resources

Article
Life Cycle Assessment of the Closed-Loop Recycling
of Used Disposable Diapers
Norihiro Itsubo 1 , Mitsuhiro Wada 2 , Shigeo Imai 2 , Akira Myoga 2 , Naoki Makino 3, * and
Koichi Shobatake 3
1 Faculty of Environmental Studies, Tokyo City University, 3-3-1 Ushikubo-nishi, Tsuzuki-ku,
Yokohama 224-8551, Japan; itsubo-n@tcu.ac.jp
2 ESG division, Unicharm Corporation, 1531-7 Wadahama, Toyohama-cho, Kanonji, Kagawa 769-1602, Japan;
mitsuhiro-wada@unicharm.com (M.W.); shigeo-imai@unicharm.com (S.I.);
akira-myoga@unicharm.com (A.M.)
3 TCO2 Co., Ltd., 23-2 Bancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0082, Japan; shobatake@tco2.com
* Correspondence: makino@tco2.com; Tel.: +81-3-6272-6814




Received: 31 January 2020; Accepted: 12 March 2020; Published: 17 March 2020


Abstract: In Japan, approximately 23.5 billion paper diapers are produced annually (total of diapers
for infants and adults produced in 2018). The majority of used paper diapers are disposed of through
incineration; in certain regions, some paper diapers are recycled, mostly by open-loop recycling or
thermal recycling. To date, several methods of recycling used paper diapers have been proposed and
developed, but these methods are considered to have different types and amounts of recycled materials
and different environmental performances. In this study, a new technology was developed for the
closed-loop recycling of used paper diapers, and the use of the recycled pulp and superabsorbent
polymer (SAP) as materials for paper diapers was evaluated via the environmental impact using the
life cycle assessment (LCA) method, using data obtained from experimental facilities for recycling.
The results between the comparison of the new method with the landfill and incineration processes
demonstrate a greenhouse gas reduction of 47% and 39%, respectively. The results also show that
such recycling is expected to reduce land-use occupation and water consumption, closely related to
the pulp, main raw material of paper diapers.

Keywords: disposable paper diaper; material recycling; closed-loop recycling; life cycle assessment
(LCA)

1. Introduction
Paper diapers are roughly divided into two types: those for infants and those for adults.
Paper diapers for infants, which are highly convenient as they do not require laundering like cloth
diapers, are essential for daily life in Japan. Paper diapers for adults have also become indispensable,
given the increasing number of persons requiring nursing care and the shortage of caregivers, in line
with the progressive aging of society. In 2018, in Japan, the annual production of paper diapers for
infants was approximately 15.1 billion, equal to 480,000 tonnes, while that of diapers for adults mainly
used in nursing care facilities and medical institutions stood at about 8.4 billion, equal to about 390,000
tonnes [1]. The production volume has been increasing for 10 years, since 2010: 1.7 times for diapers
for adults and 1.9 times for those for infants. Paper diapers for adults, in particular, are expected to
further increase in the future, due to the rise in the elderly population [2].
Paper diapers consist of pulp or superabsorbent polymer (SAP) used as a moisture absorber,
exterior materials, waterproof materials, and plastic materials such as polyethylene or polypropylene
used in internal nonwoven fabric material. Pulp, which accounts for the majority of the materials,

Resources 2020, 9, 34; doi:10.3390/resources9030034 www.mdpi.com/journal/resources

