polymers

Article
Use of Extended Cover Factor Theory in UV Protection of
Woven Fabric
Klara Kostajnšek * and Krste Dimitrovski

Department of Textiles, Graphics Art and Design, Faculty for Natural Sciences and Engineering,
University of Ljubljana, Snežniška 5, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; krste.dimitrovski@gmail.com
* Correspondence: klara.kostajnsek@ntf.uni-lj.si; Tel.: +386-1-200-32-14

Abstract: The paper presents an extension of existed cover factor theory more suitable for the
evaluation of light penetration through a net woven fabrics structure. It also introduces a new
simplified model of predicting the ultraviolet (UV) protective properties of woven fabrics assuming
that the coefficient of reflection (KR ), transmission (KT ), and absorption (KA ) of constitutive yarns
are known. Since usually they are not, the procedure of preparation of simulation of proper woven
fabric samples without interlacing and with known constructional parameters is also presented. The
procedure finishes with a fast and cheap detection of missed coefficient for any type of yarns. There
are differences between theoretical and measured results, which are not particularly significant in
regard to the purpose and demands of investigation.

Keywords: cover factor; simplified model of UV penetration; woven fabrics simulation; coefficient
KR ; KT and KA determination







Citation: Kostajnšek, K.; Dimitrovski, 1. Introduction

K. Use of Extended Cover Factor In recent decades, protection against harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation has become
Theory in UV Protection of Woven increasingly important, mainly due to the depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere,
Fabric. Polymers 2021, 13, 1188.
but also due to exposure to artificial sources. Preventive measures to protect the skin and
https://doi.org/10.3390/
eyes are now common knowledge. These include limiting exposure to the sun daily, using
polym13081188
sunscreens and sunglasses, and wearing protective clothing and headgear at the same
time. Of all these measures, the use of mechanical means of protection, which physically
Academic Editor: Hui-Hsin Tseng
prevent the negative effects of UV rays, helps to protect the skin most effectively. Most
of the protection of the skin from ultraviolet radiation is represented by clothing made of
Received: 28 February 2021
Accepted: 2 April 2021
woven or knitted fabrics of suitable construction. The purpose of clothing is to protect us
Published: 7 April 2021
from external atmospheric and climatic factors while providing comfort [1]. The advantage
of clothing products compared to chemo pharmaceuticals is that textiles do not need
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
to be applied directly to and/or on the skin, avoiding the occurrence of many allergies
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
and other chemical reactions with the skin [2] and preventing a negative impact on the
published maps and institutional affil- environment [3]. At the same time, the advantage is that we can easily separate the covered
iations. protected body surface from the unprotected during application.
The protection of textile products and their quality is determined by many parameters,
such as type of fibers and raw material composition [2,4–6]. Better protection is gener-
ally provided by synthetic fibers (e.g., polyester (PET)), due to their molecular structure,
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
while natural ones (e.g., cotton (CO)), except for wool, offer poorer protection [2,7]. The
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
second important parameter is material construction [8–10], where the high cover factor
This article is an open access article
or closeness of the fabric structure, depending on the type of weave and the diameter of
distributed under the terms and the yarn, prevents the passage of UV rays through the textile. A sufficient level of wearing
conditions of the Creative Commons comfort must be considered [4,11]. In addition, an important factor is the color of fibers,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// dyeing, and printing material [4,12–14], where darker colored materials offer significantly
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ better protection [8,13]. However, it is true that dark (e.g., black) colored textiles absorb UV
4.0/). radiation strongly, which they then convert into heat, making us warmer in such clothing.

Polymers 2021, 13, 1188. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13081188 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers

Polymers 2021, 13, 1188 2 of 13

Water content, water vapor, sweat, the presence of various additives [7,13,15,16] (absorbers,
repellents), etc. and changes that occur during wear [2,17], all this affects the changes in
the protection of textiles from UV radiation.
Many studies [1,4,11,12,18–21] have shown that the aforementioned textile parameters
have different effects on the protective properties of textiles, with some parameters having
a greater influence on protection and others having less. For the development of a method
to predict the protection against UV rays at the stage of the design and construction of
fabrics (before production), it is necessary to know all the parameters that affect the UV
protection of the fabric. Roughly speaking, adequate protection against UV radiation
is most easily and quickly achieved by an appropriate textile construction, which must
therefore have a sufficient cover factor, and/or using protective agents that allow a high
reflection (R) or absorption (A) of UV radiation.
The aim of the research was to develop a fast, universal, and efficient method for
predicting the UV protective properties of fabrics at the planning and design stage. The
method is based on the determination of the parameters of UV radiation transition (trans-
mission, reflection, and absorption) through textiles, more precisely through thread/yarn
systems. For this purpose, it was necessary to extend the existing cover factor theory by
considering that the transition through parts of the surface covered by one and two yarns
is different. The method is based on the extended cover factor theory and the basic prepara-
tion of fabric samples or threads systems with previously known construction parameters
of samples.
The specific problem and main result of this work is the determination of the KR ,
KT , and KA for different row materials and types of yarns. That allows us to establish
a simplified mathematical model for predicting the UV protective properties of woven
fabrics based on the set of special fabrics with the possibility of predicting parameters of
protection from UV radiation in advance. In this case, we have introduced the method of
preparing the simulation of fabrics of any yarns and in this way simple, quick, and cheap
determination of KR , KT , and KA .
The theoretical calculations give us the relations between almost all parameters of UV
penetration through fabrics, but in practice, we do not get unified results from all invented
relations. They are all very close to each other, but we want to find the best procedure to
obtain the results in the simplest and most accurate way, also in regard to the number of
samples and the time for their preparation.

