step in reducing
avalanche following an earthquake. If the drivers knew about the earthquake, and knew
of the risks, they may have turned back instead of waiting for snow removal crews.
Instead they remained stationary and when the second earthquake initiated the rockslide,
Conclusions
The Hope slide of 1965 was Canada’s largest recorded slide in terms of volume of
material involved. The origin of the slide was clear but perceived to be a low risk. The
slide occurred quickly with no warning; this resulted in the involuntary deaths of 4
motorists (3 cars) caught on the road as the slide occurred. Though emergency vehicles
were on site within minutes (Evans and Wetmiller, 1989) there was little that could be
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done for the victims who were buried under 79-85 meters of debris. The dominant
attitude towards nature of those who constructed the road did not consider all the
associated dangers, or they concluded the dangers to be manageable. The timing of the
slide made it a disaster as people happened to be on the road directly in the path of the
slide as it happened. Proper monitoring of danger areas is required, and warning systems
must be improved so roads that are at risk of landslides may be quickly closed and the
population may be warned of the potential hazard. If the dominant attitude remains, it
must at least incorporate the quick warning systems that are currently being developed.
Economic and social impacts were relatively low as the slide occurred in an uninhabited
region, and few people became victims. Environmental impacts, however, where of
much higher magnitude as an entire slope with all its flora and fauna was decimated and a
lake was fully consumed. The area has not yet, nor will it ever return to its state before
the slide, but this is just natural succession. The process of orogeny and denudation will
continue long after humans are gone, while we are here, however, we must take care to
avoid areas of potential hazard, or in the least take caution while developing in such
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References
1. Brideau et al. Influence of tectonic structures on the Hope Slide, British Columbia,
Canada. Engineering Geology, Vol. 80, pp 242– 259, 2005.
5. Couture, R. and Evans, S.G. THE 1965 HOPE SLIDE, BRITISH COLUMBIA;
CATASTROPHIC FAILURE OF A SAGGING ROCK SLOPE. Geological Society of
America 2002 Denver Annual Meeting, Paper No. 16-6, 2002
7. Evans S.G. and Wetmiller R.J. Analysis of the earthquakes associated with the 1965
Hope Landslide and their effects on slope stability at the site. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol. 26, pp 484-490, 1989.
8. Evans S.G. et al. Joint Patterns at the Headscarp of the 1965 Hope Slide. Geological
Survey of Canada, 1989.
9. Evans, S.G et al. Seismic signatures of landslides: the 1990 Brenda Mine collapse and
the 1965 Hope rockslides. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science
& Geomechanics Abstracts, Vol. 32, no. 5, Page 208, 1995.
10. Geological Survey Branch (GSB). Landslides in B.C. Ministry of Energy and Mines,
1993.
11. Havenith, H.B. et al. Seismic triggering of landslides. Part B: Simulation of dynamic
failure processes. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences Vol. 3, pp 663–682, 2003.
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