Resources 2020, 9, 34 2 of 15

is made of virgin materials for needle bleached kraft pulp (NBKP, or nadelholz bleached kraft pulp
in German). The annual consumption of materials for NBKP, SAP, and plastics is estimated at
approximately 330,000, 230,000, and 250,000 tonnes, respectively, based on the annual production [1]
and the material composition of paper diapers (study by Unicharm Corp.).
The majority of used paper diapers from general households are collected and incinerated by
local governments as combustible waste in the category of domestic general waste [3]. Paper diapers
are considered to cover 6%–7% of the total volume of household combustible waste, and the high
moisture content due to excreta included in used paper diapers leads to a low calorific value, inhibiting
heat recovery efficiency during combustion [4]. Used paper diapers from business operators such as
nursing care facilities and hospitals are not collected by local governments in principle but instead
are entrusted to special disposal companies who collect and incinerate them as general waste from
business activities or specially controlled waste [5].
As such, used paper diapers are mostly incinerated in Japan, but there are also some efforts
and study cases on the recycling of paper diapers. Fujiyama et al. [6] conducted an analysis and a
comparison with incineration processing of the material recycling of recovered recycled pulp to be
used for fireproof plates, in addition to the manufacture of refuse paper and plastic fuel (RPF) from
the thermal recycling of used paper diapers. They reported that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
from recycling can be reduced by about 37% compared with incineration. A study related to the
recycling of water absorptive sanitary products [7,8] also discussed thermal recycling treatment
systems for processing used paper diapers recovered as they are, without separating or cleaning them,
for conversion into solid fuel. Quantification of environmental loads adopting the life cycle assessment
(LCA) is not confirmed, but reference was made to the possibility of reducing CO2 emissions by using
them as boiler fuel instead of fossil fuel. In the recycling of used paper diapers targeted for studies
reported by Itsubo et al. [9], the preceding report of this paper revealed that recycled pulp has the same
quality as NBKP, the virgin material that is the main component of paper diapers, which shows that
pulp can be closed-loop recycled. It is also indicated that GHG emissions can be reduced by about
26% compared with incineration, as well as significant reductions in water consumption and land use
occupation, areas where the pulp is considered to have high potential effects.
The present study introduces a new recycling technology that achieves the closed-loop recycling
of SAP. This new recycling technology adopts a new crushing/cleaning/separating technology and
improves the recycling rate for pulp, etc., and recycles SAP to the same quality as virgin materials,
where SAP was thermally recycled with the preceding recycling technology. The environmental load
over the entire life cycle of paper diapers from the acquisition of raw materials to the disposal/recycling
phases is quantified.
There have been several reports on the recycling of used disposable diapers overseas [7,10–13].
An LCA report [12], which collected data from an experimental-scale recycling plant, stated that
plastics could be recycled and pulp containing SAP could be used to generate the steam needed
for the sterilization process, which indicates that the environmental impact is reduced compared to
landfill disposal.
Many previous studies have focused on climate change. Disposable diapers use paper as the
main material, and the supply of chips, the main raw material for paper, requires a lot of land use
and water consumption. Recycling of disposable diapers is expected to contribute to reducing the
burden on water consumption and land use but has not been evaluated in previous studies. In this
study, in addition to climate change, water consumption and land use are evaluated.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Objective
This study assesses the life cycle of paper diapers, including the closed-loop recycling that recycles
pulp and SAP from used paper diapers into a quality product to be used as the raw material for paper
Resources 2020, 9, 34 3 of 15

diapers. The quantified environmental impacts are discussed and compared with those for incineration
and landfill. In performing the LCA, an inventory analysis and impact assessment were conducted for
the production, transportation, recovery, recycling, and disposal of disposable diapers in accordance
with the international standard for ISO 14040 [14].

2.2. Scope of This Study

2.2.1. Overview of Key New Technologies for Closed-Loop Recycling

1. Crushing, Washing, and Separation Technologies
Used paper diapers are required to be degraded into composition materials such as pulp, SAP,
and plastics for recycling. The crushing process is characterized by dissolving the diapers in an organic
acid solution of pH 2.5 or less, which prevents a reduction in treatment efficiency as there is no loss
of liquidity in the treatment tank caused by the swollen highly water absorptive polymer [15]. It
also has the effect of continuously securing hygiene in the facility, using a safe organic acid to enable
safe treatment and to prevent odor and contamination. In conventional techniques using a water
solution for the basic cleaning/separating process [9], SAP absorbs a large amount of moisture to
become gel-like, losing its liquidity. This, in turn, greatly reduces the performance of the treatment
equipment, making it necessary to use a large amount of lime to inactivate the SAP. Moreover, the use
of hypochlorite as a disinfectant generates a highly alkaline environment in the treatment tank, which
degrades the pulp fibers and lowers the pulp recovery rate and quality. Conventional techniques
also require lengthy agitation and heating for separation, making it difficult to improve treatment
efficiency. The process in this study, that is, applying the new technology, improved the recycling rate
of SAP to about 80% and that of pulp also to about 80% compared to around 40% with conventional
techniques [9].
2. Ozone Treatment Technology
Reusing the pulp recovered from the crushing/cleaning/separating process as raw materials for
paper diapers requires that the pulp be recycled to a sufficient quality usable for sanitary materials.
Ozone treatment uses ozone water to dissolve and solubilize SAP contained in the recovered pulp as
residue, then discharges the ozone water to remove the SAP from the pulp, thereby extracting pulp
ingredients only [16]. Ozone treatment also thoroughly sterilizes the pulp, eliminating the need for
disinfectant. Moreover, ozone is returned to oxygen after use, without generating resistant bacteria,
which improves the safety of recycled pulp.
3. SAP Reactivation Technology
As the SAP recovered from the crushing/cleaning/separating process is inactivated, it is necessary to
recover the water absorption performance so that it can be used instead of virgin SAP [17]. Conventional
techniques [9] use acid or alkaline treatment, which leaves the possibility of acid or alkaline residue in
recycled SAP if not completely neutralized. Using such recycled SAP as raw materials for paper diapers
may cause skin irritation, making it difficult to reuse as sanitary materials. However, the process
targeted in this study makes it possible to recover the water absorption performance of SAP by
neutralizing the SAP that has been inactivated by the organic acid solution.
4. Verification of the Quality and Safety of Recycled Products
The present study targeted closed-loop recycling, where pulp and SAP are recycled to a quality
equal to that of virgin materials, and thus are usable as raw materials for paper diapers. The quality
of the pulp was confirmed by consigning inspections about the standards stipulated by the Ministry
of Health, Labour, and Welfare (MHLW) [18] to a third-party inspection organization. Inspection
items and results are summarized in Table 1. The recycled SAP was also confirmed to have a water
Resources 2020, 9, 34 4 of 15