2. Theoretical Part
2.1. Extended Woven Fabric Cover Factor Theory
Cover factor (i.e., the degree of fabric fullness (Cf)) is a proportion of the fabric area
covered by warp and weft yarns. Classical woven fabric cover factor theory is defined as
the ratio between the projected area of the two elementary yarn systems in the fabric area
unit [22,23]. It means that in practice, cover factor is calculated independently for warp and
weft yarn by the proportion of fabric area covered by those yarn [22]. Theoretically, it can
be calculated from the known yarn density and the theoretical yarn diameter. Due to the
insufficient description of the yarn-covered area by the classical existing cover factor theory,
the need for an extension of the cover factor theory became apparent. This considers
the penetration of UV radiation and/or light through the mesh structure of the fabric
as equivalent, although the surface/area coverage of biaxial fabrics (single-layer woven
fabrics) with one system of warp and weft yarns consists of surface units covered by
only one yarn (warp or weft) and the corresponding number of surface units covered by
two yarns (warp and weft) simultaneously (Figure 1) [24].
 Polymers2021,
Polymers 2021,13,
13,1188
x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of
of 13
13

Figure1.1.Scheme
Figure Schemeof
ofwoven
wovenfabric
fabricininplane
planeweave,
weave,where
wherethere
thereare
areshown
shownareas
areaswithout
without yarns
yarns (open
(open area (OA) = ∑ OA ), units/areas of fabric surface covered by only one (Cf1 = ∑ Cf ) and two
area (OA) = ∑ OAi ), units/areas of fabric surface covered by only one (Cf1 = ∑ Cfi1 ) and two yarn
yarn (Cf2 = ∑ Cf ) where i is the number of individual areas in a unit area of fabric.
(Cf2 = ∑ Cfi2 ) where i is the number of individual areas in a unit area of fabric.
Generally, the
Generally, thetheory
theoryofofwoven
wovenfabrics
fabricsconstruction
construction isis defining
defining aacover
coverfactor
factoras
asaa
fraction of
fraction ofsurface
surface covered
covered by
byyarns
yarnswhich
whichisisequal
equaltotoquotient
quotientof ofarea
areacovered
coveredbybyyarns
yarns
and total area of web [22] expressed by Equation (1). That way, it takes the values from 0 to0
and total area of web [22] expressed by Equation (1). That way, it takes the values from
1,toand
1, and
if itifisitmultiplied
is multiplied by 100,
by 100, it isitexpressed
is expressed in %.
in %.
Cf = area covered by yarns⁄total area of web (1)
Cf = area covered by yarns/total area of web (1)
Calculation of the cover factor consists of the calculation of warp and weft cover fac-
Calculation
tor as Cfwa = Dwaof× the
dwacover
and Cf factor consists
we = D we × dweofwhere
the calculation
Dwa and Dofwewarp and weft of
are densities cover
warpfactor
and
as Cfwa
weft =D
and dwa × dwa
wa and dweand
are Cf = Dwe ×of
thewediameter dwe where
warp andDweft
wa and Dwe are densities of warp and
yarns.
weft and
The dcover
wa and dwe of
factor areathe diameter fabric
single-layer of warp and weft yarns.
is expressed by the cover factor of warp and
weftThe cover
yarns. factor of a Equation
It transforms single-layer(1)fabric
to the is expressed
form by the(2):
of Equation cover factor of warp and
weft yarns. It transforms Equation (1) to the form of Equation (2):
Cf = Cf + Cf − Cf × Cf . (2)
Cf = Cfwa +
For the purpose of investigation, we −
weCfhad wa × Cfand
toCfmodify we . expend woven fabric cover(2)
factor theory to the next form. The fabric cover factor is the sum of areas covered by one
For the purpose of investigation, we had to modify and expend woven fabric cover
yarn—Cf1 and two yarns—Cf2 expressed with Equation (3):
factor theory to the next form. The fabric cover factor is the sum of areas covered by one
yarn—Cf1 and two yarns—Cf2 expressed = CfEquation
Cf with + Cf (3): (3)
The portion of fabric covered by
Cftwo
= yarns
Cf1 + is
Cfcalculated
2
as shown in Equation (4):(3)
Cf = Cf × Cf (4)
The portion of fabric covered by two yarns is calculated as shown in Equation (4):
The portion of yarns covered by one yarn as shown in Equation (5):
Cf2 = Cfwa × Cfwe (4)
Cf = Cf − Cf (5)
The portion of yarns covered by one yarn as shown in Equation (5):
This extended cover factor theory allows for a completely new theoretical approach
to the treatment of the individual portions Cf1 = of Cf the cover factor in the fabric structure for
− Cf (5)a
2
certain group of fabrics—e.g., square fabrics or fabrics made of equal warp and weft
yarns/threads
This extendedand cover
densities,
factorwhich
theoryare usedfor
allows inapractice
completely for new
fine theoretical
filtration orapproach
printing
screens.
to For that,ofEquation
the treatment (2) transforms
the individual portionsinofEquation
the cover (6):factor in the fabric structure for
a certain group of fabrics—e.g., square Cf = 2 fabrics
× Cf , or − fabrics
Cf , made of equal warp and weft (6)
yarns/threads and densities, which are used in practice for fine filtration or printing screens.
To explain
For that, Equation it (2)
graphically,
transformswe in chose fabrics
Equation (6): with an ideal theoretical diameter up to
(200 µm) and different densities of warp and weft (10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 yarns/cm).
2
Their theoretically calculatedCfvalues = 2 ×ofCfthe − Cffactors—warp
cover
wa,we wa,we and weft cover factor(6)
(Cfwa,we), fabric cover factor (Cf), and cover factor, which refers to the proportion of the
areaTo explain
of the it covered
fabric graphically, we chose
by only one (Cffabrics with an ideal theoretical diameter up to
1) and two (Cf2) yarns and the open area (OA) of
(200 µm) and different densities of warp
fabric—are given in Table 1, and the graph of theand weft (10,curves
15, 20,as25,a30, 35, andof40the
function yarns/cm).
different
Their
densitytheoretically
is shown incalculated
Figure 2. values of the cover factors—warp and weft cover factor
Polymers 2021, 13, 1188 4 of 13

(Cfwa ,we ), fabric cover factor (Cf), and cover factor, which refers to the proportion of the
area of the fabric covered by only one (Cf1 ) and two (Cf2 ) yarns and the open area4(OA)
Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 13
of fabric—are given in Table 1, and the graph of the curves as a function of the different
density is shown in Figure 2.
Table 1. Calculated Cfwa,we, Cf, Cf1, Cf2, and open area (OA) depending on the given ideal yarn
Table 1. Calculated Cfwa,we, Cf, Cf1 , Cf2 , and open area (OA) depending on the given ideal yarn
diameter (d) and different densities of warp and weft (D).
diameter (d) and different densities of warp and weft (D).
d [µm] D [yarns/cm] Cfwa,we Cf Cf1 Cf2 OA
d [µm] D [yarns/cm] Cfwa,we Cf Cf1 Cf2 OA
10 0.20 0.36 0.32 0.04 0.64
10 0.20 0.36 0.32 0.04 0.64
15 0.30 0.51 0.42 0.09 0.49
15 0.30 0.51 0.42 0.09 0.49
20
20 0.40
0.40 0.64
0.64 0.48
0.48 0.16
0.16 0.30
0.30
200
200 25
25 0.50
0.50 0.75
0.75 0.50
0.50 0.25
0.25 0.25
0.25
30
30 0.60
0.60 0.84
0.84 0.48
0.48 0.30
0.30 0.16
35
35 0.70
0.70 0.91
0.91 0.42
0.42 0.49
0.49 0.09
0.09
40 0.80 0.96 0.32 0.64 0.25
40 0.80 0.96 0.32 0.64 0.25

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Cf
Cfwa,we
wa,we, ,Cf,
Cf,Cf
Cf1,1 ,Cf
Cf2 2and
andOA,
OA,depending
dependingon onDD with
with aa linear
linear line of Cf
line of Cfwa,we
wa,we and
andother
othercurves
curves
(second-order polynomial
(second-order polynomial functions)
functions) and
and the
the corresponding
correspondingcoefficient
coefficientofofdetermination.
determination.

The values shown

shown in Table
Table 11 belong
belong toto the
the real
real data
data oror yarn
yarn parameters
parameters andand densities
densities
from
from which
which real
real fabrics
fabrics can
can be
be made
made in in almost
almost any
any weave.
weave. ToTo produce
produce fabrics,
fabrics, itit is
is possible
possible
to use lower densities,
densities, but
but their
their usability
usability would
would be be questionable,
questionable, or or higher
higher densities
densities than than
those listed, but in this case, it would be difficult, if even not impossible, to produce them,
since in the
thecase
caseofofplain
plainweave
weave at at densities
densities of 25,
of 25, 30, and
30, and 35 yarns/cm,
35 yarns/cm, there there
may be may be
heavy
heavy force to the weft beat-up and excessive yarn deformation. Therefore,
force to the weft beat-up and excessive yarn deformation. Therefore, in Figure 2, the val- in Figure 2,
the values of the curves shown were interpolated (dotted part of the curves)
ues of the curves shown were interpolated (dotted part of the curves) (for a density equal (for a density
equal to 0 yarns/cm
to 0 yarns/cm to obtainto the
obtain thezero,
value value zero,
and forand for a density
a density of additional
of additional 20 yarns/cm,
20 yarns/cm, to show
to
theshow the prediction
prediction of higherof higher densities
densities andfactors
and all cover all coverandfactors and open
open area). area).
Figure 2 shows Figurethat2
shows
only thethat only
cover the cover
factor of thefactor
Cfwa,weofasthe Cfwa,we as a function/dependent
a function/dependent of density
of density is a linear is a
line, and
linear line,curves
all other and allare other curves are second-degree
second-degree polynomials. polynomials.
The straight line The straight line
intersects theintersects
second-
the second-degree parabolas for the Cf and Cf at a single point
degree parabolas for the Cf and Cf2 at a single point corresponding to the maximum
2 corresponding toden-
the
maximum density of ideal yarns with a diameter of 200 µm, i.e., 50 yarns/cm.
sity of ideal yarns with a diameter of 200 µm, i.e., 50 yarns/cm. At this point, the parabola At this
point,
of the the
curveparabola of the
coefficient Cf curve
reachescoefficient
the maximum Cf reaches
value the
andmaximum value and
allows calculating theallows
maxi-
calculating the maximum density
mum density also from the first derivative also fromof the
an first
equationderivative
of the of
Cf an
curve equation
written of
in the Cf
Figure
curve written in −;0.0004x 2 −1× − 14
2 (y = −0.0004x 2 + Figure
0.04x −21 (y = −14
× 10 + 0.04x
x = 50). The opposite is 10
true for; xthe
= 50).
OA The
curve opposite
as a func- is
true for the OA curve as a function/dependent on the yarn density.
tion/dependent on the yarn density. Curve—the cover factor related to the Cf2 as a func- Curve—the cover
tion/dependent on density, parabolically increasing. Curve—cover factor related to the
Cf1, as a function/dependent on density, theoretically decreasing with increasing density
up to the point where Cf2 equals 1—at this point Cf1 = 0. From the equation curve—cover
factor related to the Cf1, as a function/dependent on density shown in Figure 2, at the value
Polymers 2021, 13, 1188 5 of 13

factor related to the Cf2 as a function/dependent on density, parabolically increasing.

Curve—cover factor related to the Cf1 , as a function/dependent on density, theoretically
decreasing with increasing density up to the point where Cf2 equals 1—at this point Cf1 = 0.
From the equation curve—cover factor related to the Cf1 , as a function/dependent on
density shown in Figure 2, at the value Cf1 = y = 0, we calculate the ideal maximum den-
sity (y = −0.0008x2 + 0.04x − 6 × 10−15 ; x = 50 yarns/cm) or half of the maximum density,
by considering the first derivative of the mentioned curve equation (where we obtain
x = 25 yarns/cm).

2.2. Introduction of Simplified Mathematical Model for Predicting UV Properties of Woven Fabrics
In a previous work [11,24], we evaluated a penetration of UV rays through single
layer monofilament PET fabrics trying to find out how much is reflected, absorbed, and
transmitted by one yarn and how much from the two yarns in the fabric structure. We
calculated quotient as shown in Equations (7)–(9) for every sample.

KTm = (T − OA)/Cf (7)

KRm = R/Cf (8)

KAm = A/Cf (9)
where KTm , KRm , and KAm are the coefficient of transmission, reflection, and absorption
of material (yarns from which fabrics is made); T and R are the measured values of
transmission (T) and reflection (R) and calculated absorption (A) as a difference from 100;
Cf is the cover factor of woven fabric.
The physical meaning of quotient is how much the fabric/material with a certain
structure will reflect, absorb, and transmit UV rays in case there is no open area in the
sample or when Cf is equal to 1. In such a supposed case, the quotients should be equal
to measured values. In the simplified mathematical model for predicting UV properties
of woven fabrics, we took the values for K1R , K1T , and K1A as constant for some material
and assume that the transmission of the fabric area covered with two yarns (K2T ) is
approximately equal to the power function of the coefficient of the UV transmission of the
fabric area covered with one yarn (K1T 2 ), and that the coefficient of the UV absorption of
the fabric area covered with two yarns (K2A ) is approximately equal to the square root of
√
the coefficient of the UV absorption of the fabric area covered with one yarn ( K1A ).
The reflection coefficient from covering with one and two yarns remains the same
K1R = K2R = KR . There is no absolute/internal trough; all values are approximately as
explained, and therefore, we call the model simplified. However, we hope that the real
values are so close to real that the mistake in the prediction is not more than a few percent,
which is good enough for the purpose of predicting the UV properties. To confirm this, we
will use a kind of simulation as we previously did regarding cover factor. We will suppose
that the cover factor elements will stay the same as in Table 1 and Figure 2 and take the
next values for K1R = 0.2; K1T = 0.3; and K1A = 0.5. The results of simulation are shown in
Table 2 and Figure 3 according to Equations (10)–(17):