absorption performance equal to that of SAP in virgin materials, and thus can be used as raw materials
for paper diapers.

Table 1. Quality inspection results of recycled pulp.

Quality Inspection Items Criteria Inspection Results

Appearance and Properties Color is white, no odor, no foreign substances conform
No color is exhibited when observing the eluate
Color elution conform
from above and from the side
Purity pH 4.5~8 conform
Fluorescence No fluorescence conform
Ash content 0.65% or less conform
Kjeldahl nitrogen 50 mg/kg or less conform
Bacteria Not more than 1000 per 1 gram conform
Cleanliness
Escherichia coli Not detected conform

2.2.2. Functional Unit

The functional unit is assumed as the “provision of one paper diaper and its disposal.” Paper
diapers have different material compositions and composition ratios depending on the manufacturer
and the shape. The individual material composition ratios for paper diapers for adults and infants
(study by Unicharm Corp.) were calculated by weighing them with the individual production
volumes [1] to determine the average material composition ratio (see Table 2). In this study, 40.5 g per
paper diaper was adopted for the average weight of all paper diapers, including those for adults (except
underwear liners or pads), based on diaper production statistics (2019) [1] (see Table 3). Furthermore,
the composition of excreta included in used paper diapers is based on studies by Unicharm Corp. and
literature values [19] (see Table 4).

Table 2. Material composition ratio of paper diapers. SAP, superabsorbent polymer.

Composition Ratio (%)

Materials
Average for Adult for Infant
Pulp 40.9 52.2 33.3
SAP 27.9 19.8 33.3
Polyethylene 6.2 5.6 6.7
Plastics Polypropylene 18.7 16.8 20.0
Polystyrene 6.2 5.6 6.7
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Table 3. Average weight of paper diapers.

Production Weight Production Quantity

Type Average Weight (g)
(tonne) (1000 pieces)
for Adult 365,804 5,864,108 62.4
for Infant 484,079 15,094,904 32.1
Total 849,883 20,959,012 40.5

Table 4. Composition of 1 tonne of used paper diapers.

Composition Weight (kg) Composition Ratio (%)

Paper diaper 383 38.3
Collection bag made of polyethylene 4 0.4
Moisture content 598
Human excreta 61.3
Solid content 15
Total 1000 100.0
Resources 2020, 9, 34 5 of 15