T1me = 1 − Cfwa,we + Cfwa,we × K1T (10)

T2me = OA + Cf1 × K1T + Cf2 × K21T (11)

T1m = Cfwa,we × K1T (12)
T2m = Cf1 × K1T + Cf2 × K21T (13)
A1 = Cfwa,we × K1A (14)
√
A2 = Cf1 × K1A + Cf2 × K1A (15)
R1 = Cfwa,we × KR (16)
Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13
Polymers 2021, 13, 1188 6 of 13

R R= Cf Cf
2 = × K× KR (17) (17)

Table 2. Transmission
Table (Tme—measured,
2. Transmission Tm—material),
(Tme —measured, absorption
Tm —material), and reflection
absorption values
and reflection for simulated
values single-
for simulated and double-
single- and double-
layerlayer
samples calculated
samples by the
calculated bysimplified model
the simplified for the
model forprediction of woven
the prediction fabrics
of woven UV properties.
fabrics UV properties.

Dwa,weD[yarns/cm]
wa,we [yarns/cm]
T1me T1me T2me T2me T1m T1mT2m T2m A1 A1 A2 A2 R1 R1 R2 R2
20 20 0.72 0.72 0.5184 0.51840.12 0.1584
0.12 0.15840.2 0.2 0.3531 0.3531 0.08 0.08 0.1280.128
25 25 0.65 0.65 0.4225 0.42250.15 0.1725
0.15 0.17250.25 0.25 0.4268 0.4268 0.1 0.1 0.15 0.15
30 30 0.58 0.58 0.3364 0.33640.18 0.1764
0.18 0.17640.3 0.3 0.4946 0.4946 0.12 0.12 0.1680.168
35 35 0.51 0.51 0.2601 0.26010.21 0.21
0.1701 0.17010.35 0.35 0.5565 0.5565 0.14 0.14 0.1820.182
40 0.44 0.1936 0.24 0.1536 0.4 0.6126 0.16 0.192
40 0.44 0.1936 0.24 0.1536 0.4 0.6126 0.16 0.192
45 0.37 0.1369 0.27 0.1269 0.45 0.6628 0.18 0.198
45 50 0.37 0.30 0.1369 0.09 0.27 0.1269
0.30 0.09 0.45 0.50 0.6628 0.7071 0.18 0.20 0.1980.200
50 0.30 0.09 0.30 0.09 0.50 0.7071 0.20 0.200

Figure 3. Curves
Figure of reflection
3. Curves fromfrom
of reflection one-layer (R1), (R
one-layer double-layer (R2) samples,
1 ), double-layer T1m, TT1me
(R2 ) samples, 1m,,and
T1meOA of OA of
, and
double-layer samples.
double-layer samples.

FromFromTable 2, it 2,
Table is it
evident
is evidentthatthat
the summa
the summa of Tof
1, RT11, ,AR11, ,and
A1 , open area area
and open for single-layer
for single-layer
samples
samples − )Cis
(1 − C(1wa,we always
wa,we equal toequal
) is always 1, andtofor
1, double-layer
and for double-layer samples,samples,
it is moreitthan 0.99.than
is more
In the0.99.
lastInrow,
the it
last
is row,
seen it is seen
that that the
the values forvalues for one-layer
one-layer samples are samples are identical
identical as were
as were sup-
posed supposed
and thatand thethat the transmission
transmission troughtrough double-layer
double-layer samples samples correspond
correspond to thetosquared
the squared
function
function of K1Tofand
K1T square
and square root root function
function of K1Aof. K1A .
Usually,
Usually, in thein real
the real samples,
samples, we can
we can easilyeasily determine
determine onlyonly the density
the density of yarns
of yarns and and
not real
not the the real deformed
deformed diameterdiameter of yarns
of yarns as well
as well as Kas R, K KRT, K T , and
and KA. K A . What
What is measured
is measured is is
openopen area—optically,
area—optically, and and transmission
transmission and and reflection
reflection spectrophotometrically.
spectrophotometrically. The The curves
curves
presented
presented in Figure
in Figure 3 gave 3 gave
us the us possibility
the possibility of easily
of easily detecting
detecting the missing
the missing parameters
parameters
necessary for calculating the cover factor elements and predicting
necessary for calculating the cover factor elements and predicting UV protective proper- UV protective properties.
ties. Figure 3 shows that there are several possibilities to identify the diameter of yarns and
also to verify it by double or triple checking. We will list
Figure 3 shows that there are several possibilities to identify the diameter of yarns some of them:
and also
- to verify it by
Optically: from double or triple checking.
the single-layer samples, We we willcanlist getsome of curve
linear them: of Cwa,we . At the
- Optically: from the single-layer samples, we can get linear curve ofdensity
point where the linear curve becomes 1, we can get the maximum Cwa,we.and
At also
the the
proper diameter of yarn (Equation (18)). This is
point where the linear curve becomes 1, we can get the maximum density and also also possible following the double-
layer curve
the proper diameter (Equation
of yarn (19)) [25]: (18)). This is also possible following the dou-
(Equation
1
ble-layer curve (Equation (19)) [25]: d = (18)
Dmax
 1
𝑑 = (18)
Polymers 2021, 13, 1188 𝐷 7 of 13