2.2.3. System Boundary

Resources 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15
The scope from the acquisition of raw materials to the production, distribution,
and disposal/recycling of paper
of electric power, fuel, and diapers were
other utilities was assumed,
selected asthus
thethese
system boundary.
processes wereFor the use
excluded phase,
from the
non-use of electric power, fuel, and other utilities were assumed, thus these processes
scope of the assessment. Figure 1 illustrates the life cycle flow. As comparable systems, two models were excluded
from
usingthe scope of theand
incineration assessment.
landfill Figure
to treat 1 illustrates
waste inthe thelifedisposal/recycling
cycle flow. As comparable
phase weresystems,
set. two
For
models using incineration and landfill to treat waste in the disposal/recycling
incineration, the combustible general domestic waste treatment currently used in Japan was phase were set. For
incineration,
assumed. Forthe combustible
waste general domestic
power generation, the powerwaste treatmentwas
generated currently
assumed used
to in Japan was
substitute theassumed.
average
For
purchased power in Japan. For landfill, general waste landfilling was assumed. In this purchased
waste power generation, the power generated was assumed to substitute the average paper, the
power
systemsinfor
Japan. For landfill,
recycling, general
landfilling, andwaste landfilling
incinerating wastewasinassumed. In this paper,phase
the disposal/recycling the systems for
are called
recycling,
RE, LF, andlandfilling, and incinerating
IN, respectively waste
(see Table 5).inTable
the disposal/recycling
6 shows the recycled phase products
are calledand
RE, LF, and IN,
alternative
respectively
products. (see Table 5). Table 6 shows the recycled products and alternative products.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Life
Life cycle
cycle flow
flow chart.
chart. The
The upper
upper part
part shows
shows the
the life
life cycle
cycle of
of paper
paper diapers,
diapers, and
and the
the lower
lower
part shows details of recycling, waste treatment scenarios. The system boundary is from raw
part shows details of recycling, waste treatment scenarios. The system boundary is from raw material material
production, disposable
production, disposable diaper
diaper production,
production, transportation,
transportation, disposal/recycling,
disposal/recycling, production
production ofof recycled
recycled
products, and
products, and production
production ofof alternative
alternative products
products (excluding
(excluding storage,
storage, sales
sales and
and use
use of
of disposable
disposable
diapers). RE, recycling; LF, landfill;
diapers). landfill; IN, incineration; RPF,
RPF, refuse
refuse paper
paper and plastic fuel; NBKP,
NBKP, needle
needle
bleached kraft pulp.
bleached kraft pulp.
Resources 2020, 9, 34 6 of 15

Table 5. Scenarios in this study and their differences.

Life Cycle Stage

Abbreviations
Scenario Raw Materials Acquisition ~
in This Study Recycling, Waste Treatment
Production ~ Distribution ~ Use
Recycling RE Recycling
Landfill LF Common for all scenarios Landfilling
Incineration IN Incineration

Table 6. Recycled products and alternative products.

Scenario Recycled Products Alternative Criteria Alternative Products

Pulp Mass equivalent NBKP
RE SAP Mass equivalent SAP
RPF Heat value equivalent Thermal coal
LF (none) - -
Electric power
IN Electricity Public power
equivalent

2.2.4. Impact Categories

Table 7 shows the impact categories and evaluation methods for the targets. In addition to global
warming, land use occupation (maintaining) and water consumption were also included as impact
categories closely related to pulp, the main raw material of paper diapers. Furthermore, blue water
was considered as the target for water consumption.

Table 7. Environment impact categories and methods in this study.

Impact Category Unit Evaluation Method

Global warming kg-CO2 e IPCC 2013 GWP 100a
Land use occupation m2 a LIME2 [20]
Water consumption (blue water) m3 water consumption inventory

2.3. Inventory Analysis

2.3.1. Data Collection

1. Raw materials acquisition stage
The input amount of each raw material was determined by multiplying the average material
composition ratio for paper diapers for adults and for infants, calculated from their respective
composition ratios, by the average weight of paper diapers (see Table 8). For transport, the scenario of
importing NBKP from North America via marine transport, and procuring other materials in Japan via
land transport using trucks (see Table 9), was used.
2. Production stage
For energy input related to paper diaper production, primary data were collected from the paper
diaper plants of Unicharm Corp. Raw material residue generated in the production processes was
used as raw materials for pet goods and other products within the same plant; thus, it was assumed
that no material loss occurs (see Table 8).
Resources 2020, 9, 34 7 of 15

Table 8. Main collected data and collection methods.

Data Collection
Life Cycle Stage Data Item Data Type Collected Data
Method
Pulp, SAP, Film,
Raw materials Input amount of various
foreground Non-woven fabric, Collected from
acquisition raw materials
others Unicharm’s paper
diaper factory
Energy consumption foreground Electricity
Production
Waste amount foreground Residue material
Electricity, LPG,
Input amount of Energy,
Industrial water,
utilities and auxiliary foreground
Organic acid,
materials Demonstration
Recycling, waste others
experiment data
treatment Pulp recycling rate foreground 80%
SAP recycling rate foreground 80%
Plastics recycling rate foreground 100%
RPF heat value foreground 36.3 MJ/kg

Table 9. Transport scenarios.