(1 − p O )

d , = 1D− Op (19)
dwa, we = , (19)
Dwa, we
- Determining the maximum of reflection curve from the double-layer systems of
- Determining the maximum of reflection curve from the double-layer systems of
yarns—R2, that way, calculating the maximal density, diameter of yarns, and value
yarns—R2 , that way, calculating the maximal density, diameter of yarns, and value of
of KR. (R2 = −0.00008x 2 + 0.008x, from the first derivation of the equation of the func-
KR . (R2 = −0.00008x2 + 0.008x, from the first derivation of the equation of the function
tion curve R2′ = −0.00016x + 0.008 = 0, we calculate x (maximal density of yarns) x = 50
curve R2 0 = −0.00016x + 0.008 = 0, we calculate x (maximal density of yarns) x = 50
and KR = 0.2).
and KR = 0.2).
- Supposing the reflection from single-layer and double-layer fabrics at cover factor 1
- Supposing the reflection from single-layer and double-layer fabrics at cover factor 1
will be
will be equal,
equal, wewe can
can verify
verify the
the previous
previous mentioned
mentioned findings
findings using
using the
the same
same values
values
when curves for R 1 and R2 cross each other (−0.00008x22 + 0.008x = 0.004x, where we
when curves for R1 and R2 cross each other (−0.00008x + 0.008x = 0.004x, where we
get xx =
get = 50
50 in
in K
KRR ==0.2).
0.2).
-- If we determine
If we determine T1m T 1m by subtraction T1me for OA of single-layer samples, we can see
by subtraction T1me for OA of single-layer samples, we can see
that the linear curves
that the linear curves for forTT1me and T1m cross each other in the point that corresponds
1me and T1m cross each other in the point that corresponds
to maximal density and to the value of K at the
ofR K same time (−0.14x + 1 = 0.006x, follows
to maximal density and to the value R at the same time (−0.14x + 1 = 0.006x,
x = 50 and K T1 = 0.3).
follows x = 50 and K = 0.3).
T1
Of course,
Of course, all
all statements
statements above
above are
are valid
valid for
for square
square fabrics
fabrics (fabrics
(fabrics from
from the
the same
same
yarns and same densities in warp and weft construction). The pallet of such
yarns and same densities in warp and weft construction). The pallet of such structured structured
fabrics practically
fabrics practically does
doesnot
notexist,
exist,soso
wewe
developed
developed a method for creating
a method suchsuch
for creating typetype
of sam-
of
ples allowing
samples presented
allowing findings
presented andand
findings calculations.
calculations.

2.3. Development of Method for

2.3. for Creating
Creating Samples
Samples Proper
Proper for
for Processing
Processing
To
Toproduce
producethe thefabric
fabricsamples,
samples,we weused
useda Minifaber
a Minifaberlaboratory loom
laboratory (Minifaber,
loom Italy),
(Minifaber, It-
which has a has
aly), which relatively regular
a relatively yarns yarns
regular arrangement per unit
arrangement perlength—uniform
unit length—uniformdensitydensity
of the
weft.
of the weft.
The
The yarns
yarns whose
whose UVUV radiation
radiation parameters
parameters have
have to
to be
be measured
measured were
were woven
woven only
only inin
the
the direction of the weft by allowing their flotation (non-interlacing) in the size of2 2cm
direction of the weft by allowing their flotation (non-interlacing) in the size of 2 × × 22
(selected part part
cm2 (selected on Figure 4a). We
on Figure 4a).weave fabricfabric
We weave samples with different
samples densities
with different of theof
densities weft
the
and
weftwith
and awith
constant densitydensity
a constant of the warp
of the(20 yarns/cm).
warp To achieve
(20 yarns/cm). uniformuniform
To achieve thread density
thread
and tension
density and in the measurement
tension process,process,
in the measurement we embedded the samples
we embedded in the frame.
the samples In the
in the frame.
thread flotation areas, the warp yarns were removed from the fabric samples
In the thread flotation areas, the warp yarns were removed from the fabric samples (Fig- (Figure 4b).
We used the samples prepared to measure UV transmittance and reflectance.
ure 4b). We used the samples prepared to measure UV transmittance and reflectance.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Preparation of thread system samples for measurements: (a)
(a) woven
woven fabrics
fabrics with
withfloating
floating
warp and weft yarns; (b) Removing the warp and display measuring surface of thread distribu-
warp and weft yarns; (b) Removing the warp and display measuring surface of thread distribution—
tion—thread
thread systemsystem
sample.sample.

We measured
We measured thethe UV
UV radiation
radiation parameters
parameters on
on single-and double-layer yarn systems.
For
For double-layer samples,
samples, we laid two single layerscrosswise
we laid two single layers (at(at
crosswise ananangle of 90°)
angle ◦ ) with
of 90with the
approximation
the approximation of fabric simulation
of fabric fromfrom
simulation the same yarns
the same and and
yarns withwith
the same density
the same (Fig-
density
ure 5). The
(Figure thread
5). The in in
thread thethe
vertical and
vertical andhorizontal
horizontaldirections
directionswas
wasthethe same.
same. We wanted to
We wanted to
simulate the fabric without interlacing and thus avoid the conditional deformation that is
realistically reflected in the fabric.
 Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13

simulate the fabric without interlacing and thus avoid the conditional deformation that is
realistically reflected in the fabric.
Polymers 2021, 13, 1188 simulate the fabric without interlacing and thus avoid the conditional deformation 8that
of 13is
realistically reflected in the fabric.

Figure 5. Schematic representation of the preparation of double-layer samples.

Figure5.5.Schematic
Figure Schematicrepresentation
representationofofthe
thepreparation
preparationofofdouble-layer
double-layersamples.
samples.
3. Materials and Methods
To support
3.3.Materials
Materials andthe
and model presented and confirm the theory, we used two different series
Methods
Methods
of samples
To and material. The first setand of samplesthe was madewe from red-colored CO yarns
Tosupport
supportthe themodel
modelpresented
presented andconfirm confirm thetheory,theory, weused usedtwotwodifferent
differentseries
series
and was
ofofsamples deliberately chosen to check how high can be the effect of UV protection. Cotton
samplesand andmaterial.
material. The
Thefirst setset
first of samples
of samples waswas made fromfrom
made red-colored CO yarns
red-colored and
CO yarns
is thedeliberately
was ideal material for summer
chosen to check cloths
how but
highallows
can be high
the transmission
effect of UV of UV radiation
protection. Cottonwhen is
and was deliberately chosen to check how high can be the effect of UV protection. Cotton
undyed.
the ideal Dyed yarns
material for extensively
summer clothsincrease
but the absorption
allows high of UV radiation
transmission of UV on account
radiation when of
is the ideal material for summer cloths but allows high transmission of UV radiation when
diminishing
undyed. Dyed its yarns
transmission [12]. increase the absorption of UV radiation on account of
extensively
undyed. Dyed yarns extensively increase the absorption of UV radiation on account of
The secondtransmission
diminishing set of samples from the PET rotor yarn was also chosen deliberately to
diminishingits its transmission[12]. [12].
checkThe thesecond
KR, KT, set and KAsamples
determined frompreviously in one of our
wasresearch studies for mono-
The second set of of samples from the PET rotor
the PET rotor yarn yarn
was also chosen
also deliberately
chosen deliberately to
filament PET fabrics [11,24]. The necessary data for chosen
to check the KR , KT , and KA determined previously in one of our research studies for materials and methods are
check the KR, KT, and KA determined previously in one of our research studies for mono-
presented below.
monofilament PET fabrics [11,24]. The necessary data for chosen materials and methods
filament PET fabrics [11,24]. The necessary data for chosen materials and methods are
are presented below.
presented below.
3.1. Materials
3.1. Materials
For the experimental work, we prepared samples with the same construction param-
3.1. Materials
etersFor the experimental
in both (warp and weft) work,directions,
we prepared samples
so-called with the
square sameWe
fabrics. construction param-
used a Minifaber
eters For the
in both experimental
(warp and weft) work, we
directions,prepared samples
so-called with the same construction
square fabrics. We used a Minifaber param-
laboratory loom (Minifaber, Italy) to produce the samples.
eters
laboratoryin both
loom (warp and weft) directions, so-called square fabrics. We used a Minifaber
For the first(Minifaber, Italy) tosamples,
series of weaved producewe theused
samples.dyed CO ring yarns, fineness 2 × 8
laboratory loom (Minifaber, Italy) to produce the samples. 2×
tex in four densities (20, 25, 30, and 35 yarns/cm) as single-CO
For the first series of weaved samples, we used dyed ring yarns,
(Figure 6a) andfineness
double- 8 tex
(Figure
in fourFor the first
densities series
(20, 25, of and
30, weaved35 samples, as
yarns/cm) wesingle-
used dyed(Figure CO 6a)ring
and yarns,
double- fineness
(Figure 26b)
×8
6b) layer yarn systems. For the second series of weaved samples, we used raw, undyed
tex
layer in four densities
yarn systems. (20, 25, 30,
For the34second and 35 yarns/cm) as single- (Figure 6a) and double- (Figure
PET rotor yarn, fineness tex, inseries
threeofdensities
weaved (6, samples,
10, 14,we and used
18 raw, undyed
yarns/cm) asPET ro-
single-
6b)yarn,
tor layerfineness
yarn systems.
34 tex, inFor thedensities
three second series(6, 10, of
14, weaved
and 18 samples, we
yarns/cm) as used raw,
single- undyed
(Figure 6c)
(Figure 6c) and double- (Figure 6d) layer yarn systems. A method for the preparation of
PETdouble-
and rotor yarn,
(Figurefineness 34 tex,
6d)samples
layer yarn in systems.
three densities (6, 10,for14,the
and 18 yarns/cm) as single-
single- or double-layer with uniformAdensity
method preparation
was developed of single-
and used or
(Section
(Figure
double-layer 6c) and double- (Figure 6d) layer yarn systems. A method for the preparation of
2.3) [26,27]. samples with uniform density was developed and used (Section 2.3) [26,27].
single- or double-layer samples with uniform density was developed and used (Section
2.3) [26,27].

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Single-layered
Single-layered(a,c)
(a,c)double-layered
double-layeredyarn
yarnsystems
systems(b,d)
(b,d)from
fromcolored
coloredcotton
cotton (CO)
(CO) yarns
yarns (a,b)
(a,b)undyed
and and undyed polyester
polyester (PET)(PET)
yarnsyarns (c,d)
(c,d) in 10×inmagnification.
10× magnification.
Figure 6. Single-layered (a,c) double-layered yarn systems (b,d) from colored cotton (CO) yarns
(a,b) and undyed polyester (PET) yarns (c,d) in 10× magnification.
3.2. Methods
3.2. Methods
The
The transmission
transmission and
and reflection
reflection of
of the
the selected
selected samples
samples was
was measured
measured with
with Lambda
Lambda
3.2. Methods
800,
800, UV/VIS
UV/VIS Spectrophotometer,
Spectrophotometer,PELA-1000
PELA-1000 (PerkinElmer
(PerkinElmer Inc.,Inc.,
Waltham, MA, USA).
Waltham, Mea-
MA, USA).
The transmission
surements werewere
mademade
anand reflection
“inanvitro” of the in
method selected samples
accordance was
with themeasured
SIST with Lambda
Measurements “in vitro” method in accordance with theEN 13758-1:2002
SIST EN 13758-
800, UV/VIS
standard, Spectrophotometer,
in 2-nm PELA-1000
steps and in the range (PerkinElmer
of 700–200 nm. We made Inc., five
Waltham, MA, USA).
measurements on
Measurements were made an “in vitro” method in accordance
each sample (vertically, horizontally, and at an angle of 45 ). ◦ with the SIST EN 13758-

4. Results and Discussion

In the following results, we do not expect such ideal matches and values as we have
obtained in theory, for we must take into account the unevenness of the yarn, their harness,
 1:2002 standard, in 2-nm steps and in the range of 700–200 nm. We made five measure-
ments on each sample (vertically, horizontally, and at an angle of 45°).

4. Results and Discussion

Polymers 2021, 13, 1188 9 of 13
In the following results, we do not expect such ideal matches and values as we have
obtained in theory, for we must take into account the unevenness of the yarn, their har-
ness,
and and possible
possible mistakes mistakes
in the in the preparation
preparation of the of the samples.
samples. SpecialSpecial attention
attention must be must
paidbe
to the to
paid accurate calculation
the accurate of theofreal
calculation thedensities, as they
real densities, as have an extreme
they have influence
an extreme on the
influence on
calculated results.
the calculated A single
results. deviation
A single can affect
deviation the entire
can affect calculation.
the entire calculation.
Considering
Considering the thepossibilities
possibilities of ofcalculating
calculatingthe themaximum
maximumdensity
densityandandcover
coverfactor
factor
mentioned
mentionedin inSection
Section2.22.2and
andthethesmall
smalldifferences
differencesresulting
resultingfrom
fromthetheabove-mentioned
above-mentioned
reasons,
reasons,different
differentvalues
valuesofofthethemaximum
maximumdensity
densitycalculated
calculatedby byspectrophotometric
spectrophotometricand and
optical methods are to be expected. This raises the question of what data
optical methods are to be expected. This raises the question of what data can be used forcan be used for the
calculations. SinceSince
the calculations. the primary object
the primary of research
object was the
of research wasprotection from from
the protection UV radiation and
UV radiation
this
andisthis
directly related
is directly to thetoUV
related thetransmittance
UV transmittanceof theoffabrics, we choose
the fabrics, directly
we choose measured
directly meas-
spectrophotometric
ured spectrophotometric resultsresults
for thefor determination of the maximum
the determination density and
of the maximum proper
density and
diameter of the yarns.
proper diameter of the yarns.
The
Theresults
resultsofofdeclared
declared(D (Dd d) )and
andmeasured
measured(D me)) density
(Dme densityand
andmeasured
measuredvalues
valuesofofthe
the
TTand R for single- and double-layered CO samples are presented
and R for single- and double-layered CO samples are presented in Table 3. in Table 3.