Life Cycle Stage Transport Object Transport Route Distance Mode of Transportation
Domestic land 10 t truck,
500 km
Raw materials and transportation loading ratio of 50%
Raw materials
auxiliary for paper Ocean freight
acquisition Container transport ship,
diapers (From North 18,707 km
>4000 TEU
America to Japan)
Product (paper Domestic land 10 t truck,
Distribution 555 km
diaper) transportation loading ratio of 50%
Used paper diaper 100 km
Recycling, waste Domestic land 2 t truck,
Auxiliary materials 200 km
treatment transportation loading ratio of 50%
Waste 100 km

3. Distribution stage
Paper diapers are generally distributed from the manufacturers to the stores, nursing care facilities,
etc., through many distribution channels, which makes it difficult to determine the actual distribution
amounts and distribution routes in detail. Therefore, in this study, it was assumed that the diapers
are distributed from the paper diaper plants of Unicharm Corp to all 47 prefectures nationwide, with
the distribution amounts proportional to the population of individual prefectures. The transport
distances for individual prefectures were determined using Google Maps and were then weighed
by the transport amount for individual prefectures. For the vehicle class and loading ratio, general
domestic transport was assumed (see Table 9).
4. Use stage
In this stage, no additional energy was used, so it was excluded from the assessment of
environmental impact.
5. Recycling, waste treatment stage
For RE or recycling processing, primary data were collected from simulated demonstration
experiments at a recycling plant being developed by Unicharm Corp. in Shibushi City, Kagoshima
Prefecture that processes about 500 tonnes of waste annually (see Table 8). Eighty percent of the SAP
and pulp included in the used paper diapers is recycled, and part of the unrecycled content is mixed
with plastics to produce RPF. The plastics are completely recovered and then mixed with part of the
unseparated pulp and SAP to produce RPF. For LF and IN, it was assumed that one tonne of used
Resources 2020, 9, 34 8 of 15

paper diapers with the same composition as in RE is processed. Since waste is separately recovered in
a polyethylene collection bag of 20 g per 5 kg of used paper diapers in RE, it was assumed that the
same bags are used in LF and IN and that the scenarios for transport related to waste materials and
collection are common to RE, LF, and IN (see Table 9).

2.3.2. Background Data and Software

Background data from the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) database IDEAv2 [21] were mainly used,
with missing data complemented by the GHG Emissions Accounting and Reporting Manual [22],
and SimaPro 8.5 was used for the calculation.

3. Results

3.1. LCA Results and Comparison between the Three Scenarios

The LCA results of the system targeted in this study, which assumes the disposal/recycling phase
as “recycling processing” in the life cycle, as well as the results for landfill and incineration are shown
in Figure 2 and Table 10. The system boundary is the life cycle, including the individual phases from
the acquisition of raw materials to the production, use, and disposal/recycling of paper diapers, and the
Resources 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15
functional unit is the provision of one paper diaper (40.5 g).

Figure 2. Life cycle assessment (LCA) results and comparison between the three scenarios.
Figure 2. Life cycle assessment (LCA) results and comparison between the three scenarios.

Table 10. LCA results for each scenario and reduction effect rate.

Global Warming Land Use Occupation Water Consumption

Scenario
(g-CO2e) (cm2a) (L)
Recycling 99 139 0.354
RE IN Δ 39% 71% 22%
Resources 2020, 9, 34 9 of 15

Table 10. LCA results for each scenario and reduction effect rate.

Global Warming Land Use Occupation Water Consumption

Scenario
(g-CO2 e) (cm2 a) (L)
Recycling 99 139 0.354
RE IN ∆ 39% 71% 22%
Reduction rate
LF ∆ 47% 71% 21%
IN Incineration 162 474 0.453
LF Landfill 187 474 0.446

3.1.1. Global Warming

GHG emissions of IN and LF were calculated as 162 and 187 g-CO2 e, respectively, while that of
RE was estimated at 99 g-CO2 e, a reduction of 39% and 47% compared with IN and LF, respectively.
In RE, the amount in the disposal/recycling phase was 100 g-CO2 e, larger by 11%–45% compared with
IN and LF. However, a significant reduction effect compared with IN and LF is expected in the entire
life cycle, with the contribution of the total deduction at 97 g-CO2 e due to the substitution effect of
recycled pulp, SAP, and RPF.

3.1.2. Land Use Occupation

The land use occupation values for IN and LF were almost the same at 474 cm2 a, while that for
RE was estimated at 139 cm2 a, a reduction of 71% compared with IN and LF. About 99% of the loads
from IN or LF are due to pulp production included in the raw materials acquisition phase, while RE
has a lower value in this phase due to the substitution effect of recycled pulp. Thus, for RE, the load is
expected to be reduced in the life cycle.