Table3.3.DDddand
Table andD Dme values of
me values of the
the transmission
transmission TT (%)
(%) and
andreflection
reflectionRR(%),
(%),for
forsingle-
single-(T
(T1,1 R
,R ) and
1)1and
double- (T , R ) layered CO samples.
double- (T22, R22) layered CO samples.

D
Ddd[yarns/cm]
[yarns/cm] D me[yarns/cm]
Dme [yarns/cm] TT11[%]
[%] T22 [%]
T [%] R11 [%]
[%] R22 [%]
R [%]
20
20 21.67
21.67 47.06
47.06 20.8
20.8 9.67
9.67 10.46
10.46
25 25.67
25.67 35.87
35.87 13.08
13.08 9.74
9.74 11.00
11.00
30
30 30.00
30.00 28.52
28.52 9.16
9.16 10.06
10.06 10.99
10.99
35 36.33 19.06 2.89 10.53 11.03
35 36.33 19.06 2.89 10.53 11.03

From
Fromthethemeasured
measuredvaluesvalues ofof
T1T, T , 2and
1, 2T R1Rpresented
, and 1 presentedin in
Table 3, we
Table 3, wecreated a graphical
created a graph-
representation (Figure
ical representation 7) and
(Figure 7) got
andthegotequation
the equationdescribing themthem
describing in dependence
in dependence of density.
of den-
The
sity.maximum
The maximum density (Dmax(D
density ) was calculated
max) was fromfrom
calculated derivation of the
derivation of T 2 curve,
the because
T2 curve, at
because
that point,
at that the the
point, OAOA through samples
through supposed
samples supposed to betoabe
zero, andand
a zero, the the
transmission
transmissionshould be
should
minimal.
be minimal.At At
thethe
same
sametime, thethe
time, obtained
obtained results
resultsare based on the original measurement.
2 2and K √are based on the original measurement.
Table 4 presents values for K
Table 4 presents values for2TK2T ≈ 1T≈ K K1T and 2A ≈ K
K2A ≈ √K1A following the
1Afollowing the theory
theory presented
presentedinin
Section 2.2. These values,
Section 2.2. These values, D D and d
max and dmin
max min, were taken for the further calculationof
, were taken for the further calculation ofthe
thecover
cover
factor
factorparameters
parameterspresented
presentedininTable
Table5.5.FromFromthethelinear
linearequation
equationT1T1andandRR1 ,1,we
wecalculated
calculated
KK1T and K1Ratatthe
1T and K1R
thepoint
pointofofdetermined
determinedmaximum maximum density
density andand
K1AKas as different
1A different fromfrom 1
1 (Ta-
(Table
ble 6).6).

Figure 7. T and R of UV radiation of single-layer and double-layer CO samples, depending on

the thread density, with the corresponding linear, polynomial equations, and the coefficient of
determination.
Polymers 2021, 13, 1188 10 of 13

Table 4. Calculated values of KT , KR , and KA for CO samples.

K1T K2T K1R = K2R K1A K2A

0.04329 0.00187 0.10931 0.84740 0.92054

Table 5. Dmax and dmin , calculated values of Cf, Cfwa , Cfwe , Cf1 , Cf2 , and OA for CO samples.

Dmax dmin [µm] Cfwa,we OA1

Cf [%] Cf1 [%] Cf2 [%] OA [%]
[yarns/cm] (Equation (18)) [%] [%]
49.69 74.69 50.00 24.69 25.31 50.31
58.86 83.08 48.43 34.65 16.92 41.14
43.61 0.02293
68.79 90.26 42.94 47.32 9.74 31.21
83.30 97.21 27.82 69.40 2.79 16.70

Table 6. Calculated values (c ) of UV parameters double- (T2 , R2 , A2 ) layered CO samples and the absolute values of their
differences compared with measurement (me ) values and the conformation of their connections with the coefficient of
correlation.

Dd T2 R2 A2
∆|T2c − T2me | ∆|R2c − R2me | ∆|A2c − A2me |
[yarns/cm] (Equation (11)) (Equation (17)) (Equation (15))

21.67 0.27522 0.08164 0.65097 0.06722 0.02296 0.03643

25.67 0.19085 0.09081 0.72933 0.06005 0.01919 0.02987
30.00 0.11688 0.09866 0.79947 0.02528 0.01124 0.00097
36.33 0.04121 0.10626 0.87454 0.01231 0.00404 0.01374
r (c:me ) 0.995 0.827 0.996

Tables 5 and 6 show the calculation values of T2 , R2 , and A2

(Equations (11), (15) and (17)) according to the theory. Table 6 presents calculated val-
ues compared with measured values. It also presents the absolute differences among
calculated and measured values as well as correlation among them. It is obvious that the
level of mistakes does not exceed 6.7% at the lowest used density.
The obtained results clearly confirm the known fact that colored cotton yarns can be
used for permanent and successful protection against UV radiation if the woven fabric
construction is carefully planned. For example, if the weave is sateen, fabric construction
can have a maximum weft density and because of the high coefficient of absorption can
offer practically excellent protection against UV radiation [12].
For the second set of samples from PET yarns, we used the same methodology as for
the first set of samples from CO yarns. The results are presented in Tables 7–10 and in
Figure 8.

Table 7. Dd and Dme , values of the T (%) and R (%), for single- (T1 , R1 ) and double- (T2 , R2 ) layered
PET samples.

Dd [yarns/cm] Dme [yarns/cm] T1 [%] T2 [%] R1 [%] R2 [%]

6 6.67 85.26 71.94 15.28 16.12
10 11.25 73.64 52.30 20.68 22.57
14 13.33 68.03 46.65 20.33 24.47
18 18.33 56.58 31.55 23.11 28.40

Table 8. Calculated values of KT , KR , and KA for PET samples.

K1T K2T K1R = K2R K1A K2A

0.31564 0.09963 0.30056 0.38376 0.61948
 58.86 83.08 48.43 34.65 16.92 41.14
43.61 0.02293
68.79 90.26 42.94 47.32 9.74 31.21
83.30 97.21 27.82 69.40 2.79 16.70

Polymers 2021, 13,

Table 1188
6. Calculated 11 of 13
values (c) of UV parameters double- (T2, R2, A2) layered CO samples and the absolute values of their
differences compared with measurement (me) values and the conformation of their connections with the coefficient of cor-
relation.
Table 9. Dmax , dmin , calculated values of Cf, Cfwa , Cfwe , Cf1 , Cf2 , and OA for PET samples.
Dd T2 R2 A2
Δ|T2c − T2me| Δ|R2c − R2me| Δ|A2c − A2me|
Dmax
[yarns/cm] dmin(Equation
[µm] (11)) (Equation (17)) (Equation (15))
Cfwa,we [%] Cf [%] Cf1 [%] Cf2 [%] OA [%] OA1 [%]
[yarns/cm]
21.67 (Equation (18))
0.27522 0.08164 0.65097 0.06722 0.02296 0.03643
25.67 0.19085 23.28 0.09081 41.14 35.72
0.72933 5.42
0.06005 58.45
0.01919 76.45
0.02987
30.00
28.33 0.11688
0.03530 39.26 0.09866 63.11 0.79947
47.69 0.02528
15.42 0.01124
36.34 0.00097
60.28
36.33 0.04121 46.52 0.10626 71.40 0.87454
49.76 0.01231
21.64 0.00404
28.03 0.01374
52.94
r (c:me) 0.995 63.97
0.827 87.02
0.99646.10 40.92 12.45 35.29

Tables 5 and 6 show the calculation values of T2, R2, and A2 (Equations (11), (15) and
Table 10. Calculated values (17))
(c ) of according
UV parameters to thedouble-
theory.(TTable 6 presents calculated values compared with measured
2 , R2 , A2 ) layered PET samples and the absolute values of
values. It also presents the absolute
their differences compared with measurement (me ) values and the conformation differencesofamong calculatedwith
their connections andthe
measured
coefficientvalues
of as
correlation. well as correlation among them. It is obvious that the level of mistakes does not exceed
6.7% at the lowest used density.
Dd T 2 The R2obtained results A2clearly confirm the known fact that colored cotton yarns can be
∆|T2c − T2me | ∆|R2c − R2me | ∆|A2c − A2me |
[yarns/cm] (Equation (11)) used for permanent
(Equation (17)) and successful
(Equation (15)) protection against UV radiation if the woven fabric
6.67 0.70367 construction
0.12488 is carefully planned. For example,
0.12472 0.01573 if the weave is sateen, fabric
0.03632 construction
0.05205
11.25 0.53027 can have a maximum 0.25014
0.19133 weft density and0.00727 because of the high coefficient of absorption
0.03437 0.02710 can
13.33 0.45960 offer 0.21632
practically excellent 0.31779
protection against 0.00690
UV radiation 0.02838
[12]. 0.03527
18.33 0.31040 0.26313
For the second set0.50776
of samples from0.01580 PET yarns, we used 0.02087 0.03667 as for
the same methodology
r (c:me ) 0.998 0.999 0.980
the first set of samples from CO yarns. The results are presented in Tables 7–10 and in
Figure 8.

Figure 8. T and R of UV radiation of single-layer and double-layer PET samples, depending on the
yarn density, with the corresponding linear, polynomial equations, and the coefficient of determina-
tion.

The presented research shows very high correlations of 0.98 and differences not higher
than 5% between the calculated and measured values, which confirms the theoretical
assumption and confirms the established mathematical model for the prediction of the UV
protective properties of fabrics.
The identified coefficient of transmission for rotor PET yarn was 0.315, which was very
close to the monofilament PET yarn (0.3–0.35) [11,24], confirming that the row material has
a crucial role in the parameters of UV protection.

5. Conclusions
In the paper, an extension of the cover factor woven fabric theory was presented, which
is necessary for understanding the mechanism of penetration of UV light through the yarn
covered part of the mesh structure of fabrics. Regarding the penetration of UV light, the
previous cover factor theory did not distinguish between the fabric areas covered by one
and two yarns, which is why there was no existing model for predicting the transmission
and thus the ultraviolet protection factor (UPF). The extension of the theory provides the
Polymers 2021, 13, 1188 12 of 13

theoretical relationships between the existing and newly introduced parameters of the
cover factor (Cf, OA, Cf1 , Cf2 ) and fabrics constructional parameters (d and D)). The theory
was applied to the woven fabrics made from the same yarns and with the same warp and
weft densities but can be easily extended to other types of woven fabrics.
A simplified theoretical model for the prediction of UV protection properties was
presented, which offers the possibility to plan for the phase of fabric design stage. The
model was called simplified because not all elements were exact; however, the calculations
were very simple, and the results were good enough to serve the purpose. In addition to the
elements of the extended cover factor theory, the data for the UV reflection, transmission,
and absorption of the yarns (KR , KT , KA ) were included in the model. Such data do usually
not exist in the literature. The paper also presents the procedure of preparation of proper
single- and double-layer samples. The samples represent a simulation of woven fabrics
without interlacing of yarns (thus avoiding the deformation of yarns), which are suitable
for fast and cheap determination of the missing data from a very low quantity of any row
material and yarn type.
The experimental part performed on red dyed CO yarns confirmed the fact that
intensely dyed yarns absorb most of the UV light (coefficient K1A = 0.84), have small
reflection (K1R = 0.12) and very low transmission (K1T = 0.04), which makes them almost
perfect for constructing woven fabrics that can provide at least good, very good, and
permanent UV protection. The results of the experiment on the second set of samples
confirmed the assumption that coefficient of transmission of PET yarns is about 0.3 to 0.35,
which was found in one of our previous research for the PET monofilament.
The obtained results of the experimental part justify both theories (cover factor and
simplified model). It must be said that the obtained results practically give the maximal
transmission (minimal UPF). Due to the interlacing in the real fabrics, the deformation
of the yarns at the interlacing points and the resulting reduction of the open area, the
transmission should be lower and the UPF should be higher.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.D.; methodology, K.D., K.K.; formal analysis, K.D.,
K.K.; investigation, K.D., K.K.; data curation, K.D., K.K.; writing—original draft preparation, K.D.
and K.K.; writing—review and editing, K.D., K.K.; funding acquisition, K.D. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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