3.1.3. Water Consumption

Water consumption values for IN and LF were calculated at 0.453 and 0.446 L, respectively,
about 97% of which is the contribution from the raw materials acquisition phase, and about 75% in this
phase is the contribution from pulp production and SAP production. The value for RE was 0.354 L,
although the ratio in the disposal/recycling phase for RE was 0.19 L, accounting for 53% of the total
compared to 2%–3% for IN and LF, due to the contribution of 0.069 L of cleaning water and 0.10 L
related to the production of organic acid for cleaning chemicals. Meanwhile, the value for RE in the
entire life cycle was estimated to be 21% and 22% lower than that for IN and LF, respectively, with the
contribution from the substitution effects of recycled pulp and SAP.

3.2. Detailed LCA Results at Recycling, Waste Treatment Stage of the Recycling Model
The treatment scenarios targeted in this study are characterized by recycling in the
disposal/recycling phase, so the LCA results for disposal/recycling, ranging from collection/transport
to production of the recycled products and using the substitution effect (deduction) with the recycled
products as the system boundary, are presented in detail (see Table 11). The process IDs in the table
correspond to the symbols in (a) to (m) described in the individual processes in Figure 1. The functional
unit was the disposal/recycling of one used paper diaper.

3.2.1. Global Warming

GHG emissions were calculated at 3.18 g-CO2 e. Emissions related to the phases from the
collection/transport of used paper diapers to the production of recycled products were 100 g-CO2 e
(subtotal-1), due to a significant contribution of 97.2 g-CO2 e (subtotal-2) from the deduction total as a
result of NBKP production (j), SAP production (k), as well as thermal coal production and combustion
(l), (m), substituted by recycled pulp, SAP, and RPF. Details of the recycling are as follows: 7.8% for
collection/transport (a); 22.7% for crushing/cleaning/separating (b, c, d, e); and 69.5% for recycled
products production (f, g, h, i). The substitution effects for NBKP production and SAP production were
Resources 2020, 9, 34 10 of 15

19.3% and 20.2%, respectively, while that for thermal coal production/combustion was the highest at
60.4%, due to a significant contribution from CO2 direct emissions caused by combustion.

Table 11. Detailed life cycle assessment (LCA) results at the recycling, waste treatment stage.

Global Land Use Water

Process
Process Warming Occupation Consumption
ID
(g-CO2 e) (cm2 a) (L)
Collection and
Collection and transport (a) 7.83 1.48 0.00282
transport
Crushing, washing,
(b) 9.63 39.7 0.182
Crushing, and separation
washing, Waste water and sludge
(c, e) 9.53 0.320 0.00143
and separation treatment
Organic acid recovery (d) 3.68 0.0628 0.000298
Recycled Ozone treatment (f) 5.55 0.104 0.00100
product SAP reactivation (g) 17.0 0.307 0.00243
production RPF production and combustion (h, i) 47.2 0.233 0.00252
Subtotal-1, (a)~(i) 100 42.2 0.192
NBKP production (j) –18.8 –375 –0.100
Avoided SAP production (k) –19.7 –0.324 –0.180
products Thermal coal production and
(l, m) –58.7 –0.00654 –0.000690
combustion
Subtotal-2, (j)~(m) –97.2 –376 –0.281
Total 3.18 333 –0.0886

3.2.2. Land Use Occupation

The land use occupation was −333 cm2 a, considered as a negative load in the entire process, due
to the contribution from the deduction by the substitution effect. Details are as follows: the total of
the recycling, from collection/transport to recycled products production (subtotal-1), was 42.2 cm2 a;
and the total of the deduction from the substitution effect by recycled products (subtotal-2) was 376
cm2 a. In recycling, the crushing/cleaning/separating phase (b) accounted for the majority at about 94%,
which was largely due to the contribution from land use in the plant culturing phase, as the organic
acid used was plant-based. Meanwhile, the substitution effect of NBKP production (j) was 375 cm2 a,
accounting for almost 100% of the total at 376 cm2 a, which was due to the significant contribution from
land use related to the production of forest resources (softwood) used as materials for virgin pulp,
which was avoided by using recycled pulp.

3.2.3. Water Consumption

The water consumption per paper diaper was −0.0886 L as a whole, a negative value
calculated by deducting the substitution effect. Details are as follows: the total of the recycling,
from collection/ transport to recycled products production (subtotal-1), was 0.192 L; and the total of
the deduction from the substitution effect of recycled products (subtotal-2) was 0.281 L. In recycling,
the crushing/cleaning/separating phase (b) accounted for the majority at about 94.5%, among which
about 40% was due to directly consumed water in the cleaning tank, while about 60% was due to
production of the plant-based cleaning agent.
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4. Discussion

4.1. Comparison with Previous Studies

The results of previous studies related to the recycling of used paper diapers were reviewed and
compared with this study. As previous studies assess only the disposal/recycling phase in the life
cycle of paper diapers, the disposal/recycling process from the results of this study were extracted and
the system boundary was set to cover “disposal/recycling of one tonne of used paper diapers” only
(see Table 12).

Table 12. Comparison with previous studies. The functional unit is recycling, waste treatment of 1
tonne of used paper diapers.

GHG Emissions (kg-CO2 e)

Comparative Recycled Products
Collection and Recycling, Waste Recycling
Studies Total
Transport Treatment Effect
This study
Pulp (127 kg)
Recycling 74 875 –919 30 SAP (91 kg)
RPF (155 kg)
Incineration 74 579 –55 598 Electricity (91 kWh)
Landfill 74 764 0 838 (None)
Comparative studies
Itsubo et al. [8]
Pulp (89 kg)
Recycling 55 1132 –821 366
RPF (306 kg)
Incineration 55 523 –85 493 Electricity (137 kWh)
Fujiyama et al. [6]
(out of Pulp (159 kg)
Recycling 530 –240 290
boundary) Fermented fertilizer
(out of
Incineration 432 (none) 432 (None)
boundary)

Among the domestic studies, Itsubo et al. [9] discuss closed-loop recycling. The paper targeted
the closed-loop recycling of recycling pulp as fine pulp usable as raw materials for paper diapers,
where plastics and SAP were converted to RPF for thermal recycling. Compared with the present
study, this system as characterized by a lower pulp recycling amount by about 30%, but a higher RPF
recycling amount of about two-fold. The calorific value for RPF as lower by about 34%, making the
total of the substitution effect (deduction) smaller by about 10%. The total GHG emissions related
to recycling was about 1.3 times that of the present study, which resulted in a total—including the
deduction—at 366 kg-CO2 e, which was about 12 times the value in this study at 30 kg-CO2 e. Compared
with the study by Itsubo et al., GHG emissions related to recycling in this study were reduced by 23%,
while the recycling ratio of pulp was about 80%. For RPF, the contamination rate of pulp and SAP
residues other than plastics was low, resulting in a higher calorific value, and the deduction was higher
due to SAP recycling, significantly reducing GHG emissions as a whole.
In the study by Fujiyama et al. [6], the GHG emissions related to recycling were about 60% of the
value obtained in the present study, but the substitution effect (deduction) in their study was about
a quarter of the value obtained in the present study at 240 kg-CO2 e. This is presumably caused by
a lower deduction range per unit of weight of recycled products compared to the present study as
Fujiyama et al. used downgrade recycling.
Resources 2020, 9, 34 12 of 15

The study report on the processing equipment for thermal recycling of used paper diapers as
solid fuel [7] indicates the possible reduction of CO2 emissions by using such fuel as a substitute for
fossil fuel, but that effect was excluded from the comparison as the effect was not quantified.
Note that the values in the present study cannot be directly compared with those in previous
studies as the prerequisites differ in the following points.

1. The system boundaries are not always the same in studies, such as the inclusion of the
collection/transport process.
2. Individual studies may use different background databases, resulting in different environmental
loads, even with the same inventory.
3. The composition of used paper diapers (material composition of used paper diapers, the ratio of
excretion in paper diapers, etc.) differs by study, which results in, for example, a different yield in
recycled products, even with the same recycling ratio.
4. The suitability of recycled products is not sufficiently assessed. If recycled products substitute
virgin materials in equal amounts, the quality of the former should be sufficiently verified. It is
also necessary to assess the market demand. Sufficient information on these matters cannot be
obtained from a comparison with previous studies.
5. Values not provided in the report by Fujiyama et al. were directly measured using a chart, which
may have errors.

4.2. Estimation of the Potential for Environmental Load Reduction

The potential for environmental load reduction by recycling used paper diapers in Japan and the
world was estimated from reduction amounts obtained in this study and by applying them to the
incineration and landfill baselines of Japan and the world (see Table 13). The annual production volume
of paper diapers for adults and infants in Japan was 878,000 tonnes. The waste weight was estimated
at 2.294 million tonnes, assuming that the disposal weight increase factor was 2.6; this is due to the
increased weight from excretion. Based on this waste amount and the ratio of 98:2 for incineration
vs. landfill, the reduction potential nationwide was estimated at about 1.314 million t-CO2 e for GHG
emissions, 726 km2 a for land use occupation, and 2.149 million m3 for water consumption.

Table 13. Estimation of the potential for environmental load reduction.

Incineration Landfill Total Amount

Unit Current Apply Current Apply of Reduction
Estimates Recycling Estimates Recycling per Year

Japan
Paper diaper production Mt/year 0.878 -
Disposal volume Mt/year 2.294 -
Ratio of disposal method % 98% 2% -
Amount by disposal method Mt/year 2.248 0.046 -
Environmental load per year -
Global warming Mt-CO2 e 1.344 0.068 0.038 0.001 1.314
Land use occupation km2 a 4 –708 0.1 14 726
Water consumption Mm3 0.222 –1.881 0.006 –0.038 2.149
Global
Paper diaper production Mt/year 4.866 -
Disposal volume Mt/year 12.720 -
Ratio of disposal method % 37% 63% -
Amount by disposal method Mt/year 4.706 8.014 -
Environmental load per year -
Global warming Mt-CO2 e 2.814 0.142 6.712 0.241 9.143
Land use occupation km2 a 8 –1482 13 –2524 4027
Water consumption Mm3 0.466 –3.938 1.111 –6.706 12.221
Resources 2020, 9, 34 13 of 15

Overseas, the annual production volume of paper diapers was estimated at 120 billion [23],
but the weight per diaper is unknown. Thus, the production volume for the world was estimated
at 4.866 million using the average weight of 40.5 g for diapers for adults and infants produced in
Japan. The weight increase factor for disposal was set at the same value as in Japan, or 2.6, and the
waste weight was estimated at 12.720 million tonnes. The ratios of the processing methods were set
at 63% for landfill and 37% for incineration [24]. Using these prerequisites, it was estimated that
the GHG emissions reduction potential was 9.143 million tonnes-CO2 e, land use occupation was
4027 km2 a, and water consumption was 12.221 million m3 when applying recycling throughout the
world (see Table 13).
The estimates were based on the assumption that all used paper diapers produced in Japan and
the world are recycled, which requires the following cautions.

• No comparative study on costs has been conducted, so it is uncertain if economic rationality is

achieved in all regions.
• It is uncertain if a system to recover used paper diapers for recycling facilities can be established,
as the disposal methods for used paper diapers differ by nation or region.
• It is uncertain if the destinations for using recycled products can be established in all regions.

5. Conclusions
As the production of paper diapers is expected to increase in the future, there is a strong need
for an appropriate recycling technology in terms of waste treatment after use and for sustainable use
of resources. While previous studies and cases are limited to open-loop recycling, the present study
achieved closed-loop recycling of pulp and SAP from “paper diapers to paper diapers” thanks to a
new technology, thus clarifying that the environmental load can be further reduced compared to that
in the preceding report [9] in the assessment of GHG emissions, water consumption, and land use
occupation for the life cycle of recycling used paper diapers (see Table 14). The recycling technology in
this study demonstrated a high recycling effect by enabling the recycling of high-quality pulp and
SAP. In the future, further reductions in environmental impact are expected through the efficiency of
SAP regeneration and the improvement of the recycling rate. On the other hand, in this study, it was
considered that uncertainties were included from the following points, but even if these factors are
taken into consideration, a significant reduction in environmental load was confirmed.

Table 14. Reduction of environmental load by the recycling technology of this study and other
recycling technologies.

This Study
Reduction Rate Other Recycling
System Boundary Impact Category Technologies
Compared with Compared with
Incineration Landfill
Global warming 39% 47% Previous studies in Japan
Full life cycle * Land use occupation 71% 71% have not evaluated the full
Water consumption 22% 21% life cycle.
Itsubo et al. [9] reported a
26% reduction,
Recycling, waste
Global warming 95% 96% and Fujiyama et al. [6]
treatment stage
reported a 33% reduction in
GHG emissions.
* Full life cycle includes all life cycle stages of the paper diaper, from the acquisition of the raw materials to the
recycling, waste treatment stage, except for the use stage.

The recycling facility from which the data were collected is a prototype, so its representativeness
may be low.
Resources 2020, 9, 34 14 of 15

• Japanese data were used for LCA calculations.

• Thermal coal and electricity were set as alternative products for the recycling effect. However,
if these are changed to other products, the recycling effect may change.

In addition, it is expected that the recycling process of this study will have great social and economic
benefits. Analyses focused on social and economic aspects were also assumed, but were not included
in this study due to the difficulty in obtaining data, etc., and the immature evaluation method.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.I., M.W., and K.S.; methodology, N.I., N.M., and K.S.; validation,
N.I., N.M., and K.S.; formal analysis, A.M. and N.M.; investigation, M.W., S.I., and A.M.; resources, M.W., S.I.,
and A.M.; writing—original draft preparation, N.M.; writing—review and editing, N.M.; supervision, M.W.;
project administration, M.W. All authors read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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